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Succeeding against the odds: The trajectory of minority males classified as honors

in a

two-year college

A thesis presented

By

Oberhiri Loretta Ovueraye-Adoghe

to

The School of Education

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education

in the field of

Education

College of Professional Studies

Northeastern University,

Boston, Massachusetts

October, 2013

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Abstract

In this interpretative phenomenological analysis the researcher explored the lived

experiences of high achieving community college students of African American and

Hispanic\Latino descent some of which are enrolled in an honors college. The theoretical

lens used to gain insight includes the malleable incremental theory of intelligence, which

will give insight into how students’ self-theory about their learning enables minority

males to succeed academically. The research draws on the data gathered from in-depth

interviews with six African American and Hispanic\Latino students. The emergent

themes produced by this study are (1) drive and self- understanding with confidence as a

subordinate theme, (2) malleable incremental approach to learning, (3) positive response

to challenge with feeling of no choice as a subordinate theme, (4) familial influence, and

(5) success through engagement in extra-curricular activities. The study served as a step

toward further understanding of how some African American and Hispanic male students

are achieving academic success. Considering the dearth of empirical literature in this

area, findings hope to add to the current literature base. Findings from this interpretative

phenomenological analysis suggest that honors colleges and the malleable incremental

approach to learning can provide great benefits for African American and Hispanic male

college students.

Keywords: African American and Hispanic male honors students, interpretative

phenomenological analysis, minority honors males, high-achieving males, and malleable

incremental theory of intelligence.

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Dedication

This doctoral thesis is dedicated to my family and friends, particularly my parents.

Without my family’s continuous support, I would not have gained the strength to persist

in such a rigorous journey. I know it has not been easy “sharing me” with this work and

career, without all the love and support you have shown, all of this would not have been

possible.

Additionally, this study is dedicated to all the honor students in the program selected for

this study. Without your energy, enthusiasm, and willingness to work towards academic

success, this project would not have been possible. Thank you all for the many “teachable

moments” and eternal memories.

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Acknowledgments

There are many individuals to whom I owe a debt of gratitude for their invaluable

assistance in making this research endeavor and my academic pursuits possible. I am

respectfully appreciative to the African American and Hispanic men who contributed to

this research. I hope that I have brought forth your words and experiences with the

dignity and purpose that you willingly shared them with me. I thank you for sharing your

stories with me in such an open and honest fashion.

First, I would like to thank Dr. Ron Brown for his guidance, and his overall

support and advice. Second, I would like to thank Dr. Joseph W. McNabb, my second

reader, for his fluent knowledge of the interpretive phenomenological analysis research

approach and knowledge of the dissertation process. Your enthusiastic and much

appreciated comments have been invaluable. I would also like to extend my heartfelt

gratitude to my external reader, Dr. Lois Willoughby; Thank you for helping me through

this process and for being who you are taking on the voice of “can do” when the times

got tough.

Gratitude must also be extended to my many close and dear friends, particularly

Dr. Victor Sikah, Carletta Hatcher-Johnston, Dr. Clarisa West-White, my honors college

family: Dr. Alexandria Holloway, Jennifer Bravo, Virginia Fuilerat, Pat Jones, Dr. Pascal

Charlot and all the many others who have been there for me when I needed your

assistance and encouragement the most – many thanks to each of you.

I also want to thank my mother and my father for all of their continued love and support

and for instilling in me the determination that is needed to make dreams into reality.

Thanks must also be forwarded to my brothers, sisters in-law and my extended family

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members for their enthusiastic encouragement and continued support of my academic

endeavors. Ese, thanks for the late night pep talks and essay reviews.

Additionally, I want to thank my partner in life Emmanuel Adoghe for his

encouragement and support throughout this journey. In more ways than you know, you

have inspired me and made it possible for this accomplishment to be achieved.

Last, but by no means least, I want to thank my children Danielle, Vance, and

Olivia who let me study and write when they wanted to talk and share their day.

Thank you

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Table of Contents

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 2

Dedication ........................................................................................................................... 4

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... 5

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ 7

Chapter 1: Introduction and Theoretical Frameworks ........................................................ 8

Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 29

Chapter 3: Research Design .............................................................................................. 58

Chapter 4: Report of Research Findings ........................................................................... 90

Chapter 5: Discussion of the Research Findings ............................................................ 111

References ....................................................................................................................... 132

Appendix A - Recruitment Letter ................................................................................... 162

Appendix B - Confidentiality statement ......................................................................... 164

Appendix C – Unsigned Consent Document – Northeastern University ....................... 165

Appendix D – Interview questions template ................................................................... 170

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Succeeding against the odds: The trajectory of minority males classified as honors in a

two-year college

Chapter 1: Introduction and Theoretical Frameworks

The decline in the enrollment or graduation of minority students in honors

colleges is often recorded with a lopsided view of the gender disparity factor. A picture of

this situation can be drawn when you imagine an honors college class with 150 students;

77% of the enrollees are Hispanic or White females, 17% White or Hispanic males, 5%

black females, and 1% black males. These students are academically excelling and

maintaining a respectable grade point average (GPA) of 3.5 on a 4.0 scale. Even though

this illustration is representative of the local community with the exception of the number

of enrolled males, it is typical of most honors classes across the nation where the majority

population is female and minorities remain as such: minorities. Even worse, insufficient

attention is paid to the small percentage of minority males who defy the odds stacked

against them to excel as honor students in their respective colleges.

Researchers report that the estimated percentage of minority male students in

most honors programs is lower by far than their female counterparts (Strayhorn, 2008;

White, 2009). In fact, a 1998 review of honors programs revealed that they tended to

serve mainly white females, leaving minorities and male students underserved and

underrepresented (Byrne, 1998). Historically, the male members of honors populations

experience stressors other than those associated with academics, such as (1) peer

pressure; (2) socioeconomic deficiencies (Fries-Britt, 1997); (3) higher number of

referrals or punishment for perceived or disruptive activities as early as elementary

school (West-Olatunji, Baker, & Brooks, 2006); and (4) negative stereotypes that portray

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minorities as academically ill prepared (Strayhorn, 2008). Thus, minority male students

excelling despite previously identified challenges present a phenomenon.

The following pages give an account of a qualitative research study designed to

learn about high–achieving minority males (HAMM) enrolled in an honors program in a

State College. The theoretical framework undergirding this study is Dweck’s (1999)

implicit theories of intelligence with special attention to the incremental “malleable”

theory of intelligence, which will give insight into how minority males succeed

academically. The research design will involve in-depth interviews of multiple

participants using the phenomenological approach. The research will have implications

for educators who want to make a positive difference in the minority male students’

learning, achievement, and persistence to college graduation. More specifically,

information obtained will expand the scope of information available to educators and

policy formulators when developing programs aimed at increasing the enrollment and

graduation rates of minority male populations in colleges.

Research Problem and its Significance

The body of existing empirical studies on the identified phenomenon,

academically successful minority male students, is limited. Most research reports that

minority males are academically beleaguered (West-Olatunji et al., 2006). Researcher

findings indicate that the factors contributing to the academic decline include: low

enrollment and motivation, lack of engagement and inadequate study skills, external pull

away from academic pursuits, and other factors associated with low socio-economic and

first-generational status (Donna Y. Ford, Grantham, & Wright, 1999; Harris & Ford,

1999; Tinto, 1993b). Albeit the identified factors, the decline in the rate of enrollment

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and graduation of minority males remains a subject of concern (Edmonds, 2010; Ryu,

2009).

Notwithstanding the hardships minority males face, some students persist and

excel, especially those enrolled in honors programs that incorporate various retention and

success strategies (D. Y. Ford, 2011; Kerr, Colangelo, Maxey, & Christensen, 1992).

Some of these strategies include peer and faculty mentoring (Cameron-Kelly, 2002;

Reddick, 2007), increased interaction with faculty (Fries-Britt, 1997; Ross & Roman,

2009), environments supportive of racial differences (Fries-Britt, 1997), small classes,

academic engagement through seminars and involvement in activities that promote

critical thinking (Ross & Roman, 2009).

Considering that these students are doing well but yet the literature is imbalanced

on understanding the intelligence gathering strategies of gifted minority populations

(Fries-Britt, 1997), this study attempts to explore how these high-achieving minority

males enrolled in a State College’s honors college succeed. The implication of this

problem of practice is far reaching in society. The expediency of this study is supported

by a report from the American Council on Education (ACE) in 2010 concerning the state

of minorities in the higher education system. The ACE report documented that minority

males, African American and Hispanic males in particular, are lagging behind in college

enrollment and graduation irrespective of an improvement in percentage enrollment over

a six-year period (Edmonds, 2010; Ryu, 2009). This research study is significant as it

adds to the body of work to rectify this situation. It is important for several additional

reasons: (1) there is a need for equitable access to higher education across all ethnic

identities (Bowen, Kurzweil, Tobin, & Pichler, 2006); (2) colleges have difficulty

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retaining the minority male population (Baker, 2010; Blankenship, 2010; Gilroy, 2010;

Wilson et al., 2012); and (3) there are long- term financial benefits for educational

institutions if all enrollees academically succeed and graduate (Blankenship, 2010;

Smorynski, 2012).

Also relevant to empirical research is described by Bowen, Kurzweil, Tobin, &

Pichler (2006), “An essential condition for promoting equity is ensuring that talented

students, irrespective of their backgrounds, have a fair chance of succeeding in their

studies, because access without success is largely a hollow concept.” Thus, understanding

how minority males succeed is essential to equity studies as well as retention studies

because included in the number of students retained at a college are a significant number

of formally engaged honors students. Considering the low number of minority males in

particular, the question then becomes what is prohibiting more minority male students

from enrolling, and if they are, what strategies are they using to enable to them persist

and graduate despite the reports of challenges and limited participation.

Other researchers have documented that minority males typically face social and

psychological challenges that impact their ability to excel. They also possess lower

cumulative grade point average, and higher attrition rates, and are less likely to graduate

from college than their majority student peers (Allen, 1992; Mow & Nettles, 1990).

According to Cameron-Kelly (2002), one of the reasons associated with this is that

minorities from lower socio-economic backgrounds or facing family discord lack what

Johnson –Reid (1999) and Schneider (1991) consider to be essential for one to develop

self-love and competence. This lack of emotional well-being is known to impact student

success and promote educational disengagement even as early as elementary school.

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Furthermore, minorities enrolled in low income neighborhoods have the added challenge

of uninspiring curriculum that is rote, rudimentary, or remedial in nature. This type of

curriculum has been reported to thwart academic engagement, critical thinking skills, and

an ability to tackle demanding mathematical problems (Cameron-Kelly, 2002; D. Y.

Ford, 1996).

Nevertheless, some minority male students persist in academia and perform well.

Reports have shown that high achieving students transfer to Bachelor’s degree-granting

institutions of varying acclaim and have the potential to earn about 10% more in income

earnings than non-enrolled peers. Alumni enrollment into prestigious institutions and

significant financial rewards through employment are two important methods community

college use to quantify their success. Yet, this and the ACE report do not adequately

address the phenomenon of why some minority male students are able to excel in

academia and maintain the title “honors” or “high achieving.” Thus, an understanding of

how all students can join the groups of successful alumni is important to the evaluation of

a community college (Byrne, 1998) and again validates the significance of this study.

Nonetheless, because substantive information on the successes of honors

programs is lacking (Byrne, 1998) and their impact on minorities and males is equally

wanting (Whiting, Ford, Grantham, & Moore, 2008), any additional information will be

beneficial to the ethnic group and colleges. Similar to the work done by Dahl (2004) and

Ford (2011), this study will review academically successful students with the assumption

that an understanding of how they learn could benefit others. In the previous 20 years,

most investigations of minority student success have been from cultural or social (Fries-

Britt, 1994; Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004; Pascarella & Terenzini,

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1991; West-Olatunji et al., 2006), intellectual, and political (Rinn & Plucker, 2004)

perspectives. This study will add to the body of work on the intellectual perspective of

high-achieving minority males.

Goals and Research Questions

Both practical and intellectual goals have undergirded this study. The practical

goal of this descriptive phenomenological study is to achieve a detailed understanding of

how high achieving minority male students enrolled in a State College’s honors college

are attaining academic success and to identify how high achieving minority male students

enrolled in a State College’s honors college are overcoming challenges, if any, to enable

them to achieve academic success. This research could help inform policy decisions

related to high-achieving students, honors colleges, and those aiming at improving

student pass rates and graduation rates. The intellectual goals are to understand the

construct under which high achieving minority male students enrolled in a two-year

college honors program attain academic success. This understanding will be gained

through an exploration of the lived experiences of minority male students who are

academically succeeding while enrolled in an honors program.

The following research questions have guided the pursuits of these goals: (A)

How do minority male honors students experience academic success while enrolled in an

honors program? (B) What challenges do minority male participants in an honors

program face?

Summary of Paper and Organization

The paper is arranged in six parts. This initial section covers the introductory

material. The subsequent pages consist of the literature review, research design, report of

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findings, and discussion of the research findings. Supporting documents are in the

appendixes. The first section outlines the purpose of the study, a statement of the problem

and its significance, the research questions, and the theoretical framework that informs

the investigation of the problem of practice. This framework draws from Dweck’s (1999)

self-theories or implicit theories of intelligence with special attention to the incremental

or malleable theory of intelligence, which gives insight into how minority males succeed

academically. The research design involved in-depth interviews of multiple participants

using the phenomenological approach to qualitative research. These perspectives provide

a lens for viewing questions identified in the literature review. The second section, the

literature review, focuses on bodies of work related to the problem of practice and

theoretical framework: academic experiences of minority male students particularly those

attending honors colleges, structures of honors colleges and their impact on learning,

work on self-theories or implicit theories of intelligence, and the perspectives of self-

theories and learning. The third section details the study’s research design. The research

design involved in-depth interviews of multiple participants using the phenomenological

approach to qualitative research as delineated by Moustakas (1994) and Creswell (2007).

This section also outlines strategies for ensuring validity and credibility, specifically for a

phenomenological study. Additionally, it covers the investigation’s strategy for

protecting human subjects. The report of research finding presents the study findings and

the identified themes. The last section ties in how the problem of practice, theoretical

framework, literature review, and research design converge to inform the interpretation of

the research findings in a discussion format.

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Theoretical Framework

In a bid to engage academically struggling minority populations, contemporary

empirical researchers and practitioner scholars have offered varied perspectives on how

minority individuals attain academic success (Harper & Griffin, 2011; Harper & Quaye,

2009; Masten, 1989; Masten & Reed, 2002; Ogbu, 1983). Of the wide variety of

perspectives used to understand student success and achievement, the intellectual

viewpoint provides the theoretical lens to be used in this study. Upon examining many

implicit theory constructs and measures to see if they might assess the component belief

systems held or strategies used by minority males to be successful, only two were

deemed directly relevant. Cultural resiliency theory (Masten, 1989; Masten & Reed,

2002) used descriptions of dispositional, situationist, and interactionist lay theories,

which appear promising. However, these descriptions combine or blend components of

race relations, intellect, and dispositionism or situationism into single descriptions rather

than measuring the components separately. Potentially most relevant to this study, and

thus warranting a more extensive analysis in the study of high achieving minority males,

is Dweck’s (2000) implicit entity theory construct.

Dweck’s Implicit Theory of Intelligence asserts that students' academic success is

influenced by their theory of intelligence, the academic goals they set, their perceptions

of academic ability, and subsequent academic behaviors. It basically draws on an

understanding of social cognition and motivation, while acknowledging the impact of

environmental factors (Dweck, 1999). The theory’s framework is thus ideal as it

provides insight into how students’ intellects are developed. It also connects students’

beliefs and their approaches to learning situations as well as how these factors impact

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their ability to acquire intelligence and subsequent academic success. In this regard, the

construct of Dweck’s Implicit Theory of Intelligence (Elliott & Dweck, 1988) provides

direction and focus for the study.

Dweck’s Implicit Theory of Intelligence

Dweck’s Implicit Theory of Intelligence comes from the discipline of social

psychology and cognitive development (Dweck, 1999). Dweck’s studies reveal a

connection between social cognition and drive, whereby “learners use information from

their social environment to appraise their situation and make judgments that then

determine their academic behavior” (J. Miller, 2010, p. 17). These findings, at the time,

are unique to the field because they showed a connection between goals, cognitive

development, and behavioral responses. Dweck, Chi-yue, and Ying-yi (1995) posited that

the resulting theory, Implicit Theory of Intelligence, essentially expanded on theories

such as Piaget’s cognitive development thereby validating the impact of the environment

on cognitive development.

Although an independent theory, the Implicit Theory of Intelligence is one of the

components of Dweck’s achievement motivation model. This model has been used to

understand students’ motivation towards attaining intelligence. The other cognitive

constructs within Dweck’s achievement motivation model are related to (a) goal

orientation, (b) perception of ability, and (c) pattern of behavior (Elliott & Dweck, 1988;

J. Miller, 2010). Using the achievement motivation model as a framework, Dweck (1999)

theorizes that one’s view point of self has a profound impact on one’s ability to

accomplish goals. She postulates that this theory of intelligence viewpoint arises from

training at an early age, one’s environment, or simply a desire to stand out (Dweck,

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2012). This supposition also enables one to gain an understanding of (1) what mastery

orientation strategies high-achieving “honors” students use to acquire knowledge; (2)

what motivational tactics are employed to acquire knowledge when minority individuals

face hardships related to socioeconomic factors; (3) what socio-cultural factors influence

their cognitive development in the zone of proximal development, and (4) what support

elements are incorporated into the college curricular and support services as strategies

deemed essential to student retention and success as suggested by such researchers as

Tinto (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Tinto, 1993b) and Dweck (1999).

Considering students “may hold different ‘theories’ about the nature of

intelligence” (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007, p. 247), their performance and

goal setting will vary. According to Kappes, Stephens, & Oettingen (2011), “specifically,

the extent to which personal attributes, like academic ability, are considered to be stable,

uncontrollable traits (entity theories) rather than changeable, controllable qualities

(incremental theories), influences people’s aims and pursuits in the achievement setting.

There is evidence that implicit theories shape the interpretation of past (e.g., attributions

for failure, Hong, Chiu, Dweck, Lin, & Wan, 1999) and present (e.g., current task; Stone,

1998) experiences,” p. 270, but research to date has not asked whether such theories color

how minority male individuals attain success.

Interestingly, even though self-theories affect an individual’s disposition, it is

worth mentioning that implicit trait theories may include at least the following pieces of

an individual’s belief system: “(a) belief in the longitudinal stability of personality traits;

(b) belief in the cross-situational consistency of trait-relevant behavior; (c) belief in the

ability to predict individuals’ behavior from their traits; (d) the belief that traits can be

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readily inferred from relatively few behavioral instances; and (e) the belief that people

can be accurately described and understood in terms of their traits” (Church et al., 2003,

p. 332). Thus, the implicit theories suggest that the factors listed above coexist in the

same person. Therefore, one can infer that individuals’ traits can predict their behavior in

various situations or that one can infer from their actions which traits are stable.

The implicit theories of intelligence have been split into two types: fixed “entity”

theories and malleable “incremental” theories of intelligence. These two distinct theories

of intelligence arise because some students “believe that intelligence is more of an

unchangeable, fixed entity (an entity theory). Others think of intelligence as a malleable

quality that can be developed (an incremental theory)” (Blackwell et al., 2007, p. 247).

The two implicit theories of intelligence, fixed and malleable, will be discussed in further

detail below.

*Adapted from (Dweck &Elliot, 1983)

Figure 1. Dweck and Elliot’s Original Motivation Model (1986) adapted by J. Miller (2010)

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Fixed ‘‘entity’’ theory. As stated above, Dweck (1999) Implicit Theory of

Intelligence postulates that students possess either a fixed entity or malleable incremental

theory of intelligence based on their student-teacher interaction during early cognitive

development. Siegle, Rubenstein, Pollard, and Romey (2009) define the fixed entity

theory as intelligence that is “stable and asserts that individuals have little control over

their intelligence” (Siegle et al., 2009, p. 93). According to theorists (Dweck, 2000;

Langer & Dweck, 1973; Levy & Dweck, 1998), individuals with an entity framework

consider their intelligence as finite. This belief of finite ability has the tendency to create

helplessness in individuals (Wang & Ng, 2012) as they believe that they have limited

ability to learn or acquire skills other than what they currently possess. These individuals

are also said to believe that they have a fixed capacity as such and are unable to acquire

new knowledge irrespective of what they do and how they try (Dweck, 2000). Thus,

individuals with an entity theory give up and portray inflexible traits when presented with

a challenge.

Malleable “incremental” theory. The malleable “incremental” theorists perceive

“intelligence as fluid, within an individual’s control” (Siegle et al., 2009, p. 94).

Individuals who hold this theory approach learning as something to be acquired through

effort and persistence (Dweck, 2000). Thus, they approach learning as if it were a

challenge to be overcome, and they relish the opportunity to learn something new.

Researchers (Dweck, 2000; Levy & Dweck, 1998) have found that individuals with a

malleable incremental theoretical framework “view traits as more dynamic and

malleable, will expect behavior to be more variable across time and situations; thus, traits

will be seen as less predictive of behavior and less crucial or possible to infer from

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behavior” (Church et al., 2003, p. 333). Therefore, these individuals see academic success

as something to be achieved through hard work, a process, and some effort.

Comparison of mindsets

According to Dweck (2000), children’s expression of either the fixed or

malleable theoretical framework “are equal in performance and ability until failure

occurs” (Dweck, 2000, p. 29). The differences begin to become more obvious as students

transition up the academic pathway and as the challenges increase. Considering that

individuals with a fixed mindset have been known to approach learning with high

expectations, expecting knowledge to be attained flawlessly, “they expect ability to show

up on its own” (Dweck, 2008, p. 24). Challenge presents problems for them as they

engage in more advanced academics. Studies similar to Henderson and Dweck’s (1990)

study on seventh graders and Dweck, Hong, & Chui’s (1995) study on college students

validate these findings. In these studies, as students’ transition from one level of

education to another, those with the fixed mindset experienced anxiety and stress and

subsequently received poor grades. This situation occurred even with students who had

been considered academically gifted. In fact these smart students with a fixed mindset

student were recorded to receive lower grades as they attempted only class work that

made them “look good.” Thus, when placed in a class with other smart students they

started to feel less smart and avoid challenges. On the other hand, students with malleable

mindsets saw the challenges with transitions as opportunities to learn and saw failure as a

chance to gain knowledge.

