Studying the way people relate to others.
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Transcript of Studying the way people relate to others.
Studying the way people relate to others.
Social Psychology Attitude Attraction Group Behavior Aggression
Studying the way people relate to others. AP EXAM: Social
Psychology (810%) AP students in psychology should be able to do
the following:
Apply attribution theory to explain motives (e.g., fundamental
attribution error, self-serving bias). Describe the structure and
function of different kinds of group behavior (e.g.
deindividuation,group polarization). Explain how individuals
respond to expectations of others, including groupthink,conformity,
and obedience to authority. Discuss attitudes and how they change
(e.g., central route to persuasion). Predict the impact of the
presence of others on individual behavior (e.g.,bystander effect,
social facilitation). Describe processes that contribute to
differential treatment of group members (e.g., in-group/out-group
dynamics, ethnocentrism, prejudice). Articulate the impact of
social and cultural categories (e.g., gender, race, ethnicity) on
self-concept and relations with others. Anticipate the impact of
behavior on a self-fulfilling prophecy. Describe the variables that
contribute to altruism, aggression, and attraction. Discuss
attitude formation and change, including persuasion strategies and
cognitive dissonance. Identify important figures in social
psychology (e.g., Solomon Asch, Leon Festinger, Stanley Milgram,
Philip Zimbardo). Attitudes A set of beliefs and feelings.
Advertising is ALL based on attitude formation. Mere Exposure
Effect the more you are exposed the more you will like it Central
Route T.P. v. Peripheral RouteT.P. Attitude and Behavior Do
attitudes tell us about someones behavior?
LaPieres Study w/ Asian family showed attitudes dont predict
behavior Cognitive Dissonance Theory People want to have consistent
attitudes and behaviors.when they are not they experience
dissonance (unpleasant tension). Usually they will change their
attitude. Never consciously aware of change in attitude The teacher
was really bad so in that class it is OK. You have a belief that
cheating on tests is bad. But you cheat on a test!!! Festinger
& Carlsmiths Cognitive Dissonance Experiment
Study participants completed a boring task and were then were paid
to lie and tell the next subject that it was an enjoyable task.
Some subjects were paid $20, while others were paid $1. Those who
were paid less were found to have significantly more positive
attitudes toward the experiment. Social Thinking Cognitive
dissonance Compliance Strategies
People try to change others behavior (since that can then change
attitudes) Lets imagine you want a trip to New York for graduation
Foot-in-the-door first get a small yes to get bigger yes later
Door-in-the-face- get big no in order to get smaller yes Norms of
reciprocity do something nice and then will have to say yes
Charities will often send a free gift when they send you a donation
catalogue Compliance Strategies Reading
Summarize the research on each of the following in one paragraph
each: --Reciprocal Principle -- Foot in the door principle --Door
in the face principle Each paragraph MUST HAVE: --Clear thesis
sentence -- 2 citations of research Attribution Theory Tries to
explain how people determine the cause of the behavior they
observe. It is either a. Situational Attribution- behavior is
product of environment Dispositional Attribution- behavior is
product of personality And Stable Attribution Unstable Attribution
Fundamental Attribution Error
How do you view your teachers behavior? You probably attribute it
to their personality rather than their profession. But do you
really know? We tend to overestimate the role of dispositional
factors in the behavior of other. Individualistic V. Collectivistic
Cultures False Consensus Effect Self-Serving Bias We assume that
our own beliefs are the norm and others think like us. When we do
something good its because of us, and when we do something bad, its
someone elses fault. False Consensus Effect
Self-Serving Bias We tend to overestimate the extent in which
others share our beliefs and behaviors. If you win it is because
you are awesomeif you lose, it must have been the refereesor
weather or. Stereotypes, Prejudice and Discrimination
Overgeneralized idea about a group of people. Prejudice: Undeserved
(usually negative) attitude towards a group of people.Ethnocentrism
is an example of a prejudice. Discrimination: An action based on a
idea of prejudice. Does perception change with race?
