Substance Abuse and Economic Crime

Criminology 2330

“I’m always trying to escape from the reality of my life”

Nick, Cocaine addicted client, 2014

Substance Abuse & Crime Quotes

Drugs, speed made me crazy. You live in an unreal space. I was quite psychotic when I did my armed

robbery

Drugs are my courage and I think I can do anything, so I do crime

It made me feel good and happy, but my decisions between right and wrong were cloudy

• Substance abuse• Drug trafficking• Organized crime• White Collar crime• Theft• Fraud• Prostitution• Pimps

• Is it OK to take from others?• Is it OK to use “the system” to fund your

needs?• Is it Ok to commit economic crime if you can’t

ever make that amount of money alone?• If you are drunk, stoned or intoxicated, is it

your fault?

• Having money creates God-like feelings of power and success

• What happens when you can’t do that through legal means?

Link Between Substances and CrimeSubstance abuse primary cause and contributor to crime for both men

and women residing in jail in many studiesOver half offenders have substance abuse dependenceAt least 50% of violent offences involve alcohol use1/3 offenders receive treatment for drug offencesSubstance abuse treatment programs big push in both provincial and

federal systems

Women and DrugsWomen metabolize alcohol and other psychoactive substances more

slowly than men, allowing harmful metabolites to remain longer in their bodies

2/3 of women with substance misuse problems may have concurrent mental health problem, such as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, panic disorder and or eating disorder

Large proportion women with substance use problems are victims of domestic violence, incest, rape, sexual assault and child physical abuse

Research on drugs and crime

More are incarcerated for drug offences than for any other contributing to an increasing prison population.

Offenders often under the influence of drugs when they committed their offences.

Commit property crime to support their habits.Trafficking often engenders violent crime.

Theories of Addiction

Disease Model

Assumes that certain individuals have particular disposition

Adaptive Model

Individuals become addicted in attempting to adapt to the circumstances in their lives.

Arguments for and against causality

Alcohol is neither necessary or sufficient cause of violence

Alcohol is not the primary determinant

Alcohol’s influence on violence is not uniform

Alcohol contributes to violence in some people under certain circumstances

Alcohol appears to act synergistically with hostile motivations

Terminology

Drug versus SubstanceLegal versus illegalAddictionSubstance DependenceBiological versus Psychological

Dependence

Violence can occur in various phases of drug use including acute intoxication, drug-seeking behavior associated with withdrawal, and episodes of drug-induced psychosis and paranoia associated most often with stimulant use.

Neurotransmitters & Hormones

• Amphetamines release norepinephrine, dopamine & serotonin

• Cocaine & amphetamines release excess amounts of dopamine followed by state of depletion

• High testosterone + low acute doses of alcohol = aggressive behavior– High levels of alcohol typically reduces aggression

(some still violent after high doses)

Brain on Drugs• Neurotransmitters:

– Dopamine - too much triggers bizarre thoughts of schizophrenia; too little implicated in Parkinson’s disease

– Serotonin - decreased levels linked to depression, anxiety, aggression (assoc w/ alcohol)

• Those prone to alcoholism are usually anxiety ridden• Enjoy calming effects of alcohol• Substance abuse runs in family - heredity• Alcohol - women experience more & earlier brain

damage than men who drink comparable amount

Types of Violence1. Pharmacological violence - violence perpetrated under

influence of substances– alcohol, PCP, cocaine, amphetamines, barbiturates

2. Systemic violence - aggressive patterns of interaction w/in system of drug distribution & use

– murders over drug turf & violence by drug distributors in course of territorial disputes, retribution for selling bad drugs, enforcing rules w/in drug-dealing organization, fighting among users

3. Economic compulsive behavior - acquisition of drugs– generate money to support addiction– Heroin & cocaine b/c of expense

• Overlap b/w 3 types of violence often occurs

Major Categories of Psychoactive Drugs1) Hallucinogens – create an altered state of mind (LSD,

Ecstasy, PCP – angel dust), marijuana, hashish2) Stimulants - “stimulate” the central nervous system

functions (caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines – ‘uppers’ (crystal meth) * addictive

3) opiate narcotics – heroin * addictive4) sedative-hypnotics or depressants.