When asked about the moments when they feel academically able, individuals

with a malleable “incremental” mindset make comments similar to “ when it’s really

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hard, and I try really hard, and I can do something I couldn’t do before or ‘[ when] I work

on something a long time and I start to figure it out’…” (Dweck, 2008, p. 24). Even with

this mindset, students with low confidence have been seen to apply effort and learn,

enjoying the challenge while doing so. Although malleability and challenge seeking has

been applauded as a positive mindset for academic success (Dweck, 2008; Elliott &

Dweck, 1988; Levy & Dweck, 1998), Dweck (2000) declares that there is a challenge in

this theory as over persistence due to egotistical ideologies can cause failure. An example

of this is a student who consistently fails chemistry but insists on majoring in chemistry,

repeating each class with the hope of finding the right formula to succeed with each

attempt. Although a valid concern, researchers have validated that malleable theorists can

overcome this overly confident or assertive attitude with coaching and subsequently

create realistic learning goals. Learning goals are goals that promote mastering new

knowledge while emphasizing strategies to master the associated new concepts. The

premise is that if the technique initially used does not work, try another, or keep looking

until you find something (Dweck, 2000). Individuals with learning goals have been

documented to have used profound learning strategies to effectively apply concepts

learned (Ames, 1992; Ames & Archer, 1988; Dweck & Leggett, 1988b); as such, entity

theorists benefit greatly with this mindset. These goals are different from performance

goals held by fixed theorists. Performance goals, held by the learner, tend to make the

individual appear skilled, require limited or low effort, and are not challenge oriented

(Siegle et al., 2009). Therefore, they do not encourage deep learning or encourage

working on challenges to learn something new.

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In contrast, when asked about the moments when they feel academically able,

fixed mindset students make comments similar to “ it’s when I don’t make any mistakes

or when something is easy for me, but other people can’t do it” (Dweck, 2008, p. 24) or

“when I turn my paper in first”(Dweck & Leggett, 1988b, p. 266). When surveyed,

college students with the fixed theory faced motivation challenges when they received a

bad grade. This was worse for those who had been high-achievers in high school and now

faced new challenges, mixed with others of equal mental aptitude. Learning subjects in

greater depth. Additionally, the advanced students frightened them and they easily lost

motivation when faced with adversity. On the other hand, the individuals with the

malleable mindset blossomed and made efforts to do well even after receiving grades that

were not positive (Dweck, 2008; Dweck & Leggett, 1988b).

People with a fixed mindset have been known to hold onto other beliefs which

could assist them in their acquisition of knowledge. For example, an entity theorist who

believes that effort and learning are important will be able to perform well academically

even though they strongly believe that their intelligence is fixed (Dweck, Chi-yue, &

Ying-yi, 1995). Dweck (1995) has used the lives of self-proclaimed famous individuals

with a fixed mindset, such as John McEnroe, former number one professional tennis

player for the United States, as examples. McEnroe believed that he did not live up to his

full potential because he had fixed tennis talent and would not challenge himself. Dweck

(2008) observed that even though he mastered the game of tennis and often did well, he

always had an excuse whenever he lost a game or blamed others for his loss. The fixed

mindset has the potential to allow one to achieve success but only in an area that the

individual feels talented in.

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Additionally, because the mental images and fantasies students draw in their

minds have been reported to have a profound effect on student success, researchers have

found it essential to study individuals’ theories of intelligence and fantasies (Kappes et

al., 2011; Oettingen & Mayer, 2002). This relationship is profoundly important to

researchers because as Kappes, Stephens, and Oettingen (2011) state, “fantasies that

depict high performances, which may be highly positive or less positive, portray

(explicitly or implicitly) the individuals’ future capacity” (Kappes et al., 2011, p. 269).

Entity theorists believe their intelligence is fixed, so that fantasies of success have been

shown to have little or no effect on their academic success, unlike initial researcher

findings. Students with this mindset also experienced anger and anxiety towards

schooling as fantasies of success or negative feedback tended to cause them to face the

challenges associated with fantasizing. The challenges included spending more time

worrying about negative outcomes rather than setting goals to achieve results and

experiencing frustration when faced with negative feedback, which is invariably part of

school culture (Dweck & Leggett, 1988b; Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Kappes et al., 2011).

The findings from Kappe (2011) show that although early research (Elliott & Dweck,

1988; Ying-yi, Chi-yue, Dweck, Lin, & Wan, 1999) found that negative emotional

responses, associated with entity theorists core beliefs, could initially be buffered with

high expectations, “students with strong entity theories suffer the achievement drawbacks

of positive fantasies without reaping the affective benefits, regardless of whether they

have high or low expectations” (Kappes et al., 2011, p. 276). Thus, encouraging students

to spend time fantasizing on success is unproductive for these individuals as it only

promotes the helplessness response.

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Unlike entity theorist, positive fantasies or thoughts of future set-back do not

promote helplessness in individuals with malleable theories. Rather than self-depreciation

or helpless responses, these individuals see the future as something to be worked on, then

plan and identify strategies to overcome the challenges. Studies have shown that

malleable theorists are able to do this because they have the ability to self-regulate their

actions in anticipation of negative fantasies. For example, in a study of rugby players,

they were able to reduce competitive anxiety associated with self-regulating fantasies of

set-backs with a malleable theoretical framework, thus increasing their ability to manage

stress and anxiety (Kappes et al., 2011; Mellalieu, Hanton, & Thomas, 2009). This

anxiety is further reduced because malleable theorists tend to spend more time on the

process rather than the out-come as they work towards their learning. This again,

distinguishes them from fixed theorists who worry more about the end result and how

they can “look good” and thus will spend more efforts on the tasks they understand. They

elicit stress and anxiety by worrying over the tasks or concepts they do not understand

rather than dealing with them (Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Kappes et al., 2011).

Entity theorists also exhibit a greater tendency towards being “judgmental,

punitive, and prone to social stereotyping than incremental theorists” (Chiu, Hong, &

Dweck, 1997; Church et al., 2003, p. 333; Dweck & Leggett, 1988b). Empirical

researchers (Dweck, 2000; Levy & Dweck, 1998) “have reasoned that individuals who

believe in fixed traits will expect a high degree of consistency in trait-relevant behavior;

thus, traits will be seen to have predictive value and will be readily inferred from sparse

information about behavior” (Church et al., 2003, p. 333). This explains their tendency

towards being judgmental since their belief framework can be transposed into their

25

expectation of others; believing that others cannot change or gain additional intelligence.

People with malleable mindsets are also aware of their impact on others. However, their

thought process has been reported to be along the lines of “what can I learn from this?

How can I improve? How can I help my partner do this better?” (Dweck, 2006, p. 215)

Therefore, these individuals are not as judgmental of others.

This characterization of self- theories leads one to explore the cultural context of

people who have fixed ‘entity’ theories on intelligence. Researcher findings indicate that

inconsistencies exist “between theory and research when entity theories have been

examined across cultures” (Church et al., 2003, p. 342). However, cultural psychologists

are accurate when they suggest that “people focus more on traits in individualistic

cultures than in collectivistic cultures, entity theorists should be more prevalent in

individualistic cultures” (Siegle et al., 2009, p. 93). Individualistic cultures refer to

cultures that view individuals as independent of one another and function this way in

society. The American society is considered to be an individualistic culture. On the other

hand, collectivistic cultures are those that believe individuals are interdependent and

function by relying on the in-group as well as having a stronger belief in behavioral traits,

self-evaluation and modification of self to achieve enhancements (Church et al., 2003;

Hofstede, 1983). According to Gilroy (2010), Hispanic cultures are collectivistic in

nature because “Hispanics tend to be more group orientated, have larger families, and

think in terms of doing something for the family rather than the individual. Success tends

to be seen in terms of the family rather than personal satisfaction” p.20. Although studies

on the connection between this cultural attitude and self- theories are limited, the work of

26

Church, et al., (2003) and Hofstede (1983) work use the Mexican culture as basis for a

valid comparison.

The work of Church et al. (2003) validates the findings of researchers Chiu,

Hong, and Dweck (1997) and Norenzayan, Choi, and Nisbett (2002), whereby they find

that entity theories are stronger in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures.

Although their cases were across Korean, Mexican, Hong Kong Chinese, and American

(European or Asian Heritage) students, their results are quite representative of broad

cultures. Considering that African American cultures share similarities with the

descriptions of Hispanic cultures, some of the cultural characteristics described above are

similar (Kim & Mckenry, 1998). However, it will still be necessary for researchers to do

more work in this area.

Along this line of classification, it has been suggested that minority high-

achieving students portray malleable incremental theory intelligence and draw their

strength to overcome hardships from this mindset (Siegle et al., 2009). There is some

validity in the argument as Dweck (2006) reports that stereotypes (either negative or

positive) or negative labels have been found to critically diminish the performance of

fixed mindset individuals. Works (Aronson, Fried, & Good, 2002; Levy & Dweck, 1998;

Levy, Stroessner, & Dweck, 1998; Steele & Aronson, 1995) in this area reveal that

individuals of a group that have a stereotype associated with them are strongly affected

by fixed mindset individuals. For example, the stereotype that African Americans have

lower intelligence than the majority can cause some of these African Americans to score

lower on a test after they check a box reaffirming their ethnicity before the test. This

reduced test score results from the fixed mindset’s ability to see traits as fixed. Thus,

27

instead of learning from the stereotype, they associate themselves with it, perceiving that

no amount of effort can change the pre-conceived stereotype. In contract, students with

malleable mindsets were more flexible, working indifferently to the stereotype (Dweck,

2000). It appears, then, that malleable theorists are invariably unaffected by stereotypes

or at least can function without it affecting their psyche.

Dweck (2000) cautions educators against labeling students as gifted, high-

achieving or even low-achieving. Dweck’s findings reveal that the greatest concern is the

labeling of gifted, talented or high-achieving as it provides a temporary boost in ego and

promotes the fixed ‘entity’ theory. It is understood that this classification boosts the ego,

but it promotes the belief that intelligence is special and fixed and encourages the idea

that others without this label are ordinary. The biggest challenge for fixed theorists is the

fear of losing their place on a pedestal, for the already classified smart ones, or appearing

more or less than they are for the others. In a study by Steele (1997), data suggested that

even academically able students would express the helplessness traits if classified while

possessing the fixed mindset. However, those with a malleable mindset will excel or at

least rise up the academic pathway.

It must be noted that researchers have found that males perceive that natural

ability plays a stronger role in the acquisition of some talents, whereas females indicated

that personal effort contributed to high levels of performance (Siegle et al., 2009).

Whether this thought process plays a role in the academic success and retention of

females vs. males is yet to be seen. However, researchers (Dweck, 2000; B.G. Licht & C.

S. Dweck, 1984; Ryckman & Peckham, 1987) suggest that bright males as a group

appear to have the malleable theory or to be mastery orientated. This characteristic has

28

been associated with the fact that boys in general are more prone to disciplinary issues in

grade school; consequently, educators encourage them to work on process rather than

traits from an early age (Dweck, 2000). Although, Siegle’s et al. (2009) study does not

address male students’ intelligence theory, this study will add to the knowledge base of

how this traits and theories of intelligence helps serve males in college.

In summary, Dweck’s Implicit Theory of Intelligence will provide this study with

an understanding of how high-achieving students, particularly those classified as honors

in an honors college, attain academic success irrespective of the reported challenges that

minorities face. In addition, this theory will help the researcher to understand how

different responses to strain and coping mechanisms for dealing with such strain are

determined by their malleable incremental learning theory, if that is indeed the theory

these individuals use to succeed.

29

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Academically successful minority male college students represent a phenomenon

that is uncommon in academia. There is evidence that this group is present, although in

small numbers, within honors programs in colleges of higher learning (Floyd &

Holloway, 2006). In these environments, these students have been recorded to excel

academically despite researcher documented challenges. Practitioners have

acknowledged repeatedly that this population is worthy of significant empirical study, yet

limited data on their experiences are available (Ford, 2011; Moore et al., 2006). Existing

literature focuses on low achieving minority males, whereas studies addressing the issues

of high achieving males tend to focus on African Americans, high-achieving African

American males enrollment patterns in predominantly white institutions (Harper &

Griffin, 2011; Harper, Patton, & Wooden, 2009). They also address high-achieving

African American male student interactions with peers or mentors (Barrio-Satillo, 2009;

Harper & Quaye, 2009) and the impact of college programming on male student success

(Gupton, Casetelo-Rodriguez, Martinez, & Quintanar, 2009; Mmeje, Newman, II, &

Pearson, 2009; Quaye, Tambascia, & Talesh, 2009; Rypisi, Malcom, & Kim, 2009).

Largely, the work focuses on the middle to high school years leaving the college years

relatively unstudied. Furthermore, limited empirical data on high-achieving Hispanic

males exist. Such empirical oversight could be problematic in the changing landscape of

education and America’s desire to remain a super power.

This literature review will cover a discussion on the challenges high-achieving

students will face in academia, the environment honors programs provide them, their

experiences within it as well as an analysis of literature documenting the lived

30

experiences of high- achieving minority male students. High achieving students, just like

other minority males experience their own unique challenges, but honors program

environments have been documented to align their features with identified ingredients for

academic success. High achieving minority male students have been reported to take

advantage of these features as well as use other unique achievement strategies to become

successful in college. The literature suggests that the combination of environment and

achievement strategies such as the malleable incremental theory of intelligence tends to

enable the students achieve academic success.

Challenges or Odds Faced By Minority Male Students

Researchers have documented that minority males typically face challenges in

their pursuit of academic achievement (D. Y. Ford, 1992, 1993, 2011; Harper & Griffin,

2011; Hrabowski, Maton, & Greif, 1998; G. D. Kuh & P. G. Love, 2000; Michael

Pressley, Raphael, Gallagher, & DiBella, 2004; Quillen, 2010; Tinto, 1993a). Quillen

(2010) considers their challenges significant enough to be considered “a little-talked-

about ‘third America’ that is predominantly male, largely incapable of contributing to

society, and often destined to be incarcerated” p.1. Evidence suggests that these

challenges also lead to low graduation rates among minority male students which could

be due, at least in part, to their inability to overcome challenges associated with their

inability to find membership in cultures and subcultures on campuses (Kuh & Love,

2000; Museus, 2008; Tinto, 1993a) or challenges associated with mastering academic

skills or self-theories of intelligence (Dweck, 2000, 2010, 2012). Some of the academic

challenges faced by African American and Hispanic men are shared by African American

and Hispanic women (e.g., potential unfamiliarity with academic English, more likely to

31

be living in poverty, teacher negative stereotyping), and some are not (e.g., African

American and Hispanic boys are more likely than African American and Hispanic girls to

be referred for punishment in school).

Similarly, African American and Hispanic men share some challenges (e.g.,

maintaining a sense of ethnic identity at Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs) and do

not share others (e.g., the African Americans’ heritage of slavery). These findings will be

discussed in more detail below. In general, existing literature suggests minority male

challenges lead to lower cumulative grade point averages, higher attrition rates, and

increased likelihood of academic underachievement or dearth in graduation than their

majority student peers (Allen, 1992; Mow & Nettles, 1990), again validating the benefits

of understanding this population with the hopes of improving their odds of academic

success.

Some researchers have attempted to unravel the complex nature of minority male

student success and the associated challenges (Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, & Elliot,

2002; Harper & Quaye, 2009; R. Reddick, 2004). Their findings identified commonalities

among the challenges influencing minority male educational experiences. These

challenges are broken into themes which include appearance, community pressures and

socioeconomic issues, culture, culturally relevant literature and language, and lack of role

models (Hannerz, 1977; The College Board Advocacy & Policy Center, 2010; Walden,

2011; Williams & Heikes, 1993). Researchers West-Olatunji, Baker, and Brooks (2006)

reported that the issues facing this population start as early elementary school by virtue of

social reproduction and socioeconomic status. In fact their work elucidates that African

American males have experienced a traditionally higher number of referrals or

32

punishment for perceived or actual disruptive activities (West-Olatunji et al., 2006).

These issues have also been reported to continue into post-secondary education.

According to Wilkinson and Taylor (1977), minority males tend to behave in

ways that emphasize their masculinity. This virile appearance could explain why the

challenges for males start early since these behaviors include appearing tough by using

strong language, acting aggressively, or actively seeking opportunities to gain wealth in

order to act as a bread winner. Walden’s (2011) work suggests that the aforementioned

display of masculinity is an action designed to “counteract the limitations placed upon

them by institutional racism” p.84. Considering that the literature alludes to the fact that

institutional racism provides another challenge for minority males as their masculine

display does not fall in line with the larger White culture’s practices, it is no surprise that

they suffer the consequences associated with being considered different, a difference that

subsequently leads to frustration, alienation, bitterness and general unhappiness (Lazur &

Majors, 1995; Walden, 2011). Socialization studies report that birth order has no

influence on this type of behavior, but boys were observed to be more easily influenced

by peers than girls in their teenage years. Thus, boys are said to experience stronger

conformity pressures during their growing years (Hannerz, 1977; Leaper & Friedman,

2006) than girls.

Due to the fact that a connection between male students and peer relationships has

the potential to adversely impact the students’ academic achievement, male students

struggle between portraying a masculine front over an academic one. This is also

negatively impacted by the perception that it is “not cool” to be well liked by the teacher.

Furthermore, the bent-twig hypothesis which relates to an adage that implies that the

33

direction of growth a twig is bent is that which the tree will grow, suggests that even

though some biological evidence supports male successes in traditional masculine

academic programs, social factors tend to exaggerate this biological advantage (Leaper &

Friedman, 2006). In an analogous manner, the traditional female peer group relationship

is associated with participatory activities and a desire not to appear overly competitive.

Nevertheless, for both sexes, achievement and motivation in school are greatly influenced

by family. Raffaelli & Ontai (2004) report that Hispanic families tend to encourage

stereotypical male behavior, as described above, because they practice gender role

division whereby males and females have predefined roles which they are expected to

fulfill. This again impedes the male students’ desire or likelihood to portray an academic

front, which ultimately impacts their academic success.

Taylor’s (1977) study of African American males revealed that African American

males have similar expectations as Hispanic ones. However, African American males

have the unique challenge of a heritage based on slavery, which has impacted the male

role by giving women a domineering leadership role in the household. This role has been

reported to impact self-identification. Hannerz (1977) reports that the problem of self-

identification is not solely associated with African Americans or individuals from female

- headed homes. Studies report that the culprit is the lack of a positive male role model

with whom to associate (Astin, 1984; G. Kuh & P. Love, 2000; Reddick, 2004; Reddick,

2008; Tinto, 1993a; West-Olatunji et al., 2006). The literature documents that in the area

of college student development and retention, mentoring is a means to connect students to

their academics. This need for connection is not isolated to minority students alone. The

same challenge has been found among males from White American urban middle class

34

families. “Studies suggest that mentor-mentee relationships are more likely to occur with

same-race, same-gender dyads [(Johnson, 2007; Tillman, 2001; Turban et al, 2002)]”

(Reddick, 2008, p. 36). It stands to reason that such connections are limited in PWIs for

minority students. On the other hand, majority (White) students have a higher chance of

finding a role model with similar heritage, thus benefiting more from role model

relationships than their peers of ethnic minority heritage.

Socioeconomic challenges faced by most minorities present a continual challenge.

The most recent US Census data report that about 27% of those in poverty in the US are

either Hispanic or African American (or Black) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). “Poverty

and its accomplices — unemployment on the one hand and overworked parents on the

other, single parent homes, poorly educated parents and the allure of life in the streets”

(The College Board Advocacy & Policy Center, 2010, p. 12) have also been reported to

have a negative impact on student success. These factors exacerbate the difficulties

students experience in their lives since poverty leads to lack of funding for educational

supplies, inadequate health care, skipping school, developing poor study habits, and

generally dealing with factors beyond their control. Astin’s (1975) four year longitudinal

study of 16,544 Black and 84,456 White students enrolled in colleges and universities

throughout the US found that Black students reported financial difficulties and their

parents’ marital concerns as a major reason for dropping out of school. White students in

this study focused more on course work or programmatic discontent. Lichtman, Bass, and

Ager’s (1989) study validated the strength of the impact of poverty on student success.

Their study of academically succeeding minority students reported the reason for

dropping out was not related to academics, but personal matters. The work of Pascarella,

35

Pierson, Terenzini, and Wolniak (2004) also throws light on this issue. In their study of

first generation college students in 18 colleges over three years, they documented that

those who spent more hours off-campus working to assist the family rather than

participating in academic related opportunities were less academically engaged and

displayed high-levels of cognitive development. Their study adds to the work

authenticating the important impact of challenges relating to socioeconomics on the lives

of both high-achieving and mediocre minority students.

Poor home environments compound the challenges of minority males. This is

because parents from poor homes have inadequate time investment in their children to

develop adequate parental support or attachment that researchers (Toews & Yazedjian,

2009; Yazedjian, Purswell, Sevin, & Toews, 2007) posit is important to student success.

In a study of 22 college sophomores, it was identified that this attachment can work

positively and negatively, positively for students who perceived any attention as support

and negatively for those who associated parental interaction with guilt because they chose

to pursue an education rather than helping the family overcome financial challenges.

Toews and Yazedjian (2009) validate the potential for inconsistency in success factors, as

well as the fact that students’ sense of self ultimately determines how they achieve it.