Does race change how we perceive? Mr. Dycus, Remember to prove to
the students that racism is still alive by showing them that pretty
awesome power point you made a few years ago for Contemporary
Issues. Thanks. Dub-V Nation vs inferior neighboring schools
Is it just race? NO Palestinians and Jews Dub-V Nation vs inferior
neighboring schools Men and Women But women have some things going
for them like Which person would you want to have a long term
relationship with? How does prejudice occur?
Just world Phenomenon -people get what they deserve (using
Fundamental Attribution Error) In one popular study female and male
subjects were told two versions of a story about an interaction
between a woman and a man. Both variations were exactly the same,
except at the very end the man raped the woman in one and in the
other he proposed marriage. In both conditions, both female and
male subjects viewed the woman's (identical) actions as inevitably
leading to the (very different) results. In-Group versus
Out-Groups. In-Group Bias experiment with abstract art groups and
then $2/$1, or $4/$3 Out-Group Homogenialityassumption that all out
group members share the same traits (stereotyping) - Information on
out-groups that we dont live with are media (negatively) driven
Scapegoat Theory- people suffering need someone to blame Combating
Prejudice Contact Theory
Contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity if they are
made to work towards a superordinate goala goal deemed more
important than differences Education about race? Obamas election as
an example of Prejudices can often lead to a.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy A prediction that causes itself to be
true. Rosenthal and Jacobsons Pygmalion in the Classroom
experiment. Pygmalion effect Psychology of Aggression
Two types of aggression Instrumental Aggression with a purpose 2.
Hostile Aggression- no clear purpose Theories of Aggression:
1.Banduras Bobo Doll Modeling social learning thoery that humans
learn aggression as children 2. Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis-
inherited response to stress 3. Institutional Aggression Hot
Weather and Aggression Bandura Bobo Doll Read and Respond
Write a three paragraph response with each of the following
paragraphs doing this: Paragraph 1: Describe the study itself
including one citation of evidence. Paragraph 2: Describe the
results and how they can be applied to life using one citation of
the evidence. Paragraph 3: Summarize the critique of Banduras
experiment using one citation of the evidence. Prosocial Behavior
Kitty Genovese case in Kew Gardens NY.
Bystander Effect: Conditions in which people are more or less
likely to help one another.In generalthe more people aroundthe less
chance of help.because of Diffusion of Responsibility more people
means responsibility is divided Pluralistic Ignorance People decide
what to do by looking to others. Factors that Influence
Helping:
Situational ambiguity Perceived Cost Diffusion of Responsibility
Similarity Mood Gender Attributions of the cause of need Social
Norms Attraction 5 Factors of Attraction Quotes "Life has taught us
that love does not consist in gazing at each other but in looking
outward together in the same direction."--- Antoine de
Saint-Exupery It is with true love as it is with ghosts; everyone
talks about it, but few have seen it La Rochefoucauld "When two
people are under the influence of the most violent, most insane,
most delusive, and most transient of passions, they are required to
swear that they will remain in that excited, abnormal, and
exhausting condition continuously until death do them part.---
George Bernard Shaw Ideal Qualities in a Romantic Partner
1 2 3 Less than me About the same as me More than me 1 Extraversion
2 Conscientiousness 3 Agreeableness 4 Openness 5 Neuroticism 6 Age
7 Height 8 Education 9 Intelligence 10 Good Looks 11 Social Status
12 Spirituality 13 Dominance Have students get out a piece of paper
and rank order the importance of all of the traits.After they have
ranked them, have students write down if they would like their
partner to have more, the same or less of the following 13 traits.
After several minutes, please get into your small groups to
discuss.(Give students several minutes to complete the activity
before they get into their small groups). Have them discuss in
small groups why they made the ratings they did. (note:This might
be a good opportunity to use the interactive clickers to see how
the class as a whole responded.) Do we always want similarity or
are there some traits we would like our partners to differ? When we
desire differences is it because we either lack those qualities our
selves or fear that too much of the same trait will clash and cause
problems. Which traits are the most important that our partners are
similar? Preferred Qualities in Partners
Women Men 1) Kind/understanding Kind/understanding 2) Exciting
Personality Exciting Personality 3) Intelligent Intelligent 4)
Healthy Physically Attractive 5) Easy Going Healthy 6) Physically
Attractive Easy Going 1. Proximity Geographic nearness
Mere exposure effect: Repeated exposure to something breeds liking.