• Tolerance: progressively decreased responsiveness to a drug

• Dependence (physical and/or psychological): withdrawal and intense “desire” for drug, delirium tremors

Types of Substances

Central Nervous Depressants– Alcohol– Cannabis– Sedative/hypnotics/anxiolytics– Opioid analgesics– Inhalants (ie. glue/gasoline)

Opiate Narcotic Drugs• Opium or poppy plant• have sedative (sleep-inducing) & analgesic (pain-

relieving) effects; CNS system depressant. • Natural narcotics (grown opium)• Semisynthetic narcotics (chemically prepared

heroin)• Synthetic narcotics (methadone)• Highly addictive for some (a relentless and strong

craving)

Narcotics: Heroin & Crime• Research: criminal activity increases during

periods of heavy drug consumption but heroin?• Notion of “desperate junkie” looking for a fix;

assumed “bizarre & unpredictable”• heroin induces sleepiness rather than psychotic

or paranoid panic states sometimes produced by high doses of amphetamines

• Narcotic addicts generally not violent but, connection b/w heroin & money-making crime (theft, robberies, shoplifting, etc)

Inhalants• Many products that can be abused by

sniffing or “huffing” an intoxicating effect (i.e., cleaning solution, gasoline, glue, etc).

• Effects: similar to alcohol– including slurred speech, loss of motor

coordination, distortion of perceptions, headache, vomiting, & nausea

– Not considered a “gate way” drug – Real problem is side effects (kidney, liver, &

heart failure)

Psychological Effects of AlcoholDrinking more than 5 drinks per occasion increases

likelihood that person will be involved in violence– (either as perpetrator or victim)

• Acute intoxication leads to disinhibited behavior & can lead to aggression in people already prone to violence

• Effects are complex: – Low doses (2-4 ounces) seems to act as a stimulant (euphoria, social

and physical warmth)– In moderate/high quantities, alcohol depresses the CNS (concentration

impaired, self-confidence increases, becoming more daring)

Sedative-Hypnotics: The Depressants• Alcohol, “club-drugs,” are sedative-hypnotic chemicals that

depress CNS functions (sedate nervous system, reduce anxiety and tension)

• GHB & Rohypnol – date rape drug (mentally & physically incapacitate the victim)– tasteless, odourless, & mixes easily w/ alcohol or non-alcoholic

drinks– powerful & fast-acting pleasure enhancer that produces a state of

intoxication– Unpredictable side effects (nausea, drowsiness, delusions,

depression, loss of consciousness, slowed heart rate, etc.)

• Benzodiazepines – diazepam (Valium), serax, librium, clonazepam– Prescription & often prescribed as anti-anxiety tranquilizers or to

treat muscle spasms or convulsions

Types of Substances

Central Nervous Stimulants– Amphetamines– Caffeine– Cocaine– Nicotine– Ecstasy (mixed stimulant/hallucinogen)

Stimulants and CrimeSpeed users may engage in aggressive or violent

behaviour (often predisposed to behave violently before using the drug).

Cocaine – expensive; drug trade.Crack – often polydrug users. More likely to steal.Research suggests that crack use does not appear to

cause violent behaviour in normally nonviolent people.

Besides trafficking, no direct connection between MDMA and crime (serious physical and neurological damage if used frequently and with other drugs).

Amphetamines

• Increased alertness & decrease in appetite, feel impact quickly & last for hours (upwards of 12)

• High dose can cause anxiety, insomnia, irritability, violent behaviour & symptoms of psychosis (hallucinations, delusions, paranoia)

• After “speed run”, person often feels depressed

Cocaine & Crack

• Cocaine: expensive & natural “organic” substance; cannot be produced synthetically

• Crack: cheaper; “freebasing” cocaine – How do you make crack?

• Dissolve cocaine hydrochloride in water, then add a base such as ammonia or baking soda

Crack

• Crack creates a very rapid, intense state of euphoria, which peaks in ~ 5 minutes– Physiological and psychological effects as

powerful as cocaine

• Euphoria short & replaced by depression, irritability & intense craving for more

Role of Dopamine• Dopamine affects a region of brain that controls

pleasure• All stimulants release some dopamine but crystal

meth releases much larger amounts: – Cocaine releases 400% more dopamine– Crystal meth releases almost 1500% more

dopamine“If cocaine can be thought of as a

conventional weapon, crystal meth is like a nuclear weapon”

Dopamine Neurotransmission

(Courtesy NIDA)

VTA/SNnucleus accumbens

frontalcortex

Time After Methamphetamine

% o

f Bas

al R

elea

se

METHAMPHETAMINE

0 1 2 3hr

1500

1000

500

0

0

100

200

300

400

0 1 2 3 4 5 hrTime After Cocaine

% o

f Bas

al R

elea

se

COCAINE500

Stimulants & Crime

• Speed users may engage in aggressive or violent behaviour (often predisposed to behave violently before using the drug)

• Cocaine – expensive; drug trade; can be violent

• Crack – often polydrug users. More likely to steal

• Research suggests that crack use does not appear to cause violent behaviour in normally non-violent people

MDMA (ecstasy)• Synthetic drug: a stimulant with some psychedelic

effects (lasts 4 to 6 hours).• Psychological effects includes confusion, depression,

anxiety, sleeplessness, drug craving, muscle tension, involuntary clenching of the teeth, and paranoia.