Therefore, a minority male who already feels a sense of responsibility to family is torn

between supporting the family unit and achieving personal goals. Furthermore, Ford

(2011) reports that high-achieving students are stuck in the middle, especially those of

low income. His work reports that there appears to be a direct relationship between

college drop outs and income which ultimately affects high-achieving students from low

income backgrounds. This statistic remains the same although high-achieving lower

36

income students and high-achieving high income students are enrolling in college at the

same rate. The minimal enrollment reported for minority males does not mean that

students are not enrolling. It merely suggests that knowledge as to why and how minority

males enrolled in honors colleges excel despite hardships is severely lacking. However,

one can argue that a student with a solid home front can find a balance between family

responsibilities and personal goals, but how this is achieved remains a question for

analysis by researchers. The literature does not clearly present how students can or have

overcome the challenge of poverty or socioeconomic status.

Albeit since similar themes across all minorities exist, it is important to restate

that some themes present a unique challenge for some ethnic groups. For example,

language has presented a challenge for Hispanic and African American individuals. This

is because most Hispanic homes speak languages other than English (Buzzetto-More,

Ukoha, & Rustagi, 2010). As such Hispanic students from this background have the

potential to possess language deficiencies that impact their academic success. In a similar

light, African American students have been reported to have language barriers because of

their use of “Ebonics” on the home front. “Ebonics simply means 'black speech' (a blend

of the words ebony 'black' and phonics 'sounds')….” p.2. It is based on the foundations of

the English language (Rickford, 2004). These differences in communication and a

school’s inability to provide adequate support to overcome them thus exacerbate the

students’ academic issues, if present. One of the participants in the College Board study

cohesively presented the impact of the issues with the statement: “Latino students need

teachers they can connect with. They come to school only to learn that all they have

known all their lives is wrong or taboo.” — Participant, Dialogue Day on Hispanic and

37

Latino Males, quoting Washington State study on Latino students (The College Board

Advocacy & Policy Center, 2010, p. 14).

Culture also plays a significant role in holding back minority males. A Hispanic

participant from a College Board 2010 study stated “When I tried to act out the typical

American teenage drama, my parents were confused. Their attitude was: ‘The other kids

don’t like you? So what? We escaped genocide and the killing fields. Get over it” (The

College Board Advocacy & Policy Center, 2010, p. 12). This quote goes to show that

first generation parents or those that grew up outside of America do not understand the

American cultural values their children are growing up in. They are thus also unaware of

the internal conflicts their children are facing, or the associated dislocation anxieties and

their greater impact on the students’ ability to integrate into the larger society. Therefore,

the families require their youth to meet certain family commitments. For instance,

Hispanic families tend to require their youth to complete schooling then contribute to the

economic development of the family (The College Board Advocacy & Policy Center,

2010). Furthermore, another participant in the same College Board study stated “Dropout

rates among foreign-born and U.S.-born Hispanic students differ dramatically. Overall,

foreign-born Hispanics drop out at three times the rate of U.S-born students...” (The

College Board Advocacy & Policy Center, 2010, p. 12). Even though this study did not

provide empirical evidence to back this statement, the participant quote highlights the

impact of perception on culture on academic success.

The plight of African Americans is no different. An African American male study

participant stated “We need to accept the unique cultural experience of black males.

Slavery and Jim Crow are nothing to be ignored or dismissed. It’s a cultural issue. In

38

many ways, schools are ‘white state’ institutions, perpetuating many of the inequities of

our racial past” (The College Board Advocacy & Policy Center, 2010, p. 12). The

statements presented above show us that cultural history is passed down from generation

to generation, ultimately affecting how students perform and interact with others. In

addition, the literature reports that cultural attitudes of African Americans toward

functioning in the greater society are influenced by historical events associated with

slavery as well as a desire to remain unique and connected to African roots (Hrabowski et

al., 1998; Ogbu, 1983). This ultimately distracts from their ability to accomplish school-

related material in a substantive way. Additionally, the work of Toews and Yazedjian

(2009) validates that a strong ethnic identity is “positively related to college adjustment”

p.4. Therefore, if institutions are not cognizant of the impact of cultural influences on a

student’s welfare, academic progress is adversely impacted as the students are unaware of

the rules, literature being provided, and context of practices and greater benefits.

The work of Pascarella, Bohr, Nora, & Terenzini (1996) adds to the findings

about the culture-related challenges. Studies show that each ethnic group responds

differently to researcher identified achievement enhancement methods (Nora, Cabrera,

Serra Hagedorn, & Pascarella, 1996). Across all racial or ethnic groups, students

responded well to supportive climates with equally supportive faculty and peers. For

example, African American and Hispanic males responded well to environments that

promoted community building but struggled on campuses where classroom participation

was forced and financial support or support services were lacking (Lee & Ransom, 2011;

Rojas-LeBouef & Slate, 2011; Stephens & Ford, 1997). American empirical researchers

have framed the discourse about achievement around the boundaries of African American

39

and White student achievement differences. These differences have been referred to as

the “achievement gap.” However, researchers Lee and Ransom (2011) acknowledge that

achievement gaps exist across all ethnic minorities, even those (for example Asian

Americans) that have shown high achievement in certain subject areas. The achievement

gap is the initiator of studies that focus on low achieving students (Brown, 2008; D. Y.

Ford, 2011; Rojas-LeBouef & Slate, 2011). Regardless, it still remains relevant to note

that minority male students’ enrollment and success are impacted by many factors as

reflected in the challenges section. Their strategies for using resources to gain

intelligence or intellectual capital are associated with such tools as mentoring, tutoring,

and self-theories. Reports show that although larger populations are struggling

academically, some are doing well in environments similar to honors programs.

Researchers say that high-achieving students tend to be those who are actively connected

to the school and positively interacting with the school community, peers, and peer-group

(Astin, 1993; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Evidence from Johnson, Crosnoe, and

Elder’s (2001) study further adds that the academic prowess that these students display is

further strengthened by the community connection. Maguin and Loeber (1996) report that

this connection discourages the desire to stray from academic pursuits or from the

commonalities shared by the peer group. However, it must be noted that some students

who display mediocre learning skills have been known to change and become

academically successful (Dweck, 2000). Therein lies the essence of understanding an

individual’s means to mastering a skill or “theory of intelligence.”

Furthermore, Dweck (1999, 2000) adds that “Mastery oriented qualities grow out

of the way people understand intelligence, and there are two different ways that people

40

understand intelligence” (Dweck, 2000, p. 2). Implicit learning theories of intelligence

tell us that some individuals view their intelligence as finite (entity theory), while others

consider it to be malleable and subject to incremental gains in the acquisition of

knowledge (Malleable incremental theory). Even though most studies in this area have

been in the pre-college community, the information gathered is relevant to college age

students. Dweck’s (1999) work suggests that minorities resembling African Americans or

Hispanics typically consider that their ability to gain new knowledge is in line with entity

theory and as such are less likely to push themselves to achieve more than is expected or

perceived within their scope of learning. These minority students typically attempt

activities in which they are sure of success and become frustrated and give up when faced

with challenges. On the other hand, high-achieving minority students adapt and take up

the attributes of the malleable incremental theory of intelligence, taking up challenges

and putting in more effort when things become difficult while embracing anxiety in the

learning process. Thus mind set can become a significant challenge for minorities,

especially if they have a fixed framework.

Several studies point to the unique value of cultural norms on minority student

achievement and motivation. These findings also detail that motivation could be

influenced by demographic and cultural characteristics (Stephens & Ford, 1997; Walden,

2011). In Eccles’s (2006) model on achievement and socialization, Eccles and colleagues

theorize that a family’s external factors similar to ethnicity, childhood beliefs, and

motivation influence their achievement and motivation as well as subsequent failure if all

themes are not aligned. For example, the negative association of single-parent status, time

spent at work, and large family size on children’s school achievement might reflect the

41

fact that these factors reduce the time and energy parents have for engaging their children

in activities that foster high general achievement motivation, high domain-specific ability

self-concepts, and high domain-specific subjective task values.

Therefore, the minority male students’ achievement is tied to their values, self-

identify, family, and environment. Hrabowski (1998) further adds that parental influence

pushes boys toward excelling in stereotypically male fields such as science, math,

engineering, or sports. In spite of this, only 3% of the scientists in the United States in

1998 were African American (Hrabowski et al., 1998). As reflected in the National

Science Foundation (NSF) report, even after eight years, the number for African

American and Hispanic males in these fields has increased to only about 9% (National

Science Foundation, 2011). This number remains low despite the changes in student

access to early education. The disparities minority males face result in challenges toward

reaching academic success and subsequently limited access to programs for high-

achieving students in comparison to their white counterparts in higher education as a

whole.

This disparity is evident when one tries to review the almost non-existent

demographic data of honors programs. Most of the literature does not directly address the

demographic makeup of honors programs. In fact, within the literature, only Campbell

and Fuqua (2008) directly report that most honors programs enroll majority females.

Their work is congruent with other researchers’ findings that female honor students have

higher retention, which could be explained by their tendency to study more or a need to

be more competitive in the job market place. However, other researchers such as Outcalt

(1999) address only ethnic enrollment without addressing the male to female

42

demographic of the programs studied. This lack of information represents another gap in

the literature of high-achieving minority males, especially those enrolled in honors

programs that this study can fill.

Taking account of the themes discussed above, it is no surprise that the literature

presents self- esteem as a strong influence on student success and college adjustment

(Boulter, 2002; Grant-Vallone, Reid, Umali, & Pohlert, 2003-2004). In fact, Toews and

Yazedjian’s (2009) study found that with the exception of the Hispanic male, self-esteem

was the strongest predictor of overall adjustment among all groups. They posit that this is

because of the strong effect of their ethnic identity. As presented before, identity is

strongly associated with socialization, which plays a significant role in the development

of ethnic minority males. However, this strong connection between self-identity and

ethnic identity presents a challenge for those who cannot maintain a balance when

interacting with other cultures while maintaining their identity. Research on African

American students validate that they experience similar challenges (Hrabowski et al.,

1998; Toews & Yazedjian, 2009). In Gloria, Robinson-Kurpius, Hamilton, and Wilson’s

(1999) study of 98 African Americans (27 males and 71 females), researchers found a

positive correlation between social support, self-confidence and persistence. Students in

the study confirmed that positive student environments are those that ethnically connect

the attendees and promote high levels of self-esteem through social support initiatives

(Gloria, Robinson-Kurpius, Hamilton, & Wilson, 1999; Hamilton, 2009; Irving, 2007).

West-Olatunji, Baker, and Brooks’s (2006), study of eight minority male teenagers in an

aftercare program adds to these finding when they reported that the studied teens declared

that they had faced profound challenges in secondary school compared to their aftercare

43

program. Study participants indicated an awareness of educational inequalities as well as

an awareness of how their ethnic, socioeconomic status or personal challenges impacted

their ability to achieve academic success. However, the teens enjoyed and performed well

in their aftercare program because the activities promoted connection across ethnic

boundaries as well boosted their self-esteem. Further complicating this challenge for

minority males is cognizance of the stereotype that, as a group, minorities are

academically ill prepared, which adds to the boundaries minority males face in excelling

in academia.

Data on similar experiences of minority male college students are limited.

Nevertheless, in a qualitative study in a PWI, Fries - Britt and Turner (2001) found that

racial stereotypes, physical appearance, and a desire to prove intellectual competence had

an impact on student successes. The impact of the effect of these challenges can be

deduced from an example statement:

As far as my major, I am one of a few African American students and it's hard for

me to see what people think or whatever. But when I first got here I had to prove

myself, prove myself, and prove myself. It was not like I would go up to them

and say, "now you see?" But it's like they kept doubting me and doubting me (p.

426).

Negative stereotypes that portray minorities as academically ill prepared also

impact student success (Strayhorn, 2008; West-Olatunji et al., 2006). In Strayhorn’s

(2008) study of the impact of teachers’ expectations, he found that teachers with low

expectations and negative stereotypical expectations impacted student performance and

self-esteem. Students vocalized their feelings with the following example statements:

44

I got an ‘A’ in AP Chemistry once and my teacher accused me of cheating. Rather

than celebrate my success, he assumed that I wasn’t smart enough to get an ‘A’ on

my own so I must have cheated. He asked other students about my performance

on the exam…called my parents…it was so humiliating. [Black male in 12th

grade] (p. 6).

There is no telling…I remember one day in English class we were discussing

Whitman and Thoreau…then someone brought up the whole issue of Obama

running for President…some of my friends said they support him, but before we

could really debate, my teacher, Ms. Dennison, interrupted and said that it ‘would

be hard for an African American man to run this country.’ But she said it in that

way…you know…like she was saying something nice or something. I was so

stunned…speechless…and hurt. [Black male honor roll student] (p. 6).

In another study by Solorzano, Ceja, and Yosso (2000), the profound effect of

stereotyping on students was expressed by study participants with the following

statements: "Every time I leave my room I'm conscious of the fact that I'm Black. I'm

really conscious of the fact that people are looking at me and saying, “she's here on

affirmative action” (p. 67)

I decided to go see a counselor because I wanted to do pre-med and I wanted to

make sure I was on the right track. The counselor was very discouraging... not

supportive at all. She finally said, "Well I don't think that you should take all of

those classes. You're not gonna be able to do that." I personally thought she

discouraged me because I was African American (p. 67).

45

These statements elucidate that stereotypes not only affect achievement, but also

the academic or career path minorities pursue, their comfort level at the institution, and

subsequently their academic achievement.

Access is another challenge faced by minority males. The literature indicates that

honors programs have been accused of limiting access to minorities. Outcalt’s (1999)

study of 92 two-year degree granting institutions and community colleges reveals that

there is a correlation between minority enrollment and the presence of honors programs

on a college campus. However, additional research needs to be completed in this area to

validate his findings as institutional location, size, and demographic composition have the

potential to influence research outcomes. Conversely, Pressley et. al. (1992) report that

rigorous curriculum and instruction yield higher achievement for students. Brown (2008)

validates this statement through his qualitative research study of 10 African American

High school students who were among those outscoring European American peers in a

district-wide state test. The study revealed that the school where the African American

males were enrolled used a multifaceted approach to education in which they hired a

diverse staff, engaged faculty through a variety of professional development

opportunities, made appropriate use of assessment, provided culturally rich and diverse

after school and in-school opportunities for students and their families and used

multicultural strategies to teach lessons. Brown’s findings remained congruent to work by

researchers Pressley et al. (2004) who concluded that, “Curriculum and instruction that

demand understanding, in fact, produce better outcomes than with minority and other at-

risk students than curriculum and instruction focusing on lower order skills” (p. 216).

Irrespective of the rich curriculum and support services, the number of minority students

46

enrolling and taking advantage of the benefits is small and the number of male students is

even smaller. Their social image, as depicted by some researchers, is that “black men in

our society often confine them (selves) to environments shaped by drugs, crime, athletics,

and academic failure” (Fries-Britt, 1997, p. 1). Thus, it is arguable that these factors keep

minority males from attending honors programs or persisting in academia. Considering

the benefits of persistence and the potential for success in honors programs, it is still not

apparent from the literature why more minority males fail to take advantage of the

opportunity to enroll in honors programs.

In order to fully appreciate the experiences of high-achieving minority male

students, it is necessary to review the literature discussing the environment honors

programs provide for their students. This is essential because programs have been

documented to enroll primarily high-achieving students. As such they provide a rich sub-

population necessary for the researcher to answer the study questions. Additionally,

according to renowned IPA researchers, Smith, Flowers, and Larkin (2009), in an attempt

to understand how people make sense of an experience, it is necessary “to conduct this

examination in a way which as far as possible enables that experience to be expressed in

its own terms, rather than according to predefined category systems” (p. 32). Therefore, it

is critical to question the literature on how minority male students fare in honors

programs or colleges. This research is even more important as it enables the researcher to

examine literature related to the study’s research question: How do minority male honors

students experience academic success while enrolled in an honors program? While

describing the essence of minority male students’ experiences, expectations, and attitudes

regarding participation in honors programs as voiced by the students themselves, it is

47

expected that themes of meaning will surface and contribute to a new understanding of

the retention of minority males students in colleges.

Environment Provided By Honors Programs for Minority Males

According to Scott and Frana (2008), the history of honors programs is tied to the

age old prescription that academic programs conceptually teach the work of reputable or

revered authors and thinkers irrespective of their age. To date, few large scale and

comprehensive reviews of literature or studies on honors programs exist. Most literature

discusses specific institutions and elements of their programs (Bulakowski & Townsend,

1995). For example, Astin (1993) discussed the impact of mentoring; Pascarella and

Terenzini (1991) discussed student involvement; Harris and Ford (1999) discussed

minority involvement, and Huggett (2003) outlined program quality. However, Byrne

(1998) completed a comprehensive review of 38 honors programs in 19 states leaving

several program characteristics undocumented. It also elucidates that fact that very little

is known about honors program at the collegiate level.

This section of the literature review will present a general description of honor

programs, and the initiatives they put in place to ensure student success and retention.

The emphasis of the discussion will be on how minority male honors college students

navigate the honors environment. It is evident from reviewing the literature that very little

research has been done in the area of minority honors male student achievement and how

or why they succeed in the honors area despite previously presented challenges. From the

review it remains evident that more work needs to be done in this area.

Honors programs of today are places where faculty and selected students come

together to “practice scholarship and citizenship” providing an environment very

48

different from the concept-only discussion forums of the past (Scott & Frana, 2008, p.

29). Their present structure has been reported to provide academically enriched

environments consistent with United States Department of Education (USDOE)

requirements which mandate states to meet the needs of all students, even high-achieving

ones. The programs are built on the foundation that academically gifted students have a

higher aptitude for learning and need an environment that fosters academic engagement.

In order for this to happen, most honors programs have been designed as learning

communities where students are guided by faculty to explore, work, and collaborate on

projects in a way that allows them to utilize critical thinking skills applicable to real

world situations (Owens, 2010; Phillips, 2003; Scott & Frana, 2008). The goal is “to

develop citizen-scholars, capable of carrying out research, collaborating with others,

leading when necessary, and embracing the public square as a locus of action that is as

important to them as their work and family lives” (Scott & Frana, 2008, p. 30). To

achieve this goal, the honors college curriculum incorporates rigorous and challenging

course work, on and off campus activities which include service learning, required

leadership experiences, volunteerism which builds citizenship, and colloquia.

Accreditation and evaluation are un-prescribed. However, honors colleges are assessed

through institutional assessment methods. Membership in the National Collegiate Honors

Council (NCHC) is also common.

According to the literature, the goal of education is to provide tools, resources,

and aids necessary to facilitate the enrolled students’ maximal attainment of essential

skills required to excel in society (Brint, 2006). In this regard, honors programs strive to

provide their students with the tools to succeed. These students possess high GPA’s and

49

are encouraged to maintain certain professional and academic standards. They are also

encouraged to be involved on campus, lead student clubs, and engage with the campus

administration and faculty. Additionally, the literature reports that honors students

express a high level of satisfaction with their decision to enroll in honors programs

(Byrne, 1998). The data correlates satisfaction to active students’ involvement in campus

activities (Astin, 1984), which explains honors students high-level of satisfaction with

their honors enrollment. Rankin’s (1989) work corroborates Astin’s (1984) findings. In

his 1987 study of a San Diego honors program, one-third of its students were lost because

of lack of participation. Rankin’s (1989) analysis also documents that a similar situation

occurred at Bucks County Community College in 1988 where honors courses had to be

discontinued because of low participation and consequent low enrollment and high

financial overhead. Therefore, the connection between academic success and student

engagement is significant and relevant to student success.

The honors environment is influenced by the caliber of enrollees. The literature

validates that honors enrollees tend to be high-achievers because the institutions admit

students based on pre-set standardized test scores and high school GPAs (Byrne, 1998;

Harvey, 1986; Huggett, 2003; P, 1965; Phillips, 2003; Piland & Azbell, 1984; Scott &

Frana, 2008; Siegle, Rubenstein, Pollard, & Romey, 2010; Spurrier, 2008). However,

two-year degree granting community colleges tend to have additional admission

standards in comparison to traditional four year college (Phillips, 2003). Some of these

admission requirements include a goal statement or essay, an interview, and community

engagement hours (Floyd & Holloway, 2006). Therefore, these students represent the top

tier of high-achieving students enrolling at an institution housing an honors program. In

50

light of this, honors students represent a significant population of high-achieving students

attending community colleges. One could argue that these standards have the potential to

limit minority males from enrollment since they face the challenges mentioned above.

However, the literature revealed that the admission requirements vary by institution

appearing to have no impact on minority male enrollment or access.

Recruitment efforts are significant factors in the identification and assembly of

honors students in honors programs. It must be noted that because recruitment for honors

students among institutions is competitive, the pool could be skewed to benefit the more

affluent and the historically more educated larger ethnic groups. However, because the

pool of students willing to challenge themselves academically is limited in number across

the board, new admits are considered prized possessions of the schools (Byrne, 1998;

Scott & Frana, 2008).Thus, recruiters have been reported to make every effort to recruit

and admit as many top students as possible. In addition, two-year institutions have added

recruitment related dilemmas which include difficulty (1) to attract high-achieving high-

school graduates who could easily could go to a four-year college; (2) to meet expenses

associated with efforts to better serve the high-achieving students by providing small

class sizes with interactive faculty members;(3) to prepare superior students for transfer

to high quality baccalaureate programs; and (4) to overcome challenges associated with

enhancing the two-year college's reputation within the community since most individuals

do not consider two-year institutions to be of high caliber (Byrne, 1998; Outcalt, 1999).