Classroom studies Moreland & Beach (1992): women coming into
class; the more they came to class, the more other students liked
her 4 women in study Forced proximity = stalking (which isnt
attractive) Proximity Mere exposure (Zajonc, 1966; Moreland &
Beach 1992)
Ratings of attraction. Which version do you prefer?
A B Insert mirror imaPhoto A is a normal photograph and resembles
the way others see you. Photo B is a mirror image photo and
represents how you usually see yourself. The mere exposure
hypothesis has demonstrated that repeated exposure to a stimulus
enhances attraction to it. Mita, Dermer and Knight (1977) reasoned
that individuals are more frequently exposed to their own image via
a mirror but others are more frequently exposed to our true image.
People tend to prefer the mirror image of themselves whereas their
friends prefer the true image. Interestingly, the Mac photo booth
application which took this picture orients it as a mirror image by
default. ge pictures of yourself. 2. Reciprocal Liking You are more
likely to like someone who likes you. Why? People like positive
feedback Even obvious attempts at flattery increase liking Playing
TOO hard to get is viewed as a turn off Except in elementary
school!!!! Couples curse of decreasing affinity 3. Similarity Paula
Abdul was wrong- opposites do NOT attract.
Birds of the same feather do flock together. Similarity breeds
content. Similarily Breakup Together SAT .17 SAT .31* Phy Attr
.16
Attitudes .41* Together SAT * Phy Attr * Attitudes * Rubin study of
dating couples Two-year study of dating couples in Boston 231
couples; 95% students; 97% white, 44% Catholic, 26% Protestant, 25%
Jewish; 25% lived at home, 35% in apartments, 38% in dorms Asked
have had sexual intercourse? 80% Living together? 20% Role of the
Internet in Dating Role of the Internet in Dating Attitude
similarity and attraction
Attraction toward other person (range = 2-14) Byrne and Nelson
(1965) asked to rate how much they liked a stranger after learning
he agreed with varying proportions of their attitudes expressed on
a questionnaire.(Higher numbers indication greater liking.) 13.00
12.00 11.00 10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 As the graph shows, the
greater the proportion of attitudes subjects shared with the
stranger, the more subjects liked him Proportion of similar
attitudes held by other person What traits did you want to match
your partner on?
Similarity What traits did you want to match your partner on? Ask
students.Refer back to the original rating activity. Similarity
Couples tend to be similar in age, race, religion, social class,
personality, education, intelligence, physical attractiveness, and
attitudes Personality similarity related to marital happiness.
Perceived similarity more strongly associated with marital
satisfaction than actual similarity there is a great deal of
evidence that shows that we will be more attracted to someone we
believe has attitudes similar to our own than to someone we believe
is attitudinally dissimilar. Couples tend to be similar in age,
race, religion, social class, personality, education, intelligence,
physical attractiveness, and attitudes Personality similarity
related to marital happiness. Perceived similarity more strongly
associated with marital satisfaction than actual similarity What
personality traits are important to match on?
Connection between personality traits and relationship
satisfaction. Low neuroticism. A partner higher in neuroticism
might be more critical, contemptuous and defensive with their
partner decreasing satisfaction. Higher agreeableness,
conscientiousness and extraversion. Matching on Individual Big 5
traits does not predict satisfaction but matching on overall
profile does. A partner higher in neuroticism might be more
critical, contemptuous and defensive with their partner decreasing
satisfaction. Similarity Matching Hypothesis: We like those who are
like ourselves (Galton, 1870). Romantic pairs are similar in
physical attractiveness (Zajonc et al, 1987) Even college
roommates, prefer to be of similar attractiveness (Carlie et al.