• “Energy rush” that encourages users to stay physically active.

• Besides trafficking, no direct connection between MDMA and crime (serious physical and neurological damage if used frequently and with other drugs).

Types of Substances

• Hallucinogens– LSD– Mescaline– PCP

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDBofgWP5fM

AlcoholBy far the most common cause of substance

related disorders in Canada50% of all fatal MVAs involve alcohol25% of all suicides involve alcoholNearly 50% of homicides involve of alcoholIntoxication can lead to

blackouts/trauma/tolerance/psychiatric symptoms

ViolencePersons consuming large amounts of

alcohol were at greater risk for violence than those consuming smaller amounts.

The amount of alcohol consumed tends to be larger in more serious offenses;

The connection between drinking and violence is stronger where the relationship between the perpetrator and victim is closer, and

Violence includes aggravated assault, rape, and robbery.

Alcohol & Crime“Catalyst” for crime”; 1 in 3 arrests in US results

from alcohol abuse.Overall, ~1/3 of all violent offenders were drinking

at the time of offense, and many were highly intoxicated.

~50% of homicide victims were found to have high blood alcohol content.

Research: drinking at time of the offense86% of homicide offenders60% of sexual offenders37% of assault offenders57% of marital violence13% of child abusers.

Does alcohol causes violence? Most likely, influence, individuals prone

to be aggressive, violent, and antisocial are more likely to be so (when intoxicated).

Alcohol may facilitate aggressive tendencies.

• “In both animals and human studies, alcohol more than any other drug, has been linked with a high incidence of violence and aggression.”

Alcohol & CrimeRelationship between heavy drinking of

alcohol and aggression/violence is well supported.

Explanations:Disinhibitory Models: alcohol influences

neurological or psychological mechanisms that normally control aggressive and antisocial behavior.

Disease Model: chronic drinking is a disease reflected in an individual’s inability to control drinking (disease existed before the first drink was taken).

Alcohol & CrimeDisinhibitory and disease viewpoints focus on

internal influences or predispositions.By contrast, social-cognitive models emphasize

interactions between belief systems or expectancies, and the social environment.

Addictions are learned and situationally determined.

One cannot help oneself is a cognitive expectancy.

Expectancy becomes the crucial factor.

Alcohol and CrimeOf all drugs, alcohol shows to strongest

relationship with violent offenses. Alcohol appears to impair or disrupt the brain

operations responsible for self-control.Impairs information processing: misjudging

social cues and overreactions to a perceived threat.

Joint function of pharmacological effects, cognitive expectancies, and situational influences.

Alcohol

• Despite the “cry” over drugs particularly methamphetamine, cocaine, heroin, & marijuana…

• Alcohol is the #1 drug of abuse• Responsible for more deaths & violence

(3rd major cause of death in US) than all other drugs combined

War On Drugs?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=91y9KqvVggY

Relationship b/w Drugs & Crime• Relationship between crime & drugs is complex,

involving interactions among pharmacological, social & psychological variables

• Unlikely drugs “cause” crime but rather ‘precipitate’ – Certain drugs allow some to disengage from usual

constraints against antisocial conduct, including violence

• Chronic, persistent criminals are often polydrug users

Types of Substance Abusing Offenders

Early Stage Substance Abusers are experimental and recreational substance abusers whose crimes result from impaired judgment or disinhibition while under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol

Addicts are those for whom daily life is dedicated to drug-seeking behavior. Petty crime has become their primary means to support their addiction. Serious or violent crime is less prevalent in this group than in the criminogenic substance abuser

Types of Substance Abusing Offenders

The mentally ill substance abuser has a concurrent mental illness and substance abuse problem (dually diagnosed)

Criminogenic substance abusers are those who do not wish to be part of “mainstream” society. Their substance abuse is incidental to their criminal behavior

Who is At-Risk for Addiction?

Etiology of addiction is multifactorial (bio-psychosocial)

Variables correlated w/ increased risk of addiction:– Psychological vulnerability (prior history of

problems w/ other drugs or prior treatment)– Family hx of addiction– History of trauma

Economic Crimes

• Drug trafficking• Organized crime• White Collar crime• Theft• Fraud• Prostitution

(http://www.euronews.com/2013/12/21/canada-supreme-court-strikes-down-anti-prostitution-laws/)

• Pimps