Nevertheless, Harvey’s (1986) analysis of recruitment efforts suggests that honors

programs’ administrative staff appear to be fair and honest in that they try to recruit all

high-achieving students irrespective of ethnicity or gender. With this in mind honors

51

environments are filled with high-achieving students who have been recruited and thus

come to campus with several high expectations. It is evident in the literature that very

little has been done in terms of empirical research to review the benefits of recruitment of

all ethnic groups or at least a discussion of it, especially since some colleges offer

enrolled honors students financial support, housing, and a host of other perks while they

are enrolled in honors classes or special honors programs, however this is not the case

(Byrne, 1998; Owens, 2010; Vile, 2011). One would expect this to be the case of at least

institutions such as community colleges who have been documented to use honors

program enrollment as a strategy to boost the institution’s profile, attract quality

instructors, and attract successful alumni (Owens, 2010; Vile, 2011). Yet, very little is

documented.

Despite their elevated academic acumen and high academic expectations, honors

students also face success and retention challenges which impact the honors environment

(Fries-Britt, 1997). To this end, honors programs make efforts to retain students through a

variety of research identified student services. Byrne (1998) and Ross and Roman (2009),

have documented that honors students benefit from the services and the various retention

and success strategies incorporated into the framework of honors programs. From

reviewing the literature it is apparent that the structure of honors programs and their

successes show a genuine relationship between learning and students’ ability to acquire

knowledge through the malleable incremental learning theory and students’ ability to

develop in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Floyd & Holloway, 2006; Treat &

Barnard, 2012). The ZPD refers to the space between developmental levels. This space is

the distance between a learner’s actual ability to solve problems and his potential ability

52

to achieve more knowledge and gain intelligence through guidance from others more

skilled on the subject, such as adults or more capable peers (Vygotsky, 1978). This form

of engagement occurs when learning takes place in an environment that enables students

to participate both in and outside of the classroom as well as develop their innate

biologically advanced acumen (Mahn, 1999). In this regard, honors students benefit from

learning in the ZPD as they are heavily engaged with their learned faculty and capable

peers.

On further examination of the various features of honor related retention and

success programs, a connection with the theoretical foundations of Tinto's Model of

Institutional Departure is apparent (Tinto, 1993b). This is evidenced by the fact that the

core idea of Tinto’s (1993b) model is that the more students and faculty interact with one

another, the more likely the student(s) will persist. In Torpy’s (2007) narrative about

Tinto’s model, he states that “to persist, students need integration into formal (academic

performance) and informal (faculty or staff interactions) academic systems and formal

(extracurricular activities) and informal (peer-group interactions) social systems” (para.

1). This ideology builds on the idea that environment, culture, and symbolism, as

suggested by Vygotskian intelligence hypothesis, is essential for student success.

Graunke & Woolsley (2005), Campbell & Fuqua (2008), Braxton & Mundy (2001),

Braxton & McClendon (2001), and the Association for the Study of Higher Education

(2004) have also validated the benefits in using this model in retention. Unfortunately,

empirical research to validate this finding in the honors arena is minimal in general and

when looking at the impact on high-achieving minority males.

53

Age grouping of individuals has the potential to impact the honors environment.

Byrne’s (1998) findings reported that age disparities exist in honors programs across the

nation. Southern states, including Florida, tend to enroll younger students, 17 or 18 years

olds'; while western states such as California enroll older students, modal age of 36.

Thus, honors programs in higher education institutions across the nation have a socially

diverse age group attending, while most attendees in the southern states are recent high

school graduates. This could mean that the youth in honors programs in southern states

are still in the adolescent stage of development where they are trying to build their

identities as well as their role in the world. At this stage of life development in an

enriched environment enables a student to develop cognitively letting them “see the

world from multiple perspectives, not just their own” (Darling-Hammond, Orcutt, &

Cheung, 2003, p. 7). Additionally, evidence in the literature supports the honors

philosophy that the learning environments stimulate abstract thinking (Haas, 1992;

University of Illinois, 2012). This method of thinking has been documented as necessary

for success in higher level math and science coursework as well as higher order analysis

of concepts based on hypothesis. Considering the multiple engagement opportunities

honors programs provide to enable student engagement in and out of the classroom,

students in the adolescent age group are very likely to develop cognitively deeply, thus

promoting academic success. As few comprehensive honors studies exist to substantively

validate empirical findings, additional research needs to be done to establish the

connection between environment and age grouping.

Another study by Owen (2010) revealed that in 92 of 159 Southern Association of

Colleges and Schools (SACS) institutions surveyed in the southern region of the United

54

States, university undergraduate honors student enrollment size ranged from 3% to 7% of

the entire student body. Data outliers existed; six institutions reported an enrollment

greater than 3% and 26 reported an enrollment higher than 12%. Owen’s (2010) analysis

did not provide demographic details of these institutions, which seems like a missed

opportunity to enable him to address his goal of becoming a resource for those interested

in honors programs. However, his work validates the size of the honors population,

availability of resources, and benefits of an honors program to members in most degree

granting institutions in the southern region of the US. Additionally, Schuyler (1999)

highlights that those institutions with associate in arts courses that transfer to four year

students have a tendency to house honors programs unlike institutions with large

populations enrolled in remedial courses.

The literature also provides a description of another unique aspect of minority

male student enrollment. The data culled from the work of Outcalt (1999) show “the

relationship between the proportion of minority students within an institution’s student

body and the likelihood that the institution will offer honors programs” (p.64). The study

demonstrates that 43% of community colleges with fewer than 3% African American

enrollment housed an honors program, but as enrollment size increased it is less likely

that the institution housed an honors program. On the other hand, 24 of 88 (27.3 %)

community colleges with 3 % or less Latinos housed an honors program, and this number

dramatically increased to 7 of 10 (70%) of community colleges as the number of Latinos

increased. Outcalt (1999) concludes that “the likelihood of honors programs increased as

the proportion of Latina and Latino and Asian American students rose.” This was similar

in community colleges with approximately 56 of 152 (36.3%) institutions for Native

55

American or 41 of 124 (38.1%) for Asian Americans. However, in institutions with above

16.7 % minorities, no honors program was found. These findings call to light the

probability that institutions with large numbers of minority students, African Americans

in particular, fail to provide access and resources for high-achieving minority students.

As has been well documented, funding has a direct correlation to availability of

resources and subsequently impacts the college environment (Bagnato, 2006). In this

regard, factors influencing funding have an impact on the college environment. High-

achieving and honors students can significantly impact the institution’s total graduation

rate and subsequently has the potential to enhance student performance-based state

funding [see the work of Dougherty, Natow, Bork, Reddy, and Jones (2010) and

Dougherty, Natow, Bork, & Vega (2010)]. Thus, it is relevant that this review discuss

honors student success strategies. Furthermore, Philips’s (2003) effectiveness study

corroborated and documented the benefits of honors program and their students’

successes. The study revealed that these programs are effective in helping community

college honors students transition to four year degree granting institutions in comparison

to the non-honors student. The honors students also expressed well developed skills to

excel, establishing that students in honors colleges or programs are doing well

academically. However, empirical research in this area is limited especially at the

collegiate level. Upon reviewing the literature, one would expect more discussion on

student success strategies; however this is not the case.

The work of Aronson et al. (2002) also adds to the work that shows that

environmental variables influence minority students’ ability to learn. Thus, Vygotsky’s

sociocultural theory, which discusses cognitive development and an individual’s

56

environment, is of relevance to this study. This theory suggests that “humans are

embedded in a sociocultural matrix and human behavior cannot be understood

independently of this ever-present matrix” (P. H. Miller, 2002, p. 368). Moll &

Tomasello (2007) took their understanding of Vygotsky’s theory one step further and

coined the term “Vygotskian intelligence hypothesis.” This term posits that “regular

participation in cooperative, cultural interactions during ontogeny leads children to

construct uniquely powerful forms of cognitive representation” p. 639. Their ideology

builds on the work of both Vygotsky’s and Humphrey’s theories of group dynamics in an

environment. It recognizes Vygotsky’s idea that children’s cognitive development is

influenced or formed by their social and cultural interactions and Humphrey’s (1976) that

cognitive evolution is based on competition – a desire to do better than others within a

social group. Nonetheless, environmental factors play a significant role in student

success. From the narrative above it is evidenced that students engaged in the honors

programs are academically succeeding, irrespective of ethnic heritage. However,

regarding the research questions associated with this study scholars have yet to examine

what challenges minority males participants in an honors program face as well as how

minority male honors students experience academic success while enrolled in an honors

program.

Conclusion

Despite a large variety of reports that minority males are struggling to maintain

academic success, few members of the group excel and reside within the honors

community. Thus, it is necessary to identify whether the tools those exceling use to be

successful are unique. An understanding of their experiences will be of value to

57

academicians and policy makers working on improving the fate of low-achieving

minority males who aspire to achieve academically, but are struggling due to

socioeconomic, academic, and self-identity issues. The dearth of research in this area

may be because most of the literature analyzes the impact of retention strategies on low-

achieving students. Consequently, a more thorough investigation to determine how high-

achieving students perform and what tools, resources, and support services are essential

to their success is necessary. The literature reviewed herein maintains that Dweck’s self-

theory of intelligence is a means of learning or gaining intelligence and it remains

relevant to how minority males succeed academically. In as much as honors programs

base their framework on Tinto’s student departure theory, it remains pertinent for

researchers to review the effect a minority student’s self-theory has on his ability to

achieve and maintain academic success.

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Chapter 3: Research Design

The previous chapter reviewed literature relevant to the environment provided by

honors programs for minority males as well as the challenges they face in college. This

chapter provides an outline of the paradigm and research method used in this study. The

proposed research project will be qualitative in nature utilizing the interpretative

phenomenological approach (IPA) as the preferred research method. Details significant to

the research design, questions that guide the investigation, the value of the selected

research methodology, the study design, site selection criteria, study participant criteria,

strategies to analyze the data, and strategies to protect human subjects participating in the

study will be provided.

Research Questions

This study seeks to answer the questions:

1. How do minority male honors students experience academic success while

enrolled in an honors program?

2. What challenges do minority male participants in an honors program face?

Considering that it is necessary for the researcher to apply a research

methodology that enables one to explore participants’ experiences and gain an

understanding of their experiences, this study utilized a qualitative approach. These

questions are explorative and qualitative in nature focusing on an examination of how

high-achieving minority males are making sense of their academic success and how high-

achieving minority males enrolled in an honors program are succeeding against the odds.

The questions enabled the researcher to focus on a single concept: high-achieving

59

minority males and academic success, in line with qualitative research, which enabled her

to identify emerging factors as the study evolves (Creswell, 2009).

Research Design

The worth of qualitative research has been established since the 1920’s (Denzin &

Lincoln, 2000). Qualitative research, according to Denzin and Lincoln (2000) “refer to a

broad class of empirical procedures designed to describe and interpret the experiences of

research participants in a context-specific setting” (Ponterotto, 2005, p. 128). In other

words, qualitative research is built on hermeneutics (interpretative) as it attempts to find

the true nature of the study participants through deep refection stimulated by dialogue. As

an empirical research method, the researcher uses qualitative strategies to undergird the

data collection method, analysis and subsequent interpretation of the data collected

(Ponterotto, 2005).

A qualitative approach was selected for this study for several reasons. Due to its

hermeneutics (interpretative) nature, qualitative approaches allow the researcher to

observe an accurate perspective of study participants’ experiences. Following the

constructivist paradigm, it is necessary to note that qualitative research allows the

researcher in-depth interaction with the study participants, allowing them to construct

reality together through the various data gathering methodologies (Creswell, 2009).

Creswell (2007) adds that a qualitative approach also allows the researcher to get close to

the participants, thus allowing them to write their story in persuasive and expressive

language. Qualitative research involves exploring, and describing in the natural context

of the study participants, enabling the researcher to gain a personal perspective of their

experiences. It is also documented that the study size may be small to allow the

60

researcher to gain a true idea of the participants’ experience without overly attempting to

test a hypothesis (Smith, 2003).

The qualitative research methodology is thus consistent with the aim of this

research project which endeavors to seek a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of

how minority male honors students are achieving academic success irrespective of the

challenges they face.

Creswell (2009) describes five overarching research design traditions in

qualitative research. These designs include biography (life history), phenomenology,

grounded theory study, ethnography, and case study. De Vos and Fouche (1998) add

ethnomethodology and symbolic interactions to the list of designs, while Smith (2003)

adds IPA, narrative psychology, conversation analysis, discourse analysis, focuses

groups, and cooperative inquiry. In general, the listed methods aim to understand a

“social or human problem” (Creswell, 1998, p. 15) typically in their natural setting. Of

the variety of qualitative design traditions, IPA was found to be the best fit for this study.

IPA lends itself to a study on the lived experiences of minority males. According

to Creswell (2009), “in phenomenology, the questions might be broadly stated without

specific reference to the existing literature or typology of questions” (p.130). Smith et. al.

(2009) add that IPA research questions are also based on an understanding of the

relationship between the research participants and the researcher. This strategy enables

the researcher to engage the participants in a way that allows one to appreciate the

participants’ experiences: the phenomenon. Thus, the researcher’s questions should be

“directed towards meaning” (Smith et al., 2009, p. 47) and using words such as ‘how’

and ‘what’ to start the questioning. It is perceived that this terminology places the

61

participants within specific context and “conveys the language of emerging design”

(Creswell, 2009, p. 130). The questions in this study follow this principle and attempt to

understand the study group without binding the participant context within overly strict

boundaries. IPA researchers (Pringle, Hendry, & McLafferty, 2011; Smith et al., 2009)

report that this is necessary by maintaining that, irrespective of the defined constructs of

the study, researchers should be wary of heavily placing the phenomenon within

theoretical boundaries. Researchers posit that “a balance must be struck” (Pringle et al.,

2011, p. 2). This approach is necessary since theoretically bounded questioning takes

away from the openness of qualitative research, something qualitative researchers should

avoid.

Research Tradition

IPA is a relatively new qualitative method gaining popularity in the United

Kingdom used primarily by health professionals (Smith et al., 2009). However, the use of

IPA has expanded in clinical and behavioral psychology research (Colton & Pistrang,

2004; Rhodes & Jakes, 2000) and identity research (Eatough & Smith, 2006; Lavallee &

Robinson, 2007). The underlying philosophical underpinnings of IPA are three key

philosophies of knowledge: phenomenology (investigation of a phenomenon),

hermeneutics (interpretation), and idiography (particulars or specifics of a phenomenon)

(Smith et al., 2009). The foundation of IPA is deeply rooted in the traditions of

phenomenology. As such a description of phenomenological research design will be

presented in order to distinguish it from IPA.

Phenomenology is drawn from the work of Husserl, an early 1900 German

philosopher who championed the interpretive nature of philosophical research. Studies

62

using this design “describe the lived experiences for several individuals about a concept

or the phenomenon” (Creswell, 1998, p. 51). As such, the core of phenomenology is

related to bringing to light an issue or, as stated by Jones (2001) in Pringle, Hendry, &

McLafferty (2011), phenomenology allows the “researcher to go beyond factual accounts

to look at common life experiences” (p.8). Moustakas (1994) goes further to explain that

phenomenological studies describe the phenomenon while also giving the reader a clear

view into the experiences of the persons or the individuals being studied. It also gives

them a sense of the various factors that contribute to their experience or “the

phenomenon.” Harper & Griffin (2011) used this methodology to understand the

phenomenon “being a Black male achiever from a lower-income or working-class

background who attended an expensive predominantly White private postsecondary

institution” (p. 46). In his study, he repeatedly examined his study group taking time to

appreciate the participants’ experiences, while objectively sharing his understanding

without generalizations. The authors document that this research methodology was

suitable for them because it enabled them to achieve what Polkinghorne (1989) proposed

was the core of phenomenological research, an ability to appreciate the reality of

experiences of those under study. A sound study misses an opportunity for the researcher

to obtain the participants deep experiences, but this is obtainable through IPA via double

hermeneutics and idography. According to Smith, Flowers, and Larkin (2009),

IPA researchers tend to focus upon people’s experiences and/or understandings of

particular phenomena…perceptions and views of participants (as alternatives to

‘understanding’)...The orientation of researchers towards these objects of interest

(experiences, understandings) is generally open and often explicitly process-oriented.

63

Simply stated, IPA is study of a phenomenon, how individuals experience or perceive

their experiences of the said phenomenon.

IPA research makes meaning of questions asked. Thus, the spirit of IPA is its

inductive procedure, supporting the interpretation of meaning. This is necessary because

people are not able to share their experiences directly. Therefore, the researcher works to

interpret their thoughts through dialogue and analysis. IPA is thus both phenomenological

and social constructivist. The works of Cosgrove (2000) and Nunn (2009) suggest that

this strategy is a good approach in identity studies similar to this one.

Albeit the desire of IPA practitioners is to generate empirical research on the lived

experiences of study participants, they (Salmon, 2003; Smith et al., 2009) caution

researchers to avoid being overly ambitious. Authors similar to Hallet (1995) suggested

the use of a step by step method of carrying out phenomenology. Although, a 1985 study

by Giorgi used this same step by step methodology, and he later states that this method is

not an ideal interpretation of the IPA method (Hefferon & Gil-Rodriguez, 2011). In his

analysis of Scandinavian nursing, Giorgi calls for a more imaginative interpretation of the

method rather than the creation and following of step by step directions (Giorgi, 2000). In

general, researchers (Giorgi, 2000; Hallet, 1995; Hefferon & Gil-Rodriguez, 2011) have

presented varying opinions on how phenomenology is to be carried out. However, Giorgi

(2000) stated that the challenge is not the method or strategy used to achieve the goals but

rather the lack of clarity by the researcher on how the researcher came up with the

strategy used, analysis, and discussion presented.

In light of Giorgi’s (2000) position, it is necessary to state that this study

acknowledges the fact that a transcendental or purist approach towards studying this

64

population takes away the heart of the lived experiences of those being studied. Thus, the

researcher will use “a ‘phenomenological orientation’ without being explicit about it”

(Pringle et al., 2011, p. 3) as done by Rochette, St-Cyr Tribble, Desrosiers, Bravo, and

Bourget (2006), Rivera-Goba and Campinha-Bacote (2008), Rivituso (2012), and Smith

(2004). This approach was summarized in Pringle et. al (2011) by using an idiographic

approach: (1) focus the study on the “individuals’ cognitive, linguistic, affective and

physical being” (p. 8); (2) interpret the data through a two-step process referred to as

“double hermeneutic.” In other words, the study will clearly present the steps used to

review the individual, in this case using a participant profile, and subjective analysis

without researcher generalizations. However, Pringle et. al (2011) pointed out that

generalizations are largely unfeasible and that idiographic studies are “subjective,

intuitive and impressionistic” (p.14) and it can be difficult to establish which variables

are important. “Although generalisations are not possible in the same way as conclusions

stemming from quantitative research using large numbers or randomised controlled trials,

commonalities across accounts and “analytic commentary” (p.15) may well lead to useful

insights that have wider implications.

Similar to the work of Harper and Griffin (2011), this study investigated how

high-achieving minority males make sense of their academic success in an honors

program. The researcher worked with the participants to explicate their “inner world of

consciousness and experience” (p. 364). As researchers follow this methodology, they

assume a closeness to the participants which creates a commonality of perception.

Fraenkel & Wallen (2012) argue that this commonality enables the researcher to identify

themes from data gathered as well as guides the analysis process.

65

The phenomenon under study is being a minority male high achiever from a

lower-income or working-class background who is enrolled and academically succeeding

in an honors program. Since IPA is idiographic in nature, it enables the researcher to

obtain the particulars of the study. Thus, the researcher can reveal the experiences of each

of the individuals involved in specific detail. Unlike Harper and Griffin’s (2011)

phenomenological approach, under the auspices of IPA, this study delved into a deeper

understanding of the study group and review of the reasoning behind the participants’

experiences. Smith (2004) reports that this approach allows the researcher to delve deeper

into the study group’s story. This method is beneficial because it allows the researcher

some subjectivity in the measurement and analysis of the individuals under study. Given

the shortfall of information and empirical data on academically successful minority

males, a better understanding of how minority males successfully navigate their way in

highly selective honors programs is one aim of the study. This benefit of qualitative

research has been a cause for concern for some because it has been argued that sound

research that is free of bias requires researcher bracketing (Finlay, 2009; Giorgi, 2008).

Pringle et. al (2011) documents that there are varying views on a researcher’s ability to

bracket and question the need for it and its impact on results. However, this is not an

issue in qualitative research, especially in IPA because some subjectivity is allowed in

IPA. Data analysis in IPA research is done in an objective manner with the researcher

bracketing personal preconceptions and acknowledging any preconceptions identified

through the research process (Smith, 2003). To achieve this goal, the researcher has to

approach each participant’s data with a fresh perspective. Furthermore, “within IPA, and

the qualitative paradigm in general, there is more of a focus on the possible transferability

66

of findings from group to group rather than generalisation” (Hefferon & Gil-Rodriguez,

2011, p. 3). Summarily, IPA does not separate the research from the study participants.

Explicitly it takes into account the impact of environment and interactions on study

participants and the researcher during the discussion of research findings.

Research Method

Participants. Minorities in this study are defined as the two major ethnic

minorities: Hispanics or Latinos and African Americans because these groups are the

most prevalent in institutions where minorities typically enroll. The study criteria for

academic success will be sophomores in good academic standing holding a 3.5 minimum

Grade Point Average (GPA). Sophomores with this GPA have shown that they have the

ability to excel academically in an environment that challenges them and to participate in

a variety of campus organized activities, and utilize support services appropriately. Thus,

it is perceived that they will provide rich data toward solutions to this problem of

practice.

The individuals selected for this study are enrolled in a two-year degree granting

institution that became a four-year degree State college. This institution is located in an

urban part of South Florida consisting of predominantly minority communities. The

institution is also one of the country’s largest institutions of higher learning (U.S.

Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics, 2010) with seven

campuses and 174,000 students representing about 180 countries speaking nearly 80

languages (Walker, 2012). The institution is classified as a Hispanic Serving Institution

(HSI) because its enrollment population consists of 77% Hispanics. The designation of

HSI is in line with the Federal Higher Education guidelines for HSIs which give this

67

status to accredited and degree-granting public or private nonprofit institutions with 25

percent or more total full-time equivalent student enrollment of undergraduate Hispanic

populations (Excelencia in Education, 2010; Moltz, 2010; Young, 2001). Additionally,

Walker (2012) reports that the institution “graduates more Hispanic and African-

American students than any other college in the nation” (p.2). Therefore, this institution

is an ideal place to find a wide variety of minority students with varying academic

abilities.

Using the logic of qualitative analysis, the sample size remained small, with six

students. This allows for an in-depth review of the selected students’ experiences and

perspectives. It is understood that such a small sample size will deter the author, as

appropriate in qualitative research, from generalizing participant experiences to the larger

population. However, considering the exploratory nature of this study, findings will add

to the literature on high–achieving minority males. Thus, a sample size of six is deemed

adequate, a size also validated by Seidman (2006) who argues that a specific sample is

most important aspect of IPA rather than the number. Also, Smith (2009) suggests a

sample size of three to six participants to enable ease of explication and in-depth analysis

(Hefferon & Gil-Rodriguez, 2011). The argument is that in-depth analysis and

phenomenological interviewing under homogeneous conditions are more important than

the size. This homogenous aspect of IPA is also suggested when selecting a sample

population. The commonality of the population sample in this study is their participation

in an honors program as academic succeeding minority male students. Student

participants were also sophomores. These students have a 3.5 GPA minimum and are

representative of the high-achieving minority male population enrolled at this college.

68

However, it must be noted that within the identified homogenous population ethnic

diversities exist. The benefit is that ethnically diverse participants provide a viewpoint

that provides for “data triangulation” to contrast the data and “validate” the data if it

yields similar findings (Arksey & Knight, 1999; Bloor, 1997; Holloway, 1997). In this

regard, ethnic diversity was allowed among participants, but limited to the target

population: African American, African American of Caribbean heritage, Hispanic

American, and Hispanic of Latin heritage. To triangulate data, one of the six students

interviewed is a sophomore or second year honors student not enrolled in the honors

college.

A purposive sample of voluntary student representatives of the study population

was used for this study using a non-probabilistic purposive sampling strategy. As

suggested by List (2007), when studying groups of individuals, the sample size was not

randomized. This strategy enabled the researcher to identify student participants who

would “provide information-rich or fruitful data” (Girden & Kabacoff, 2011, p. 29). The

sampling strategy selected for this study is ideal because of the low frequency of the

population with the characteristics to be studied and difficulty to locate and recruit as is

the case of high-achieving minority males.

Summarily, this institution was selected for the study because it meets the study

criteria of enrolling minority males in its honors college. As such it provides a site rich

with individuals who match the study participant criteria. Additionally, the site was

selected for convenience. It is located in close proximity to the researcher’s location and

provides ease of access to the students because the researcher works for the institution.

Another benefit of selecting this institution is that researchers have documented that

69

individuals of color fare better academically when surrounded by individuals of similar

ethnic backgrounds. Considering the institution is a HSI housing an honors college, it

presents a unique perspective on minority education. It provides the researcher an

opportunity to spend more time on the lived experiences of the study participants rather

than on all the variables that researchers (Harper, 2009; W. B. Johnson, 2007; R.

Reddick, 2004; Tinto, 1993b; Ugbah & Williams, 1989) propose as essential for minority

student success: environment, enrichment opportunities, and various engagement

activities.

Recruitment and access. In order to conduct this study, the researcher negotiated

access to the institution through the past and present Dean of the honors college who

indicated support for the study. Final approval to initiate the study was provided by the

Northeastern University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) process and the college’s

IRB, before work commenced. The proposal for the project was approved in March 2013.

Student recruitment commenced as soon as the secondary IRB (study institution)

approvals were received. To begin the study, the researcher contacted the Dean of the

honors college and the Honors Directors via electronic means with a study description

and a request to identify potential participants. Names of potential participants were sent

to the researcher. The researcher then contacted directly potential student participants and

provided them with the consent forms presented in the Appendix section. The researcher

solicited voluntary participants through electronic email communication and

presentations to honors classes, all in collaboration with the honors directors.

The study participants, with the exception of one student who was selected for

triangulation purposes, came from this honors population. Students could be enrolled on

70

any of the programs’ four campuses or the general population, but classified as honors.

The target honors population studied were those in their sophomore year pursing a two-

year associate degree. These sophomores were also from one of the recognized minority

groups and considered high-achieving and academically successful.

The honors college where the study participants are enrolled follows the

traditional structure of honors programs. Students are recruited, complete an application

process, and are selected from local, national, and international high schools. They have

to meet selection criteria and complete an interview before admission. It also uses the

cohort model for student enrollment in classes and requires that all students take four (4)

leadership classes, meet biweekly in colloquium, and take part in altruistic practices and

Service Learning. Enrollees are provided a full tuition scholarship along with a book and

expense stipend. Additionally, although an eight-campus college, the honors college is

found only on four of them. A Dean has oversight authority over all campuses and one

director serving as a counselor, advisor, and academic planner on each campus. In light

of this, the program provides an environment with various enrichment opportunities and

engagement activities as a means to promote student success.

Lack of rapport and cultural issues have been reported to potentially negatively

impact qualitative research (Creswell, 2007). However, the researcher, an administrator at

the institution to be studied, believes that identifying representative individuals as a

purposive sample enabled the researcher to build rapport and overcome gatekeeper

constraints. The researcher argues that rapport is more essential to this study than the

sampling challenges associated with the information creditability associated with

purposive sampling as presented by Creswell (2007). Additionally, the Dean and honors

71

directors across the four campuses where the program is housed have expressed an

interest in program and student success evaluation. Findings from this study will attempt

to provide an insight into how the students are faring rather than evaluate the program’s

viability, but will still provide new information about the program enrollees. Thus, it

remains a viable study from which the honors administration will benefit. In this regard,

collaboration with the Honors Director to identify minority male student participants was

not considered to be a hindrance to the study’s progress, especially since gatekeeper

access had been pre-approved.

Data Collection. Data collection was qualitative in nature. In accordance with the

concept of IPA, data collection was a “rich, detailed, first-person account” (Smith et al.,

2009, p. 56) of participant experiences. In this regard, data is a compilation of words

obtained from in-depth interviews (informal and formal taped) from students, review of

artifacts, and observations. Data was collected via field notes, taped interviews, and

document review (Creswell, 2009; Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun, 2012; Seidman, 2006.;

Smith et al., 2009). A listing of collected data was presented in the appendix section.

To achieve rich detail, the researcher recruited participants through the use of an

email recruitment letter soliciting student participation (Appendix A.) Community

contacts or “gate keepers” were utilized to provide access to male students who met the

study criteria. Professional colleagues and peers were also provided with letters in an

effort to gain additional access to a wider network of African American or Hispanic male

students. According to Cornelius (1982), expanding participant search across a wide

geographical area is recommended because it increases representativeness. Thus,

recruitment emails were sent to four campuses where potential participants attend classes.

72

Participants were required to make the initial contact with the researcher directly through

e-mail or telephone. Initial telephone interviews were conducted with participants who

were unable to meet face to face due to time constraints to confirm eligibility. Individuals

who met the inclusion criteria and were willing to be interviewed were then selected to

meet at a mutually agreed upon time and location that allowed for privacy and audio

recording. Since interviews were conducted over a short period of time and none of the

participants chose to withdraw at any point, attrition was not an issue.

A purposeful sampling strategy was employed for this study resulting in the

recruitment of six participants (four Hispanics and two African Americans.) Interviews

were conducted between April and May of 2013 at an agreed upon location where

confidentiality could be ensured. The six students selected were engaged in two separate

in-depth interview appointments using the predetermined time of 90 minutes as

recommended by Seidman (2006). This method provides the researcher with focus

enabling her to gain insights about the participants and develop assumptions drawn from

phenomenology. A third interview was achieved via email. This was to allow for member

checking and to prevent the research from interrupting students’ often complicated and

busy schedules.

The interview questions were open-ended and followed a scheduled format. This

method is in agreement with Giorgi’s (2000) argument that steps be clearly presented in

IPA as well as be richly descriptive. However, the researcher focused more on the Smith

et al. (2009) method of interpretation of IPA to research. This interpretation encourages

more analytical questioning that enables subjective thought and allows the researcher to

pay attention to the lived experiences of the participants while gathering empirical data

73

through interviews and observations. Smith et. al. (2010; 2009) and Seidman (2006)

propose that another benefit of this method is that it elicits interpretive perspective based

on a review of the whole experience of the individual, thus giving “meaning and

understanding to people’s behavior” (Rivituso, 2012, p. 44). This aspect of this

interviewing method reiterates its value in IPA research.

Written consent for participation in the research study was obtained from

participants before interviews. Prior to beginning the interviews with the participants, the

researcher discussed her study interest in minority male student success as well as the

study’s value and benefits to Hispanic and African American male under-performing

students. According to Janesick (2004)), it is important to have a back-up plan in place in

the event that an interviewee decides at the last minute not to participate. This study’s

back-up plan was to refer to the potential participant list generated by an honors faculty

member and honors directors. However, there was no need for individuals listed to be

contacted as a back-up.

During the interview, as recommended by Creswell (2007), field notes were taken

during the interviews noting body language, environmental details when appropriate, and

other relevant non-verbal aspects of the participants. The notes were intended to enhance

the quality of data obtained. Conversation was kept light and informal because, as

Moustakas (1994) indicated, “the phenomenological interview involves an informal,

interactive process and utilizes open-ended comments and questions” (p.114). Each

interview was transcribed and synthesized, and a descriptive summary was written. The

descriptive summary was provided to students for member-checking during the

individual follow-up interviews which took place during May and June 2013.

74

Topic questions were a series of structured questions, allowing the interviewer to

ask unplanned questions for clarification and additional depth as the interview progressed

as recommended by Gall, Gall, & Borg (2003) and Moustakas (1994). Moustakas (1994)

recommended that an interview session should commence “with a social conversation or

a brief meditative activity aimed at creating a relaxed and trusting atmosphere” (p. 114).

Prior to engaging in the interviews as part of the research, study participants were

given an unsigned consent form to review. Once the participants had been educated on

the interview process and the study procedures, the appropriate consent forms were

completed. Kvale (2007) suggests pilot testing interview questions to test for validity and

ability to extract information. To this end the researcher ran a pilot interview with two

African American male students who had 3.7 GPAs, but were not enrolled in the honors

college. These two individuals were chosen because of their closely related

characteristics to the study participants, a strategy supported by Kvale, (2007) and Turner

(2010).

The interviews followed IPA standards. In as much as interviewing followed a

flexible schedule and structure, the researcher encouraged the participants to commit to at

least three interviews. The three interviews included: (1) an informal face-to-face

interview at the beginning of the semester, recorded on field notes. The interview focused

solely on the participant’s life and background experiences with family, friends, school

mates, and the honors program. This format builds rapport as has been identified as

essential to IPA interviewing (Smith et al., 2009). Seidman (2006) suggests that the first

interview follow the open ended format supported by qualitative interview procedure.

The common themes identified enabled the researcher to put the participant’s life in

75

context. The interview was recorded by audio tape; (2) the second interview was a formal

interview using open-ended broad questions was scheduled for three to four weeks later.

The interview’s objective was to obtain more of the fine points of the participant’s lives.

The researcher made efforts to clearly identify details of the participants’ lives, while

separating them from opinion or assumptions. Audio tapes and observation notes were

also taken; and (3) the third interview was more reflective in nature and served as a

member checking interview. This enabled information review and clarification. Upon

conclusion of the study, recordings were destroyed as per Seidman’s (2006)

recommendations.

Students in the honors college are required to maintain a portfolio documenting

their engagement in activities as well as their accomplishments. Participants in this study

were asked to share entries to document participation in ancillary student services as

artifacts for review. The data gathered was analyzed and coded. The researcher met with

the participants to cross verify the data collected at the end of the data analysis. Field

notes, audio tapes, and interviews were transcribed. An external transcriber was used to

translate the audio information gathered into a word-processing format. A final report

was written for analysis of the data gathered.

Participant profile. Six full time sophomore students matriculated into a State

College, all males with a 3.5 GPA or higher, were selected to participate in this study.

Five of the students were enrolled in the college’s Honors program. A discussion of the

participants’ characteristics is presented below as they represent the data for this study.

Also, a summary of their characteristics is listed in Table 1. Analyses of the data gathered

are presented in Chapter four.

76

Interview 1- Ace

Ace is a confident 18 year old man of Hispanic descent of mixed heritage,

Columbia and other mixed European countries. His mother, being adopted at a young

age, is culturally from Boston, where her adopted mother lived. He is a sophomore

graduating from the honors college after the semester he was interviewed. He serves his

college campus as the Student Government Association (SGA) president. On the day he

was approached to participate in the interview, Ace agreed to be interviewed that day and

he gladly walked with the researcher to a private office in the honors college. He was

wearing a club T-shirt with jeans and wore glasses. Once in the room, he confidently sat

down, assuredly settling in for the interview. After settling down, he mentioned that,

although he had time for the 90 minute interview, he needed to attend a rehearsal for an

SGA end of year dinner two hours later. The researcher assured him that the interview

would not take two hours unless he wanted it to. Ace mentioned he is comfortable talking

about himself and glad that this type is study is being done to help other minority

students. Ace lives with his mother and grandparents; his father passed away when he

was young.

Ace has a 3.5 GPA, is majoring in Political science, and aspires to complete law

school after his bachelor’s degree. Even though he is an Honors student, he makes time to

participate in on-campus events, speaking at student rallies, representing the campus at

political rallies at state or national conferences. He plans to attend Yale University after

his 2-year Associate in Arts degree. This final transfer choice was made during the

summer of 2013 after he had received several transfer admission letters and financial aid

77

offers from the 15 schools he applied to. Ace receives financial support from the honors

scholarship and stipend, Florida bright futures scholarship, and federal financial aid.

Interview 2- Adno

Adno is a self-assured African American student of Haitian decent. He is 27 years

old, continuing his academic pursuits after a career in journalism. He learned about the

college in Miami from his sister after she immigrated to the US. At his appointed time,

Adno appeared at the interview location wearing a dress shirt and slacks, carrying his

books in a backpack. He was polite, asking where to sit and where to place his things. He

gave the interviewer time to provide generic information about the study and appeared

reserved, but confident in himself. Once all the paperwork was reviewed he calmly

waited for the researcher to ask questions.

Adno has a 3.5 GPA and works in the evening after school to supplement his

scholarships and living expenses. He is a member of one club, Phi Theta Kappa Honors

society for two year colleges, which encourages participants to partake in scholarship and

service events. Although Adno admits he has travel limitations to national and

international conferences, he confirms that the local events he has participated in have

impacted his academic experiences. Adno receives only the honors scholarship and

stipend.

Interview 3- Joaquín

The researcher met Joaquín, a student of Hispanic descent, in the evening after a

rainy day at a local Starbucks coffee house. This was the second attempt to meet after

several conflicts during the day. Prior to the researcher arriving, he found a secluded spot

and saved two seats and patiently waited. On seeing him, she recognized him as a student

78

a coworker had introduced to her two years prior to his enrollment in college. Joaquin

acknowledged recognizing the researcher and reintroduced himself respectfully showing

the researcher to the seats saved. He was wearing his Honors club T-shirt and shorts and

appeared confident, relaxed, and willing to participate in the impending discussion.

Joaquin has a 3.5 GPA, receives the honors scholarship and stipend, a bright futures

scholarship, but no federal financial aid. His father passed away the year before he started

college, and he now lives with his mother and siblings.

Interview 4- Eder

Eder is a Hispanic male honors student graduating with a 3.7 GPA. He entered the

meeting area in shorts and a T-shirt carrying his backpack. Eder appeared relaxed,

reviewing his cell phone while he waited for the researcher to provide him with the

documents to sign. As he reviewed the forms he asked questions about the study and

expressed his willingness to help. Eder has lived in the area all his life and traveled to

other states within the county. His parents are divorced and he lives with his mother and

siblings. Both parents have no college degree, but his father has a fire fighter’s certificate

from a local vocational / technical school. Eder believed that his family makes a

reasonable income, but adequate resources are often not available.

Interview 5 – Adrian

Adrian, a physics major, is a sophomore graduating from the honors college

during the summer of term he was interviewed. He is 21 years old with a 4.0 GPA and

serves the campus as a physics tutor. He came to the interview from the tutoring session

and a long day of classes. With his book bag and heavy science books and glasses, he

appeared studious and focused. With a gentle smile, he respectfully greeted the researcher

79

and took his seat. Adrian comes from a family that is well educated. His mother is an

architect, and his father and several uncles are engineers. Adrian hopes to follow this path

and earn a Bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering. Although he has been admitted to

Georgia Technology Institute and other equally good institutions, he plans to transfer

after his Associate in Arts degree to Stanford University in California. His final decision

is pending his receiving financial aid and results of the various scholarships he has

applied for.

Interview 6– Roland

Roland, an African-American graphic design major, arrived at the interview with

a shy smile. After the researcher explained the purpose of the study, he appeared to relax

and open up. Roland has a 3.7 GPA and lives with his mother and siblings since his

parents are divorced. Although not enrolled in the honors college, he is classified as an

honors student by the college’s standard because of his GPA. He hopes to graduate with

his 3.7 GPA which will list him as a distinguished honors student graduate. Although

active when he was in high school, Roland admits that in college, he has not participated

in many leadership or community activities but has enrolled in several honors classes.

Roland was 20 years old at the time of the interview.

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Table 1. Sample Demographic Characteristics

Name Age GP

A

Eth-

nicity

Honors College

Resources Used

Campus

Involvement

Field of

Study

Employ-

ment

Ace 20 3.50 H Academic Advisement

Lounge

Peer workspace

Colloquium

Study abroad

Off-site leadership

trips

Honors course

enrollment

SGA

President

Phi Theta

Kappa

Political

Science

None

Adno 27 3.50 AA Academic Advisement

Lounge

Peer workspace

Colloquium

Honors course

enrollment

Phi Theta

Kappa

Compute

r

Engineer-

ing

Part-time

after-

hours

retail

stocker

Eder 20 3.67 H Academic Advisement

Lounge

Peer workspace

Colloquium

Honors course

enrollment

Phi Theta

Kappa

Biology None

Joaquin 19 3.75 H Academic Advisement

Lounge

Peer workspace

Colloquium

Off-site leadership

trips

Honors course

enrollment

Phi Theta

Kappa

MC at

several

events

History None

Adrian 21 4.0 H Academic Advisement

Lounge

Peer workspace

Colloquium

Honors course

enrollment

STEM

Ambassa-

dor

Phi Theta

Kappa

Electrical

engineer-

ing

Paid

physics

tutor

81

Roland 19 3.78 AA Academic Advisement

Honors course

enrollment

None Graphic

Design

None

Note: AA- African American; H- Hispanic

All data gathered from participants were collected in full compliance with the IRB

guidelines from Northeastern University and the college under study. Permission was

also sought from each individual according to the approved IRB guidelines.

Data Analysis

IPA data analysis is intended to be non-prescriptive because interpretation goes

beyond dialogue. However, Smith et al. (2009) provides a six -step guide used by the

researcher in this study as a guide while she attempted to find meaning beyond the

interview transcript. The six steps used involve (1) reading and re-reading the interview

transcripts and notes, (2) initial noting of thoughts in descriptive, linguistic, or conceptual

format, noting themes on transcript and open-mindedly reviewing and noting information

gathered, (3) developing emergent themes, (4) searching for connections across emergent

themes, (5) moving to the next case, and (6) looking for patterns across cases. IPA data

analysis requires the researcher to be flexible, willing to repeat the review process and

subjectively analyze data gathered (Smith et al., 2009). Thus, during the process, the

researcher maintained an open mind while analyzing the data. Common themes, a key

word list, and significant statements were highlighted for discussion at the second

interview.

Data from the first and second interview were processed with a Computer

Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) called NVivo. Because there

are several ways to look at the data, the researcher started the coding of the word-

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processed transcripts with an outline suggested by Auerbach & Silverstein (2003).

Additionally, the researcher reviewed the text copy of the transcript and highlighted key

words to verify frequency and relevance to the literature reviewed. Because of concerns

by other researchers about the tendency for researchers using CAQDAS to detach from

the data (Seidel, 1991; Weaver & Atkinson, 1994), and to change the direction of

qualitative research toward a quantitative structure (Barry, 1998; Mason, 1996), the

researcher made conscious efforts to maintain a “hands on approach” when analyzing the

data. A “hands on approach” to the data review required that the researcher read the first

interview several times while making notes in the margins and in the software program.

This initial review identified similarities, differences, paradoxes, themes that stand out

above the rest, and contradictions. These processes allowed the researcher to analyze the

data and capture essential text about the experiences of minority males in the honors

college. The resulting information reflected a “synergistic process of description and

interpretation” (Smith et al., 2009, p. 92) by the researcher. This process was repeated

after interviews. This strategy is in line with Smith and Osborn’s (2008) steps 1 through 3

concerning identifying themes.

Consistent with Smith et. al’s (2009) Step 4: Searching for connections across

emergent themes, the researcher tabulated thematic data in a structure that displays clarity

of information gathered. Identified themes were then listed in a separate document and

clustered together according to sub-themes as appropriate. Like terms were placed

together and a classification strategy was created (sub-ordinate theming) to enable the

researcher to understand the stories more clearly. Additionally, common themes and

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information gathered were then diagrammatically presented. Transcripts from the

interviews will be used as appendix material.

As supported by Seidman (2006) and Rivera-Goba and Campinha-Bacote (2008),

it was necessary to craft a profile of the six study participants, since this method has been

documented to be an effective strategy to share interview data. Additionally, the

researcher plan prepared the analyzed data by describing each of the six participants,

while interspersing their quotes.

Summarily, in a bid to grasp an understanding of the experiences of the minority

males in honors programs at a two-year college, the researcher approached the interview

transcripts as the guiding document. However, it is understood that authors (Smith et al.,

2009; Smith & Osborn, 2008) discourage a prescriptive approach to IPA data analysis

since interpretation goes beyond dialogue. As such the researcher made attempts to find

meaning beyond the transcript.

Validity Issues

Qualitative studies have to maintain validity by incorporating procedures to

ensure the validity of research methodology and findings. As recommended by Smith et.

al. (2009), IPA researchers should adopt Yardley’s principles for insuring quality in

qualitative research. These include sensitivity to context, commitment and rigor in

carrying out the research and analysis, transparency about research methods, and careful

consideration of the impact and importance of the research.

Given that IPA attempts to purposively identify individuals with the lived

experiences under study, the researcher must overcome gatekeeper challenges, which if

not navigated adequately, could affect study validity. In order to overcome this, as a past

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administrator of the honors college, the researcher used already established gatekeeper

rapport to access appropriate individuals for study. The researcher also made all attempts

to maintain an appreciation of the “interactional nature of data collection within the

interview situation” (Smith et al., 2009, p. 180) by openly assuring students that no

comments made during the interviews would negatively affect their standing in the

program. Furthermore, validity issues associated with gatekeeper access were limited by

the researcher working with the program administrators to prevent coercion of students to

participate in the study.

Smith et. al. (2009) also recommends that a skillfully performed interview

enables the researcher show sensitivity to context. Considering that the researcher used

Seidman’s (2006) three interview process described in the data collection section of this

study, the researcher was able to use a validated interview strategy that promoted

awareness and dedication. Additionally, as done by Rivituso (2012) in his study on cyber

bullying, this study increased internal validity by interviewing participants over the

course of one to three weeks. Furthermore, Smith et. al. (2009) recommends the quoting

of exact phrases from participant interviews to maintain the participants’ voices. In this

regard, excerpts of study participants’ statements were documented for the study analysis.

During the interviews, the researcher also maintained neutrality, avoiding the threat of

over-thinking the interview and using interviewing as a means of exploration. This

practice validates context and rigor.

In addition, it is understood that some researchers perceive that gender

differences influence the sensitivity to context of the interaction to respondents'

negotiation of the interviews (Williams & Heikes, 1993). Thus, the researcher, who is

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female, openly addressed this before interviewing. However, she perceived that since the

topic under discussion was not gender-sensitive, male respondents should be comfortable

openly discussing experiences. Parental consent was not sought, since none of the

participants were below 18 years. The researcher and participant signed a confidentiality

statement (Appendix B), which included a description of the study. A copy was given to

each participant.

Another strategy to ensure validity and credibility in this study was researcher

commitment and thoroughness, which ultimately added to the definition of the study’s

rigor. In order to validate rigor, triangulation of interview findings was accomplished by

comparing student artifacts such as transcripts, resumes, and honors portfolios. Member

checking was also used. Member checking is the process whereby the researcher shows

the participants a draft report with identified themes which they review to verify the

validity of the themes identified. This step was done after the second interview and as

part of the third interview. As postulated by Creswell (2009), this method provides

participants an opportunity to comment and provide feedback as well as increase the

validity of the information gathered.

A potential validity concern is location and implementer threat. The honors

college under study is located on four campuses out of a total of eight campuses, which

may have influenced the conditions under which the interviews occurred, and the

participant’s attitude (Fraenkel et al., 2012). Additionally, because the researcher or

student had to travel to a location other than the local campus to undergo the interview,

there was the potential for the change in location to affect the student because stressors

that arise from traffic and discussions taking place in an unfamiliar location. Finding out

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as much information about the study and its participants helped minimize the threat of

history and location. This strategy also enabled the researcher to overcome issues

associated with commitment and rigor in carrying out the research and analysis.

Lastly, the sample interview questions as summarized in Appendix D were

presented to the honors directors and college IRB. This strategy enabled the reader to

view the study procedure in a transparent manner. Upon reviewing varying strategies to

judge phenomenological research studies, Creswell (2007) cites Polkinghorne’s

discussion of validity as most profound. Polkinghorne (1989) argues that to ensure that a

study’s findings are “valid” they should be “ well-grounded and well supported” (p. 208).

He adds that to verify this, researchers should ask themselves five questions which

provide clarification about the research methods, and the consideration of the impact and

importance of the research study. Polkinghorne’s (1989) five questions [as listed by

Creswell (2007)] were also used to check study transparency, subsequently validating the

study.

Protection of Human Subjects

IRB approval was attained through Northeastern University’s standard operating

procedures prior to the commencement of the study. The institution under study received

the application through its internal approval process before the study commenced. The

researcher also made contact with the administration of the institution’s research

department, and the project was looked at favorably. Nevertheless, the researcher did not

anticipate any risks to those participating in this study.

To ensure the protection of human subjects, the researcher included several

processes to safeguard the participant information and minimize risks associated with

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participation. Creswell (2007) recommends the use of informed consent, avoiding

deceptive practice, maintaining confidentiality and clearly outlining the benefits and the

risks of participation. In this regard, the first step was the generation of consent forms

that were given to study volunteers to sign before initiating the interview. A sample

consent form was provided by the institution for use in the study (Appendix D). Data

collected were coded with fake names to mask the student identities. Since this is a

phenomenological research design, participating students were asked to commit for the

duration of the data collection. However, participants were advised of the need to commit

time to the project and the procedure to withdraw whenever they wish (Moustakas,

1994). Since this was strictly volunteer process, the researcher made every effort to avoid

coercing students to participate in the project. Additionally, although the researcher

previously worked in the honors college where high achieving students typically enroll

while taking classes at the college, the voluntary participants were not in any class the

researcher instructed. However, the possibility of the researcher having any pre-existing

acquaintance or knowledge of the students was not relevant to this study

The researcher is experienced in working with teenagers, knows how to counsel

them, and used this skill to handle interviewees who became emotional during the

discussion session. In case of emergencies or extreme circumstances, if the interviewee

was in need of emotional assistance, the researcher used the campus’s psychological

referral services to help the participant overcome the identified issues. A list of local

psychological services was also provided as backup.

It is understood that interviewing reveals personal information that could cause

confidentially issues. To curtail this, the information gathered from each student was

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coded to limit the loss of confidentiality and the transcriber advised of the importance of

properly protecting the participants’ information. Interviews also took place in a location

that the participants found confidential, comfortable, and safe. Videotapes and audiotapes

will be destroyed at the completion of the study and so will the copied artifacts.

Additionally, participants were asked to review a draft report for suggestions and

corrections. Signed consent forms will be retained for 3 years following the end of the

study.

Conclusion

The research design for this study was developed in a manner to explore how

high-achieving African American and Hispanic males enrolled in a State College’s

honors college are maintaining academic success. High achieving African American and

Hispanic male students uniquely experience college despite established challenges, but

the environment honors programs provide has been documented to possess ingredients

for academic success. This study attempted to understand how these students make sense

of their experiences in this environment using a descriptive format. It is from these

students input that the researcher answered the questions (1) How do minority male

honors students experience academic success while enrolled in an honors program? (2)

What challenges do minority male participants in an honors program face? The

researcher’s questions gleaned responses following an interview, subsequently providing

information to aid the researcher in answering the listed questions.

The goals also included discovering how they are succeeding. The theoretical

framework undergirding this study is Dweck’s Implicit Theory of Intelligence.

According to Dweck (1999), this theory gives researchers an insight into how individuals

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modify their learning schema to overcome challenges and acquire knowledge. IPA is

appropriate for this type of research because IPA research offers a way to examine high-

achieving minority males lived experiences as they examined what it takes for them to

succeed academically. To achieve the study goals, five high-achieving minority male

students were interviewed using a modified version of Seidman’s (2006) three-interview

method. With the help of colleagues at the study institution, study participants who meet

the study inclusion criteria were identified.

Data from the participant interviews were transcribed and analyzed through the

process outlined by Moustakas (1994), Creswell (2007), and Smith et al. (2009).

Interviews were conducted using open-end questions to solicit storytelling. Through this

methodology, the researcher attempted to enter into the participants’ world, carefully

reviewing and analyzing the data gathered, identifying themes, and composing true

descriptors of all their experiences. In other words, the researcher tried to identify the

participants “essence” by documenting rich accounts of the participants’ lives. These

accounts will be presented in the following section of this study. Because of the research

methodology used, participants were not exposed to harm (Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyung,

2010) in the study.

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Chapter 4: Report of Research Findings

This chapter provides a description of the findings of the research study to explore

how high achieving African American and Hispanic males enrolled in a State College’s

honors college are maintaining academic success. The participants in the study each

provided rich, detailed accounts of their unique experience in college, specifically the

honors college, and the meaning derived from their association. The analysis of the

collected data led to five themes among the participants. The themes resulted from

similar statements made by participants during interviews and established by the

researcher upon review of the interview transcripts. Themes are presented in the order

they consistently emerged upon review of data gathered. This chapter will present a

discussion of the study finding using the themes as a guide.

The derived themes identified as essential to the how African American and

Hispanic male honors students achieve academic success and the challenges they face are

discussed below. To preface the discussion on themes, it is relevant to state that four of

the six students interviewed were unhappy with the title “minority.” In their mind the

term felt more like a statement of “less than.” Prior to engaging in discussion they wanted

to clear the air with an understanding that they did not feel “less than any ethnic group,”

rather they felt part of a group that did not get much credit for its accomplishments.

However, they stated that irrespective of their ethnicity, they did not feel negatively

impacted by any ethnic group stereotype. They felt they were paving their own path in

life.

The themes that emerged from the interviews were (1) drive and self-

understanding with confidence as a subordinate theme, (2) malleable incremental

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approach to learning, (3) positive response to challenge with feeling of no choice as a

subordinate theme, (4) familial influence, and (5) success through engagement in extra-

curricular activities.

Drive and self- understanding

The first theme that emerged from the data was drive and self-understanding.

Honors students display an overwhelming sense of drive, ability to self-monitor progress,

and a good grasp of who they are as individuals (self-understanding). The study

participants’ abilities to drive themselves to do well motivates them to stay up late to

study and deprive themselves of other less strenuous activities is central to this theme.

This drive makes them aware that to succeed they need to monitor progress and activities

which impact their goals. This notion was reinforced by Ace and Adno who, despite

financial and personal handicaps, possessed enough internal drive to push themselves to

achieve academic success. Adno described his internal drive as a matter of focusing on

“no choice” other than to push forward despite the odds.

And once I evaluate myself, I know my strength and my weaknesses, and I know

what I want to do, and I know it’s feasible. I know I have the power in me. I just

go for it nonstop. Along the way, I will realize that sometimes it’s not as easy as I

thought, but I know that the end result, what I really want is to get it done. So at

all costs, I will get it done. But for me to get it done, I must have started with the

mindset to – that I’m going to get it done, not that I can stop along the way or I

can slack a little bit and come back at it later.

Ace felt the same way. He stated:

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I was just always very driven, so I was able to socialize and stuff like that,

but when it came to my grades, it was no joke. I would always do what I

have to do, do it well, and excel always. So it was not a question for me.

It was just a way of life.

Comments from the other study participants concurred with this thought process.

Three participants actually felt that staying focused and driven was also a means for them

to achieve their goals and make their family members proud. The participants attributed

their successes to the academic goals they set and their perceptions of academic ability.

Study participants shared with the researcher through their experiences that academic

success is connected to a deep rooted need to achieve a goal. By doing this they modified

their behaviors to meet their goal either by asking for help or seeking support from peers

or faculty.

These comments led the researcher to delve into the strategies or support

strategies that the six participants used to academically succeed. As students enrolled in

the honors college, five of the participants attributed support services available through

the honors college as essential to student success. Participant descriptions reveal a

connection between social cognition, drive, and the environment. The following

statement captures participants’ thoughts

Ace stated:

It’s definitely a model form of education in the sense that it’s very like –

you know, students get a certain individualized attention.

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Adrian added:

The computers are there in the honors college. The leadership professors

are there to guide me along the way, tell me about the schools, the

opportunities that are available… So being in the honors, I felt like they

empowered me. They register me for my classes, they take care of that,

and they dissect the – my study over small components and allow me to

register on time. And a lot of things were available to me. So I can just

say the experience itself was very good, and the means also that they made

available to me were very important and helpful.

Joaquin further adds:

I went to Washington which is something that I did and applied for. It was

a great experience. I had a great time… I was the MC for the induction

ceremony. I got chosen to see President Obama's fundraiser when he came

to the Marriott. I got to go to Mitt Romney's visit when he came to the

Wolfson campus. What else have I done? There has been a lot.

The study participants also reported that positive relationships and the

competition between peers motivated them to build on the internal drive to do well. Eder

summed up the effect of drive and the honors program by saying, “I had my teachers and

I had other peers that also were in the honors college. I felt like they helped me make a

better decision – a decision leaning more towards the honors college.” When Eder

described his past experiences in elementary, middle and high school, he reflected that

this same sense of community and competition was present in his K-12 years where he

was enrolled in honors and Advanced Placement classes. Eder added that, although the

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environment and peer relations were positive, he also enjoyed the incentives the

programs gave for doing well. He stated the experience was positive “Even the bragging

rights came along with it. Getting a nice grade in a challenging course and then getting

the praise …they give you principal's honor roll and stuff like that. They help out a lot.

For example AP kids – If you pass the AP exam you'll get a free trip to Busch Gardens.”

The participants admitted that these incentives also impacted their drive to succeed.

In summation, honors students rely on drive to motivate their aspiration to do well

academically which impacts their subsequent academic behaviors. The honors college

provides enrichment opportunities, academic support, positive meaningful relationships,

and fiscal resources that impact their drive and energize them on to success. Incentives

have also been identified as factors which play into the students drive.

Self-Confidence. A subordinate theme, confidence contributes to study

participant success, drive, and self-esteem. Participants’ description of their level of

confidence was evident in their descriptions of intelligence and academic success. The

participants saw confidence as a significant part of their drive because they attributed

their ability to maintain focus and drive to confidence. Joaquin encapsulated this with his

comment:

It was just a certain level of confidence…I always remember feeling like I wasn't

intimidated by other kids in the class because they sounded different or anything

like that. It didn't intimidate me or make me feel different. I don't know if that's

just my personality … It might have something to do with the way I was raised.

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Generally, participants considered confidence as a part of their persona. The

descriptions given by participants showed an academic journey filled with moments and

activities that build student confidence.

Roland in his interviews talked about the impact of his membership in his high

school band and Southeastern Consortium of Minorities in Engineering (SECME)

activities as a significant builder of self-confidence. At the college level, honors student

Ace added on to Roland’s comments by sharing that extracurricular activities provided

through the honors college built up his confidence level. As the Student Government

Association (SGA) president Ace had the opportunity to build on his confidence as well

as show the campus leadership that he was “very passionate, a very confident, a very

driven person who would do what it takes to see that things get done and that they knew

that I would always stay true to my intentions because I think that’s very important…”

Participants’ comments showed that the building of self-confidence is connected to the

environment, support, and access.

Self-confidence is not an isolated theme. As a sub-ordinate theme it added to

information about study participants’ drive. Students reported self-confidence as a

significant factor in their ability to complete tasks in an academic setting. The

contributors to this trait are the extracurricular activities students have taken part in and

the honors environment where their academic endeavors have been and remain

successful.

Malleable incremental approach to learning

The second theme, a malleable incremental approach to learning, captures study

participants’ beliefs and their approaches to learning situations. Students reported a

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malleable belief system indicating that intelligence is not purely a natural trait but a

combination of hard work, dedication, and sacrifice. Ace encapsulated a malleable

approach with the following statement:

Do you want to know the only reason that you look at me as more intelligent as

you? You want to know the only reason that I’ve gotten to where I’m at, that I’m

successful and the respect is because I’ve fought for it, because I worked hard for

it, and because I sat there and I developed the skills that I needed to attain and

maintain those skills, and I’ve done the research, and I’ve prioritized what’s

important to me. Is my priority numbing myself to what’s going on and just

going off and partying every day, or is my priority actually looking at what’s

actually going on in the world and daily practicing and reevaluating my

perspective so that I can construct it in the most precise and most developed

method possible? That’s why I’m intelligent. Not because I was born with a

more – with more brain cells than you or something like that.”

Individuals studied revealed a malleable incremental mindset. The descriptions of

their approached towards attaining intelligence revealed that they tended to have a high

competence level, working towards a goal, adapting as challenges appear. Adno stated “I

know I have the power in me. I just go for it nonstop. Along the way, I will realize that

sometimes it’s not as easy as I thought, but I know that the end result, what I really want

is to get it done. So at all costs, I will get it done.” Participants approached learning as

something to be acquired through effort, persistence, and behavior modification as

appropriate.

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Participant descriptions also reveal a strong belief in the longitudinal stability of

personality traits. They do not claim that all these traits were developed at the college

level, but rather they have developed over time. Four of the study participants referred

directly to their experiences in challenging classes through high school years. While two

others associated this trait to a deep desire to succeed. All felt that success and

malleability were essential to academic success. Also, all participants admitted that for

one to succeed academically there had to be consistency of trait-relevant behavior, which

included studying over several hours before a test, depriving themselves of peer social

interactions in order to work on a goal, and using all resources to achieve goals. They

also admitted that this belief system is not without challenges. They admitted to an

understanding that achieving academic success meant some sacrifice of time and effort.

Adno added another element to the discussion of mindset. He stated “our mindset

has a great role in that. But even if we have the mindset, if we didn’t have the means, I

think it wouldn’t be possible.” Participants admitted a reliance on family, peers, college

resources, teachers, college advisors, honors specific advisors, and college administrators

to reach their goals. They revealed that they had the motivation, drive to do well, but

needed all the tools to make their plans happen.

The theme of malleable incremental approach to learning results from

participants’ mindset toward gaining intelligence. Students reported approaching learning

as something to be acquired through effort and persistence irrespective of challenges.

They approached learning as if it were a challenge to be overcome, and they relished the

opportunity to learn something new. They were also willing to modify behavior in order

to reach their goals. The contributing factors revealed in this study include a supportive

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environment, peer support, and resources. Overall, participants approached learning as if

it were a challenge to be overcome, and they relished the opportunity to learn something

new, which leads to the theme positive response to challenge.

Positive response to challenge

A common thread among study participants was the presence of a challenge in

their personal lives. Participants, however, did not see their personal situations as a

difficulty that should hold them back. Rather they discussed their personal difficulties as

opportunities to learn, overcome a difficulty, or inspiration in general. Eder’s statement,

“Now the honors [High school honors class] itself allowed me to have been prepared for

the hardness or the hardship of the honors college. So when I got in, I even realized that

that was a very good thing.” Study participants tended to believe in the old adage, as

Adno and Ace state in varying language, of a pot at the end of rainbow after a rain

shower. They saw challenges as an opportunity to write their story.

To frame the participants’ personal challenges, the researcher will discuss below a

summary of their personal challenges. Ace lived with his grandparents, and his father

died when he was a baby just after his parents graduated from high school. This meant

his mother worked menial jobs and depended on his grandparents for support during his

younger years. Adno lived with his sister and relatives. His parents died when he was

young and he had to depend on his relatives for financial support. With this financial

difficulty, he had to start working at an early age and during college held two jobs.

Joaquin had a somewhat similar challenge, but his father died the summer before he

started college, and he had to adjust from a two parent household to a single parent one.

Roland’s parents were divorced and faced all the emotional and financial difficulties

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associated with divorced parents. Eder and Adrian came from two parent homes, but their

families had financial difficulties and cultural challenges since they immigrated from

overseas within the last six years.

When asked direct questions about each of these situations, all were not interested

in discussing the subject in detail. Most felt that these familial challenges were part of the

natural encounters in life, and they were willing to work around them to reach their goals.

Specifically, Roland stated “when I was in fourth grade my dad left the house and

surprisingly I wasn’t as shocked for some reason. I figured it was gonna happen. At first

it affected me in elementary school, but I was already a good student so even though that

did impact me, I stayed on task.” He, like the other participants, found ways to overcome

his difficulties.

The strategies used by the interviewees include studying, seeking support, and

church activities. Adno shared his passion for studying over and over again until the

material stuck. Adrian, Eder, and Joaquin also shared this passion and ardently talked

about developing this skill as early as elementary school. As we discussed overcoming

academic challenges, Eder amusingly shared the challenges he had in an organic

chemistry class. He stated “That class was beyond imagination. It took the cake.” To

overcome the challenges he faced, he talked about spending hours studying, working with

peer study groups, consulting with the faculty members, and seeking tutoring.

Roland and Adrian also used church attendance and participation as their support

system for dealing with challenges. Roland went with his mother and older brother to

church and took strides to attend church-related activities often as well. Adrian too went

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to church and its activities with his family. Both participants openly connected their

successes to being Christians during the interviews.

The interviews revealed that all study participants had developed a support

network to overcome challenges. These networks included peers in the honors college,

family members and college administrative personnel. Of these three networks, five of

the study participants depended heavily on their families for emotional support; the others

depended more on peer networks.

In general, the study participants saw challenges as essential to academics. Ace

explained this with the statement, “I believe that people should be challenged

individually.” He and his peers saw challenges as essential to success. They perceived

challenges as strategies to motivate them to do better. Through the interviews three

sentences that stood out were:

Ace: Like sometimes I feel like I lose interest when I’m not challenged enough.

And what I have to do is I go, like I go home and I study my own thing. ‘Cause

that’s what I’m saying, like everything you’re talking about is like studying and

doing extra research

Eder: I feel like I couldn't be complacent. Getting an A in a regular class really

didn't mean much, as opposed to getting a B in an honors course or an AP class.

It was a much broader spectrum. There's just a lot more room for error and more

challenging courses as opposed to easier classes.

Joaquin: “Obviously you want to challenge yourself.”

The theme of positive response to challenge derived from this study is yet another

aspect of student’s attitude toward their education. It presents a picture as to how mindset

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affects one’s approach to overcoming difficulties. Students reported a presence of

challenges of varying degrees, but they did not see these encounters as hindrances, but

rather as opportunities to develop.

Feeling of no choice. A subordinate theme under the theme positive response to

challenge is the theme of feeling of no choice. Three study participants (Ace, Adno, and

Adrian) felt that one of the reasons they could overcome any challenges they faced was

because they felt that success was their only option. Although the other study participants

felt that they had to succeed in their academic or career goals, the passion of these three

was in every statement and non-verbal cue during the interviews.

Adno was particularly passionate about this. He discussed the challenges of being

an orphan as well as the sense of loss and desperation to succeed from an early age. He

knew that although his uncles were kind to him, he had to define his own path and work

against the odds to do well. In his interview he spoke about the fact that when he received

things from his relatives, he understood that these were things that could have been given

to their own children, so he made efforts not to be wasteful. This aspect of his life drove

him and motivated him. Having experienced many financial and social challenges during

his youth, he knew he could overcome things and do well. Adno states “So all I could do

is to not let them down and do the best I can. So because of this, I didn’t play a lot, and I

didn’t do a lot of bad things because I feel like I’m going to do something to them while

they’re helping me, and they didn’t have to.” He knew that this attitude would require

sacrifice, but he was open to it and was not bitter in our discussion. During the interview,

Adno realized that because he had no choice, sacrifice (working two jobs and inability to

participate in many honors college activities) was essential to success. In summation, he

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saw his struggles as temporary and something that would pass if he stuck to his goals and

kept striving forward.

Familial influence

Following a positive response to challenges, participants reported the influences

of family on their academic journey. Participants noted the impact of family members’

education, drive, and vision during the interviews. Table 2 provides a schematic of the

participants’ parental background. It must be noted that only Adno saw an immediate

impact of his family situation on his academic journey during his first interview. This

could be because of his becoming an orphan early in life and his heavy dependence on

relatives since then. The other interviewees acknowledged the direct impact of their

families during the second interview discussing a direct correlation between their drive

for success and their ability to overcome challenges.

Ace reflected during the interviews and shared that he hopes to be the first in his

family to earn a college degree. He admitted that they support him, “I mean they’ve

[grandparents] just always been so fantastic. I mean in a sense that they are very loving,

very – you know, they’ve – they have always acknowledged when I’ve been

successful…willing to help me in anything that I’ve needed.” Their positive attitude gave

him confidence and a desire to make them proud. Although his mother and grandparents

could not provide him the academic foundations, they gave him love and shelter and

other resources to do well. The participants shared this same type of support from their

families whether they were in a single family home or not.

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Table 2: Schematic of the participants’ parental background

Variable Data

Parents Marital Status

Single XXXX

Married X

Divorced X

Cohabiting

Home

Living with Parent (s) XXXX

Living with Relatives X

Living by themselves X

Parents’ education

No formal Education

High School Degree

Some college

2 year degree

4 year degree

Post-graduate degree

Unknown

Receiving financial aid

Yes XXXXX

No X

Note: X= one participant, Mother, Father

Of the students interviewed, Adrian had the most educated family members. Most

of his relatives are educated as engineers. Specifically, his dad is an electrical engineer,

while his mother is an architect. Adrian admits “I pretty much think that that’s why I’m

pursuing the kind of career that I’m doing now because of the influence I’ve had

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throughout my life and because of their good education and the influence that they have

in my life.” Adrian is studying to become an electrical engineer and plans to continue his

bachelors after community college at Stanford University in California. During the

interview, he shared that although his parents are educated at the college level, since

moving to the US they have not worked as professionals in their fields due to language

deficiencies. He admitted this saddens them, but they encourage him to work towards this

goal and fight really hard for his dreams.

Joaquin’s story is similar. Of all the participants he is the only one who has lived

in a place other than Miami within the US. During his elementary years, his parents

moved to Kentucky for two and a half years to enable his father attend a seminary and

complete a bachelor’s degree. This experience exposed Joaquin to his ethic identity and

the differences between him and his Caucasian peers. He learned to appreciate the

uniqueness of his culture and ignore comments or statements that were ethnically biased

while staying focused on his goals. Additionally, he saw his mother and father work hard

towards a goal. His father went to school during the day and came home to take care of

the children while the mother went to work. Then early in the morning, he went to work

when his mother returned. Joaquin recalls it being a very tough time for his family.

However, when he remembers his father earning a 4.0 GPA irrespective of the

challenges, he is motivated to work hard. Joaquin states “Especially my father was an

example for a while because I realized he didn't have a college degree and I saw how

hard they had to work to find a job…I think when I look back those are some of the

things that affected me for education.” Familial influence on Joaquín is strong. Although

his father was not alive during this study, his influence on Joaquin’s academic journey is

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still evident. Joaquin’s drive to do well remains significant as he could have used his

father’s death as an excuse to falter academically or behave helplessly.

Eder added another element to this story. He told the interviewer that families not

only influence dreams and ambition, but also support it. He stated:

Someone you can lean on. Sometimes you really don't have time to do certain

things. Or sometimes you just need someone to talk to about things. Sometimes I

would ask my mom – I would have so much work to do and I needed to go to the

library and return this book. Or I needed to print – I had a project and I needed to

go and get it printed out. I could always count on my family. "Hey could you

please do this for me while I work on something else?" Or sometimes when I just

have too much…I'm overwhelmed with work and I feel like I don't want to do it

anymore I could always talk to them and they could give me words of

encouragement that would help me continue moving forward.

Eder is an example of a student who truly uses his family to assist him on his

journey. He uses his family network for advice and assistance whenever he needs to talk

to someone about a challenge. He admitted that his parents do not have the educational

know how to assist him, but they push him and encourage him to get and education and a

life better than theirs. Eder also admitted that this does not mean his current life is bad,

but he believes it could be better.

Success through engagement in extracurricular activities

Study participants shared a joy in participating in extracurricular activities. Their

stories showed the impact of classroom teachers, honors college advisors, and

administrators who engage them in extracurricular activities. These individuals are

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influential in the academic success of honors African American and Hispanic students.

Ace explained this concept further and offered one of his campus extracurricular

activities as an example of insight about his academic identity and non-academic

activities. Ace served the campus as the student government association (SGA) president.

As a student leader in this capacity, Ace is required to present speeches to the student

body, introduce the campus or college president at events, organize student events, and

represent the study body at events. Ace is very proud of this role, he stated “I made so

many amazing connections with the current leaders… they saw in me that I was a very

passionate, a very confident, a very driven person…” In this role, Ace gained many

leadership skills such as speech making, networking, business and etiquette skills, and a

better understanding of self. He also had the opportunity to travel across the nation and

internationally representing the college. Ace affirmed that these experiences have helped

shape him and prepare him for the future. He also believed they have impacted his

academic journey as they re-affirm that he wants to succeed and make a professional

career in politics. Ace contributed that successes in this area are due to his relationship

with his college advisor and the administrators he has come in contact with.

Adrian, Eder, and Joaquin attributed some of their successes to curriculum-

specific extracurricular activities. Adrian served the campus as a peer-led team leader,

which means he tutored in physics and worked with a physics faculty member to lead the

curriculum in the tutoring session. In this capacity he developed leadership skills and the

art of teaching and public speaking. He said the following about this activity, “We teach

and we try to explain to other students some principles or concepts that you know. Many

times those students come up with a new I would say method or way, of doing things that

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you haven’t thought about.” Adrian appreciated this experience and hailed it as a good

success strategy for him and his tutees.

Eder as a biology major did not take advantage of the speaking and campus

leadership activities. He participated in an off-campus biomedical research opportunity

hosted at a local private university. The honors college sponsors this activity for gifted

biology majors. This activity required him to go off-campus twice weekly to attend labs

and spend some hours completing research at a research lab under the supervision of a

university researcher. As Eder talked about the program he said “Just the ability of

talking to different professors, getting acquainted with different directors, and like I said

the Bridge program really helped me out a lot. I met some people at UM, higher

institutions and even actual Ph.D. s that are actually working in the field.” Eder also took

part in fun activities, such as shark tagging, which were indirectly related to his major.

During his high school years he was also band section leader. These initiatives helped

him affirm his career choice and supplemented his coursework.

Yet another unique experience is Joaquin’s. As a history major who enjoys telling

stories and learning about them, he took part in several Phi Theta Kappa International

honors society activities. This means he spent his free time taking part in community

service projects such as fund raising for the poor, unfortunate or ill. He also took part in

scholarship events, inviting speakers to the campus and representing the club at regional

and national events. The event he is most proud of is representing the club at the 2012

regional event where he gave “a speech at Regionals for PTK which was a big thing as

we were trying to win some awards.” Joaquin finds this type of activities relevant to his

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academic successes as it keeps him engaged, connected to peers with similar goals, and

allows him to develop leadership necessary for his success in his career goals.

As study participants reflected on the effect of extracurricular activities in their

academic journey, they became aware that these activities were present in their lives at

the high school level as well. Roland reflected about his involvement in band and the

Southeastern Consortium of Minorities in Engineering (SECME) program. Both activities

engaged Roland outside the classroom and provided mentors for him as well. His

SECME lead teacher was particularly influential as she ensured that he was engaged and

consistently cared for after class hours. Roland remembered her with heartfelt emotions.

Band was also a leadership building activity for Roland. During band he was made a

section leader, and in this capacity he learned discipline, focus, and timeliness. He also

developed the ability to lead the junior band members and motivate them to follow his

direction. He, like other study participants, shared that the positive relationships achieved

from this and other extracurricular activities enabled them to develop a positive self-

identity and mind set.

Study participant engagement in activities outside the classroom enabled them to

connect with the teachers, college advisors and administrators in an informal setting.

Activities ranging from leadership roles, curriculum focused or just for fun (shark

tagging) all had their benefits. A common thread through the participants’ stories is the

fact that the honors college provided these opportunities for the students and they took

advantage of them. During the activities students repeatedly heard words of

encouragement, reaffirmations of their talent, or praise. Eder encapsulated this with the

words “They showed me that I am more than capable of accomplishing this if I just put

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my mind to it. I realized that that idea isn't as farfetched as people make it sound

sometimes.” Students like Roland, though an honors student, since he was not enrolled in

the honors college he did not have access to the vast variety of opportunities the honors

college provided. Yet, he took advantage of the opportunities available to him at the high

school level and made efforts to interact with goal oriented students at the college level.

Conclusion

This chapter described the findings of an IPA of transcribed data from six semi-

structured interviews with high-achieving African American and Hispanic males enrolled

in a State College’s honors college regarding their perceptions and lived experiences with

academic success. The analysis resulted in the identification of five superordinate themes

and two sub-themes illustrating how the participants made sense of and attached meaning

to how they maintain academic success as high achieving minority males.

The participants generally made strong references to drive and self-understanding

as a primary means of achieving success. Drive was evident among the students, however

the sub-theme confidence was essential to and part of the individuals’ drive and self-

understanding. Additionally, participants described ways in which they used a malleable

incremental approach to learning, a positive response to challenge, familial influence, and

extra-curricular activities that aided their academic prowess. During the course of the

interviews, study participants discussed their future goals after the sophomore year, and

all were optimistic about the future. Adno in particular passionately discussed that he

knew there were more financial challenges ahead, but shared a willingness and passion to

overcome whatever difficulties there would be. He imagined that if he took advantage of

all the opportunities available to him, his future would be better than his past.

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A discussion of these findings will be the focus of the following chapter. Within

that chapter is a discussion of the salient themes with an emphasis on how they support

and contribute to the research literature on high achieving minority males’ students and

their strategies to achieve academic success. Also included will be a discussion on these

findings and the possible implications for the higher educational community and their

significance to the minority community and the institutions that serve them.

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Chapter 5: Discussion of the Research Findings

The purpose of this study was to explore how high-achieving African American

and Hispanic males enrolled in a State College’s honors college are maintaining

academic success. The research questions which have guided the pursuits of this study

were as follows: (a) How do minority male honors students experience academic success

while enrolled in an honors program? (b) What challenges do minority male participants

in an honors program face? The five superordinate themes generated from the data

analysis phase of the study were as follows: 1) drive and self- understanding with

confidence as a subordinate theme, (2) malleable incremental approach to learning, (3)

positive response to challenge with feeling of no choice as a subordinate theme, (4)

familial influence, and (5) success through engagement in extra-curricular activities.

These results have established meaning in relation to the research questions in many

regards. The themes have addressed the gap in empirical data regarding the lives of high-

achieving African American and Hispanic male students in higher education despite

established challenges. They also add to the growing literature about the environment

honors programs provide with documented ingredients for academic success. The

findings may contribute to the understanding of the retention of African American and

Hispanic male students in the same or similar colleges. Additionally, the findings of this

study reaffirm findings of previous studies and theories and verify its influence on a

specific ethic demographic, African Americans and Hispanics.

In utilizing Dweck’s (1999) self-theories or implicit theories of intelligence, the

five themes from this study resemble the malleable theories of intelligence. Malleable

incremental theories of intelligence have provided an underpinning for sense-making by

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offering empirical guidelines for the researcher to develop the themes identified. This

theory also provided a lens through which to view participants’ responses and understand

how they make sense of their experiences.

What follows is a discussion of these themes with a focus on how they support

and contribute to the research literature on minority male achievement. In this section, the

discussions have been organized to facilitate discourse on how these themes intersect

with theory in order to facilitate the discussion on each research question. Discussion

below will be presented using the themes identified as a guide.

Themes

Drive and self-understanding

Past research suggested that a student’s theory of intelligence is heavily

dependent on mindset and environment. The present research demonstrates that several

variables interweave to enable African American and Hispanic males in this study to

achieve academic success. These findings also confirm the consensus of opinion on the

hallmarks of successful individuals within the professional literature (Hong, Chiu,

Dweck, Lin & Wan, Chiu et al., 1997; Dweck & Leggett, 1988a; Ying-yi Hong et al.,

1999). The literature addresses individuals’ self-theories and traits such as self-

confidence, self-esteem, motivation, and goals. The researcher’s findings confirm the

usefulness of Dweck’s self-theories of intelligence as a framework in understanding

students’ strategies to achieve success since empirical data from Dweck’s (1999) studies

reveal a connection between social cognition and drive. This study substantiates those

findings.

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Literature on individuals’ self-theories and drive is limited. However, Siegle et al.

(2009) report that males perceive that natural ability plays a stronger role in the

acquisition of some talents, which could contribute to the reason that interviewees started

the conversation with an emphasis on personal drive. In addition, J. Miller (2010)

augments these finding by reporting that the social environment, social cognition, and

drive further enable students to make judgments that impact their academic behavior.

Thus, the study participants’ experiences add to the body of literature supporting the

connection between goals, cognitive development, and behavioral responses.

A discussion on drive would not be complete without an acknowledgement that a

good sense of self is essential to productive drive. Participants displayed a good self-

understanding which could be based on a history of success. The study participants came

from various backgrounds yet showed a somewhat similar drive to succeed despite the

odds against them. Theorist including Erikson, Horney, and Maslow have relayed that

drive, personality, and motivation are impacted by many influences which ultimately

impact the formation of an individual’s identity (Dweck, 2000). This suggests that

participants’ experiences have molded them into self-assured young men who are willing

to do whatever is necessary for them to achieve their dreams. This study did not bring to

light one overarching factor that enables the students to achieve a well-developed sense

of “self” or “drive.” However, the data reveal a variety of influences ranging from role

models (Roland’s older brother), peer support (fellow honors students), trusted advisors

(honors director or advisor), and enriching extra-curricular activities (SGA, tutoring,

church).

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The study’s subordinate theme of self-confidence was discussed as a premise of

the researcher’s problem of practice and theoretical framework as confirmed in the

literature. This theme played a secondary role in participants’ drive. As such the

researcher did not perceive that its role in answering the study’s research questions was

significant enough to stand out as a superordinate theme. According to Henderson and

Dweck (1990), the impact of self-confidence on individuals’ achievement goal is good

but has the potential to have little or no impact on their achievement of set goals. This

study found that self-confidence of student participants plays a role in their academic

success, but does not play so significant a role in how they achieve their goal that success

would not be achieved without it. However, unlike the “case of bright girls” [see work of

Licht & Shaprio, (1982) Licht & Dweck, (1984) and Siegle and Reis (1995)], the study

participants celebrated challenge and described situations where they relished the

opportunity to challenge themselves. They did not display vulnerable confidence or fear

of failure as suggested by Dweck’s (2000) report of the “case of bright girls” study.

Dweck (2000) admits that the girls’ response is not typical for every case but concludes

that this finding “has been found repeatedly” (Dweck, 2000, p. 52). The current study

supports the work of Licht and Shapiro (1992) in which they worked with high achieving

fifth graders and found that the boys preferred challenging tasks (learning goals)

requiring more of a challenge to master. The study participants in this IPA study also

exhibited learning goals.

The subordinate theme, self-confidence, also has some bearing on the theme of

extracurricular activities. This finding is not surprising since authors including Astin

(1984), have established that student engagement outside of the class has a significant

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role in boosting student self-esteem, confidence, leadership skills, and overall academic

successes (Astin, 1999; Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek, 2006; Lloyd, 2012;

Tinto, 1987). The identification of this theme in this study established that honors

students experience confidence, thus adding to the body of work indicating that high

achieving students are confident. This study did not expand on this concept or attempt to

evaluate how confident these students really where. It merely acknowledges a high level

of confidence in these individuals.

In essence, the work of these researchers suggests that confidence and drive are

not enough to enable a student or learner to achieve set learning goal or academic

success. Another ingredient that this study found is a malleable incremental approach to

learning. Dweck (2000) puts this into perspective with the statement “the confidence

students need is not the confidence that they have a certain level of smartness, or that

they have more of it than other students. The confidence they need is the confidence that

they, or anybody for that matter, can learn if they apply their effort and strategies” (p. 57-

58). It is now known, given this study’s findings that drive and confidence are part of a

high achieving African American and Hispanic students’ strategy to achieve academic

success.

Malleable incremental approach to learning

The work of Dweck (2000) and Mangels, Butterfield, Lamb, Good, and Dweck

(2006) report that individuals with a malleable incremental approach to learning have a

tendency to prefer activities that require them to challenge themselves, to learn new tasks

which requires them to acquire new skills, and pursue assistance if they experience

difficulty. In other words, these individuals possess learning goals. This tendency to

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gravitate towards learning goals is based on a “there is always potential for intellectual

growth” (Mangels et al., 2006, p. 1) mindset. Study participants also portrayed this

mindset. They sought out challenges from high school throughout college by enrolling in

honors or Advanced Placement classes in high school and Honors College classes. This

finding supports the theoretical framework selected for this study, Dweck’s self-theories

of intelligence. The assertions of this theory significantly helped the researcher

understand the study participants’ comments in constructing this theme.

Study participants displayed an approach to learning as though it is something to

be acquired through effort and persistence (Dweck, 2000). They reported a mindset of

seeing academic success as something to be achieved through hard work, a process, and

some effort. When asked about challenges, they saw them as opportunities to learn. For

the most part, participants were reluctant to dwell on personal hardships. Rather they

wanted to focus on how to learn and work towards their pre-set goals. Interviewees held a

mindset that failure was a chance to gain knowledge and an opportunity to precede with

this new found information.

Similar to Dweck’s (2008) findings, study participants revealed that the moments

they felt academically able occurred when they felt challenged and enrolled in

academically challenging or honors-type classes. Dweck (2000) cautions academicians

that there is a challenge for people with a malleable incremental mindset as they may

tend to be over persistent in the face of challenge due to egotistical ideologies in the

presence of failure. Study participants did not exhibit this frame of mind as they

repeatedly mentioned seeking assistance when needed. Specifically, study participants

spoke freely about seeking family, advisor, and peer support in the face of challenges.

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Just like the participants identified in other malleable incremental studies (Ames, 1992;

Ames & Archer, 1988; Dweck & Leggett, 1988b) these participants expressed learning

goals which have been documented to enable students to establish profound learning

strategies to apply concepts learned effectively. Participants did not appear to exhibit

performance goals; they preferred to accomplish deep learning that would enable them to

achieve their academic and career goals.

Study participant experiences are in line with the findings of researchers Kappes,

Stephens, and Oettingen (2011) and Mellalieu et al. (2009). Positive fantasies or thoughts

of future set-back did not promote helplessness in these individuals with malleable

approaches to learning. It appeared as if they knew that life had challenges and it made

their accomplishments more rewarding.

Eder mentions the competition among peers in the honors college as a motivator

to do well. Similar to the study of rugby players (Kappes et al., 2011), they were able to

reduce competitive anxiety associated with self-regulating fantasies of set-backs with a

malleable theoretical framework. As explained by Kappes et al., (2011), the competitive

anxiety and learning goals gave them an ability to manage stress and anxiety since they

spent more time working on the process of learning rather than the outcome (Adrian

celebrated his role as a tutor learning from his tutees). Researchers Elliott and Dweck

(1988) and Kappes et al. (2011) support this finding as they report that individuals with a

malleable mindset work on dealing with tasks rather than stressing out or anxiously

worrying over the tasks or concepts they do not understand.

According to Gilroy (2010), Hispanic cultures are collectivistic in nature because

they tend to have family oriented thinking whereby success or failure of one individual

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impacts the whole. Study participants as a whole, irrespective of heritage, tended to agree

with this thought. Participants fondly talked about how family members influence them

and celebrated their success. Several went as far as to acknowledge their mothers’ or

grandparents’ efforts in enabling them to attain life’s success. Although studies on the

connection between this cultural attitude and self- theories are limited, Church’s et al.,

(2003) work elucidating that malleable incremental theories are stronger in collectivistic

cultures than in individualistic cultures is relevant in this study. Since participants come

from collectivistic cultures, there is room to conclude that their ethnic heritage helped

them build a malleable incremental approach to learning, whereby success is measured in

terms of the family rather than personal satisfaction which is ultimately a part of one’s

self-identity.

Captivatingly, only two of the study participants did not find the word minority

offensive. Yet all participants admitted functioning with a disregard for the title. An

explanation for this could be their malleable theory mindset. Dweck (2000) reported that

students with malleable mindsets were flexible and more inclined to work indifferently

to the stereotype, functioning unaffected by stereotypes or at least functioning without it

affecting their psyche. The only caveat to this explanation is that the town where the

individuals live and school has a 67% Hispanic population and roughly 25% African

American population, so their feeling or perception of being different is skewed from that

of individuals in majority Caucasian communities. Nonetheless, Joaquin who spent some

time in Kentucky, a primarily Caucasian community, stated he functioned there just as he

would in his current domicile primarily by ignoring negative stereotypes and forging

ahead towards his goals.

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Another finding in this study is at the impact of classification on African

American and Hispanic success. Steele’s (1997) study suggested that even academically

able students would express helplessness traits if classified as academically gifted. Study

participants appeared to relish the honor of being classified as high-achieving. Eder stated

that he saw the title and accompanying benefits as an incentive to do well. In this regard,

this study adds to the currently limited literature on how the title and mindset of high

achieving African American and Hispanic males are impacted by the title of honors.

Dweck’s Implicit Theory of Intelligence has provided this study with an

understanding of how high-achieving African American and Hispanic students,

particularly those classified as honors in an Honors College, attain academic success

irrespective of the reported challenges that minorities face. This finding is not new since

it was discussed as part of the researcher’s theoretical framework and was confirmed

throughout the literature. The design of this study allowed the researcher to understand

how the particular aspects of Dweck’s Implicit Theory of Intelligence contribute to

African American and Hispanic male students’ success. The malleable incremental

theory of intelligence in particular, plays a significant role in how these students respond

to strain, how they cope with their challenges as well as how they approach learning.

Students’ culture and approach to dealing with negative stereotypes are also positively

impacted. Ultimately, this snapshot of the experiences of African American and Hispanic

male students holds true that a malleable incremental mindset or learning theory is a

significant strategy these individuals use to succeed.

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Positive response to challenge

The literature examined placed a great emphasis on the fact that if students come

to campus with an unchecked psychological challenge; they could act in a debilitating

manner that affects their academic performance and social adjustment (Kuh et al., 2006).

Students with these issues also have a tendency to earn low GPAs and low graduation

rates. Kuh and Love (2000), Museus (2008), and Tinto (1993b) associate these challenges

with their inability to find membership in cultures and subcultures on campuses or obtain

academic mastering skills or self-theories of intelligence that generate learning goals

(Dweck, 2000, 2010, 2012). This theme results from the findings that showed study

participants hold a positive response to the challenges they faced. Evidence suggests that

students who are members of a subculture on campus or possess a malleable incremental

learning theory as presented above have a tendency to succeed academically.

The literature review discusses how the challenges and success of African

American and Hispanic male students converge. According to Dweck (2000) for students

with a malleable incremental learning theory or mindset, abilities can be changed through

positive early learning experiences, thus “those who are led to believe their intelligence is

a malleable quality begin to take on challenging learning tasks and begin to take

advantage of the skill-improvement opportunities that come their way” (Dweck, p. 26).

This study supports Dweck’s (2000) empirical data and adds that along with a malleable

incremental learning theory, students attitude towards challenges help their cause as well.

According to this study, high achieving students with a malleable incremental learning

theory approach challenges as learning opportunities. In this regard, they are unafraid to

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ask for help when they need it. They use any opportunity they have as one to improve

their skills.

Familial influence

Along the lines of a collectivist culture as discussed in the literature review,

African American and Hispanic American students’ families play a significant role in

their identify. The theme familial influence was identified as relevant because of the

strong role familial relationships have on study participants. The academic goals of the

participants were connected to family identity. This finding supports the assertions of

Kuh et al. (2006) and Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) that student success, persistence,

and satisfaction are an outcome of family support systems.

The majority of empirical data on family impact on African American and

Hispanic first generation students reports that students from families with college

graduates have less difficulty succeeding than first generation students (Baum & Payea,

2004; Choy, 2001). Additionally, students from families with college graduates are more

likely to take advantage of campus activities and persist because of familial support

systems. The literature reports that individuals from families with college graduates tend

to socialize their children from an early age, unlike their first-generation peers who have

no real concept of college and its challenges. This study’s theoretical framework,

Dweck’s self-theory of intelligence, addresses how an individual responds to family

influences. The theory’s emphasis is to encourage families to avoid too much praise and

promote activities that build on the individual’s malleable learning theory. The theory’s

emphasis is on the individual rather than the external environment. This study supports

these theories that report minority individual’s mindset plays a significant role in

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academic success. This study adds that familial support also enables students who are

first generation minorities to achieve academic success as well. The impact of praise and

the influence of socialization are beyond the scope of this study. However, participant

comments elucidate that participants experienced praise and some positive socialization

efforts right from an early age.

Tinto’s (1993b) work adds to the discussion of familial support. He hypothesizes

that for students to succeed in the college environment, they need to separate themselves

from family and high school peers in order to make room for new relationships. He also

adds that the distance enables students to “adopt the values and the behavioral patterns

that typify the environment of the institution they are attending” (Kuh et al., 2006, p. 11).

Data from this study add that family relationships remain essential during the college

years. Positive student-to-family interaction appears to enhance student success efforts

rather than deter it.

The work of Raffaelli and Ontai (2004) adds to the discussion on familial

influence on African American and Hispanic male academic success. The researcher

reports that Hispanic families tend to encourage stereotypical male behavior because they

practice gender role division in which males and females have predefined roles that they

are expected to fulfill. The academic endeavors of the study participants showed little or

no negative impact from gender specific family expectations. Participants admitted to

assisting siblings with school-related work, and none considered the task(s) negative or

detrimental to their success. Nonetheless, participants overall expressed reliance on

family members for support and help where needed as a beneficial strategy for success.

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Success through engagement in extracurricular activities

Student success theorists (Kuh et al., 2006; Kuh & Love, 2000; Pascarella et al.,

2004; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991) have discussed the impact and benefits of student

involvement and engagement in extra-curricular activities. The design of the research

study and this theme played a significant role in helping the researcher answer the first

research question: How do minority male honors students experience academic success

while enrolled in an honors program? The finding of this study confirms and adds to the

research work of student engagement and an honors program. From the literature we can

see that this study confirmed the benefits of extracurricular activities on students’

academic success.

The benefit of the theme success through engagement in extracurricular activities

is linked to student enrollment in the honors college. Kuh (2001) discusses the

importance of institutional commitment to the provision of resources, curriculum,

learning opportunities, and support services to encourage student satisfaction and

persistence through to graduation. The findings of this study support this work and

allowed the researcher to understand which aspects of the institution’s honors program

promote student satisfaction and persistence through to graduation. Study findings show

that activities provided by the college are broad and varied enough to satisfy several types

of students. The students with a goal leading towards politics found their niche and so did

the ones in the science fields. Students gained satisfaction from participation and used the

opportunities to develop success networks and persistence. The honors program also

provided financial aid, academic advisement and a place for students to meet their peers,

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print papers, study and discuss. The study’s findings show that institutional supported

activities supported by faculty, administrators and staff, align nicely with student goals.

The work of Kuh (2003) emphasizes another dimension of this study, full-time

students who take advantage of extracurricular activities. This is relevant to the study as

all honors students enrolled in the honors college are required to be full-time students

with an academic load of 12 – 18 credit hours. Study participants in the liberal art majors

took about 15 credits each semester, while their science peers took more. Thus, these

students were on campus more hours and used the extracurricular activities to occupy

them while they were not in class.

Ethington, Smart, and Pascarella (1988) have long applauded the benefits of

extracurricular activities on students’ careers, leadership potentials, and earnings. This

study adds to that body of work by validating the career potential of student engagement

in extracurricular activities. Study participants, especially those in leadership positions in

their student organizations, were well-spoken and often selected to represent the college

at local, national, and international events. These students showed great potential for

career mobility.

Some research findings allude to other personality traits (drive, motivation,

personality) as having more influence on students’ career mobility and income during

their later years (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). This study supports this theory since one

student who was an honors student not enrolled in the honors college did not take part in

college-related extracurricular activities. This student took part in extracurricular

activities only in high school and off-campus at church. During his college years, he

stayed away from campus-related extracurricular activities. This finding supports the

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premise that student engagement and training during the early years of adolescence are

beneficial to college success. This statement is supported by the results of this study.

Significance

The findings from this study provide scholarly practitioners with an insight into

how the minority male honors students in this study experienced academic success while

enrolled in an honors program and the challenges they face. The themes that emerged

from the study provide a foundation for further research, and for development of honors

programs and services for high-achieving students. The study findings also offer new

knowledge about how African Americans and Hispanic males succeed in college.

The findings of this study may have significance to two-year colleges that house

an honors program. Much research has overlooked the high-achieving African American

and Hispanic males enrolled in two year colleges. Although this population may be

similar to those in the four year programs, significant challenges exist which make them

considerably different from their four-year counterparts. The rich data elicited first-hand

from the students enrolled in these programs testifies to what leads to a successful

program for them. Of the various experiences presented by study participants,

environment and extracurricular activities appear to be most significant. This does not

mean that the honors college advisor and administrators are insufficient; it means that the

students appreciated the activities more. This is important because it would be a mistake

to think that the people who work with these students are insignificant. The opposite is

the case. These people appear to do such a good job at providing appropriate activities

that the students become heavily immersed without the politics of humans or leadership.

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The study findings thus provide a guide for program administrators to identify what

works and is relevant to student satisfaction and persistence through graduation.

Findings of this research may provide college administrators as a whole with an

idea as to what is essential to student success. Although extracurricular activities are

essential to student engagement, support should also be given to activities that enable

college enrollees to develop a malleable incremental mindset and drive. First-hand

accounts from these students divulge the advantage of this mindset and the role it plays in

their academic journey.

Implications for practice

The researcher offers the transferability of findings to the success initiatives of

low-achieving students. It is recognized that in order to achieve this, strategic plans by

program administrators will need to be completed to modify existing programs to

incorporate these findings. However, the benefits overshadow the challenges changes

may cause. The empirical data gathered from this study may also expand the scope of

information available to educators and policy formulators when developing programs

aimed at increasing the enrollment and graduation rates of minority male populations in

colleges.

As a recommendation for honors programs, senior leadership of colleges from

researchers and educators who want to make a positive difference in the minority male

students’ learning, achievement, and persistence to college graduation could consider the

creation of cohorts that implement programs based on the themes identified in this study.

This recommendation will enable enrollees to experience the benefits honors student

receive while enrolled in honors colleges. Student service personnel could use the cohort

127

method to enroll students to allow them achieve the connectedness honors students

discuss in this study. The cohorts would need to have a dedicated advisor whose role is to

guide and assist the students achieve academic success. This advisor should have access

to scholarships to fund students who have financial challenges. Funds would need to be

useable for academic credit and extracurricular activities. Furthermore, the advisor would

need to have access to potential career mentors, a strategy that can be achieved if advisors

have academic backgrounds similar to students in their cohort.

Considering that many of the educational philosophies such as Dweck’s theories

of intelligence are not taught to college administrators, training could be provided to

enable them to provide opportunities that change student mindset. This training could be

similar to Dweck’s Brainology program which teaches individuals to develop a malleable

“growth” mindset. Programs like this are already being introduced at select elementary

level schools that can afford it. However, college level students, especially those from

low-income neighborhoods who most likely did have access to similar programs, could

benefit from exposure to programs like these since they develop resilience, determination

and perseverance. Faculty who have not received formal education in educational

philosophies should be exposed to these training programs as well.

Another strategy to promote the learning or malleable mind set in students is to

deemphasize testing. Final exams could be portfolio based. Portfolios could be electronic

or paper based as appropriate to the institutions resources. Electronic portfolios are

beneficial since students could potentially save them for use upon graduation, faculty for

curriculum review, and administrators for program review and analysis. Portfolios do not

take away from quantitative analysis, since students could be given mini-tests and they

128

can be quantitatively graded with the appropriate rubric. This would be highly beneficial

if they are enrolled in a class based on quantitative foundations. However, the final

grading would be cumulative and compiled in a portfolio. This aspect should be further

investigated, perhaps using a quantitative study to enable predictive properties of the

variable of interest.

Results of this study suggest the need for two year colleges to find ways to engage

all students in habits that build their self-confidence and drive. These activities could

include hosting self-help speaker series, supporting their leadership aspirations, or

housing a resident psychologist to guide them through issues. It is understood that these

resources are expensive and institutions could use their alumni base to support these

resources. Alumni could serve as mentors, speakers, or in-house specialists. This aspect

should also be further investigated as to its impact on students as a whole irrespective of

achievement ability.

Students in this study attributed family support network contributions as

significant to their success. In this area colleges could find innovative ways to engage

parents or other support networks that students possess. An avenue to achieve this type of

engagement is an open invitation to student support networks to attend college events

such as cultural events, degree exploration nights or even department specific family

days. These events would allow students to share their college experiences with their

support networks and potentially connect all to the institution. Arguably, since two year

colleges traditionally host these events as open events for the entire community, students

support networks can attend freely. However, when they are specifically invited to attend

129

targeted events, it could help build a stronger tie between the family and institution and

promote attendance.

Presently, report after report suggests that minorities as a group are being left

behind in higher education. This study shows that some are beating the odds and doing

well academically. The findings of this study thus present tools college administrators

could use to reduce the achievement gap.

Recommendations for further Research

Given the themes and findings of this study, it is evident that more research needs

to be done in this area. The researcher recommends conducting research in additional

areas to further understand minority student success as a whole and African American

and Hispanic success specifically. These areas included review of individual ethnic

groups, sexes, curriculum settings and over a longer period of time in an ethnographic

manner.

This study segregated two ethnic minority populations. The researcher

recommends future studies to desegregate the ethnic groups, thus studying groups with

similar characteristics to identify unique characteristics. This type of study will examine

populations of interest on which there is currently little documentation. Further studies

could compare the male experience with that of the females to show the unique

characteristics of these populations. Another recommendation is a comparison study of

African American and Hispanic males in the honors program to those enrolled in regular

classes. The findings of this study hint at some similarities and differences between the

populations. Further exploration could assist program administrators of retention

programs to develop ideas that use identified strategies for success unique to each

130

population. The final recommendation for future research is to conduct research on

strategies African American and Hispanic males use that have influenced the

development of their malleable incremental theory.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this research study sought to understand the experiences of high–

achieving minority males enrolled in an honors program in a State College. Through a

qualitative interpretative analysis (IPA) research design and resulting student accounts,

the researcher was able to answer the questions a) How do minority male honors students

experience academic success while enrolled in an honors program? (b) What challenges

do minority male participants in an honors program face? IPA was well suited for this

study because of its structural design to explicate life experiences which was based on

Smith, Flowers, and Larkin ‘s (2009) guidelines.

In congruence with the literature review completed prior to the study, the findings

remain relevant to African American and Hispanic male student success initiatives. This

study suggests that it is particularly important for college administrators to provide

programing that promotes a malleable incremental mindset and drive. It is important to

note that colleges are not alone in this mission to create academically ready individuals;

families have a role as well. In this regard, colleges can find ways to engage them on

campus in order to develop well rounded students.

From the research in the area of African American and Hispanic male student

success, many conclusions can be drawn. Of the many conclusions, it is clear that

colleges must continue to find a means to connect students to one another and their peers

through engagement in programs such as the honors college. These programs should

131

continue to provide resources such as extracurricular activities and advisement and to act

as a hub to meet peers and interact. Ultimately, these environmental factors will enable

the students to build on their internal drive and achieve academic successes.

132

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Appendix A - Recruitment Letter

Succeeding against the odds: The trajectory of minority males classified as honors in a two-year

college

An interpretive Phenomenological Analysis

Dear Potential Participant,

My Name is Oberhiri Loretta Ovueraye-Adoghe and I am a doctoral student in Education

at Northeastern University’s College of Professional Studies, working under the supervision of

Dr. Ron Brown (PI) towards a dissertation needed for gradation from the program.

My reason for writing to inform you that I will be conducting a qualitative research on

the lived experiences of high – achieving minority males enrolled in a State College’s honors

college. This work is important because colleges have difficulty retaining the minority male

population and there are long- term financial benefits for educational institutions if all enrollees

academically succeed and excel in the work place. As part of my research, I have been in contact

with the honors college Dean and Directors at your College, and have asked for their assistance in

identifying voluntary participants with whom they have knowledge of that are minority males

students maintaining a 3.5 grade point average and enrolled in their sophomore year in the honors

college. In response to my request, the directors of the Honors College on your assigned campus

has forwarded to me your email address so that I could make initial contact with you regarding

your potential participation.

Please know that you are in no way obligated to take part in this research project.

However, should you agree to take part in it, please know that all information you give to me

during the interview will be kept in strict confidence, with such information being destroyed at

the completion of this study. Furthermore, your name will not appear anywhere in the publication

163

of this research dissertation. Also know that you may stop the interview process completely at

any time, and you may also refuse to answer any questions asked during the interviews.

Your voluntary participation in this study will contribute to a better understanding of how

high – achieving minority males achieve success with the hopes of using this information to help

those that are not succeeding.

Please contact the principal investigator: Dr. Ron Brown email:Ron.Brown1@neu.edu or

by phone 617-435-8166 or myself the student researcher: Loretta Ovueraye-Adoghe

email:ovueraye.o@husky.neu.edu or by phone at: 305-528-7508 so that we can discuss your

potential participation further and possibly arrange for interview times and dates.

Respectfully,

Loretta Ovueraye-Adoghe

164

Appendix B - Confidentiality statement

I, the undersigned, agree to the following:

All data at the individual record level obtained or acquired by The Honors College of

Miami Dade College, and given to Loretta Ovueraye-Adoghe or Dr. Ron Brown of

Northeastern University or members of their research group at Northeastern University,

will be coded or de-identified. Under no circumstances will the identifiers be made

available to individuals at Miami Dade College. Any breach or suspected breach of data

confidentiality shall be reported immediately to Nan C. Regina, Director, Human Subject

Research Protection, 960 Renaissance Park, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115.

Tel: 617.373.4588, Email: n.regina@neu.edu. You may call anonymously if you wish.

Any intentional violation of this agreement shall be the basis for dismissal for cause.

_____________________________

(Signature)

______________

Date

_____________________________

(Print Name)

Dr. Ron Brown (PI), or Oberhiri Loretta Ovueraye-Adoghe (Student Researcher),

Department of Education, College of Professional Studies, Northeastern University, 20

BV 360 Huntington Ave, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, 617.373.2000.

165

Appendix C – Unsigned Consent Document – Northeastern University

166

167

168

169

170

Appendix D – Interview questions template

The steps are as follows:

Primary Interview questions for the First Interviews

It is important for a researcher using an interpretive phenomenological analysis to

learn as much as possible of the participant’s life background in context. In light of that,

the following questions are aimed to gain context of your experiences:

1. Would you please tell me about your family experiences?

2. How would you interpret the meaning of your experiences in elementary,

middle, and high school?

3. Would you please describe your thoughts on how one attains intelligence?

4. How would you describe your experiences in the honors college?

5. How would you describe your experiences as a minority male honors student?

Primary Questions for the Second Interviews

The second interview is a formal interview using open-ended broad questions will

be scheduled for three to four weeks later. The interview’s objective is to obtain more of

the fine points of the participant’s lives. Participant reflections on the experience(s) is

encouraged along with their perspective of how various influences, past and present, have

interacted and led them to this situation and meaning. Here the researcher is looking for a

detailed account or story of the participants experiences.

1. How would you describe how you became an honors student?

2. How would you describe the experiences of other ethnic groups in the

honors college?

3. How would you describe any challenges, if any, you have faced while

trying to attain an academic goal?

4. Would you please describe your approach to overcoming any academic

challenges you have faced?

5. Would you describe, if applicable, the impact the honors environment has

on your ability to overcome challenges.

Primary Questions for the Third Interviews

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The third set of interview questions seek to cross-reference initial interview

findings and serve as a member checking of participants the meaning of their experience

as high achieving minority student in the Honors College.

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Appendix E – Counseling Document

Listings of Mental Health Services in Miami Dade County

211 Children's Trust Helpline

211

(305) 631-4211

Providing free telephone crisis counseling, crisis intervention and information referral

that help families and youth cope with their most pressing issues.

EARLY INTERVENTION PROGRAM

7412 Sunset Drive

Miami, FL 33143

(305) 740-8998

www.familycounseling.org

Behavior Modification, Family Counseling, Early Intervention for Mental Illness.

FAMILY COUNSELING SERVICE - CHILDREN'S TARGETED CASE

MANAGEMENT

7412 Sunset Drive

Miami, FL 33143

(305) 740-8998

www.familycounseling.org

173

Transitional Case/Care Management, Early Intervention for Mental Illness.

JACKSON NORTH CMHC - CHILD OUTPATIENT

20201 NW 37th Avenue

Opa Locka, FL 33054

(786) 466-2700

www.jhsmiami.org

Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services, Psychotherapy/Psychoanalysis, Individual

Counseling, Mental Health Care Facilities, Outpatient Mental Health Facilities,

Community Mental Health Agencies, Psychiatric Disorder Counseling, Psychosocial

Evaluation, Mental Health Support Services, Early Intervention for Mental Illness.

NEW ERA - COUNSELING

9600 SW 8th Street

Suite 1

Miami, FL 33174

(305) 227-7038

www.newerahealthcenter.com

Parenting Education, Family Counseling, Individual Counseling, Anger Management,

Marriage Counseling, Mental Health Evaluation, Early Intervention for Mental Illness,

Central Intake/Assessment for Substance Abuse, Substance Abuse Counseling.

SWITCHBOARD OF MIAMI

174

Switchboard Helpline

(305) 358-HELP

(305) 644-9449 (TTY)

Specially trained counselors operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, in English, Spanish,

and Creole.