1991) Sense of humor particularly important (Cann et al., 1995)
Similarity Why do we like people like us?
Why does similarity increase relationship satisfaction?
Mimicry-Similarity in Behavior
When we want to belong to a group or want others to like us, we
mimic their behavior. We like people who mimic our behavior. But
dont be too obvious!!! Mimicry: Similarity in Behavior
Behavioral Mimicry Insert ABC video People get more similar over
time
Dissimilar looking couples at marriage look more similar 25 years
later. Happier couple look more similar Decades of shared emotions?
Facial expression save micro muscles into our older face. Zajonc
proposes that people, often unconsciously, mimic the facial
expressions of their spouses in a silent empathy and that, over the
years, sharing the same expressions shapes the face similarly.
''Facial mimicry allows a truer empathy because it triggers the
same inner state,'' Dr. Zajonc said. ''Couples can understand each
other much better when this happens.'' ''Common life experiences
over years and years can alter facial musculature and wrinkle
patterns, leading to an increased resemblance, '' said Paul Ekman,
Like other muscles of the body, facial muscles grow or atrophy
according to the amount of use; facial muscle activity, in turn,
stimulates growth in facial bones. People who maintain a particular
emotional stance toward life - such as fear, disdain or joy - may
tend to hold the facial muscles involved in those feelings slightly
tensed in a readiness to respond, according to Dr. Ekman. Over
several decades, that tension can come to give the face a
distinctive cast by altering wrinkle patterns, changing the
relative size of different muscles and even bones, and so altering
the contours of the face. Such a process is likely to occur in a
married couple, according to Dr. Ekman. ''There is no question that
we unwittingly use our facial muscles in the same way as the person
we are looking at,'' he said. Similarity to Pets We are basically
in love with ourselves so people may choose pets that resemble
themselves Or people and their pets appearance converge over time
Roy and Christenfeld (2004) People with purebred dogs look more
alike due to selection and deliberation No correlation with length
of time owned and similarity. 4. Liking through Association
Classical Conditioning can play a part in attraction. I was always
attracted to girls wearing UGA snap backs Misattribution of arousal
Negative mood leads to lower attractiveness ratings Unpleasant
background music when meeting a person leads to subsequent lower
attractiveness ratings Misattribution of Arousal 5. Physical
Attractiveness Who do you think is friendlier? Who do you think is
more outgoing?
To whom would you be friendlier? The Hotty Factor Halo Effect --
What Is Beautiful Is Good stereotype
People tend to attribute desirable characteristics such as
sociable, friendly, poised, warm, competent, and well adjusted
tothose who are good looking Physically attractiveness predicts
dating frequency (they date more). Attractive children and adults
are judged and treated morefavorably Implications for career &
salary Criminal sentences What is beauty? Physical Attraction
Beauty is objective:
High level of agreement across cultures (Langlois et al, 2000)
Certain features of faces are reliably associated with
attractiveness (Cunningham, 1986) Babies prefer attractive faces
(Cowley, 1996). Physical Attraction Beauty is subjective:
Different cultures improve beauty in different ways (Newman, 2000).
Different body types are judged to be more attractive in different
parts of the world (Anderson et. al 1992) Body type standards vary
over time (Silverstein et al, 1986). Physical Attraction Things
that people agree on:
2) More average faces are more attractive 3) Waist/hip ratio for
women is judged similarly across culture.Men prefer waists 1/3
narrower than hips (Singh, 1993) 4) Across culture, women prefer
men to have a V-shaped physique (Singh, 1995) Physical Attraction
Things that people agree on:
5) Women who have large eyes, prominent cheekbones, small bones and
a wide smile are judged more attractive (Cunningham, 1986) 6) Men
with broad jaws and chiseled features are judged more attractive
(Cunningham et al, 1990). Physical Attraction Situational
influences on attraction:
Contrast effects (Kenrick et al, 1993) Opinions of same sex peers
(for women) (Graziano et al, 1993) Girls all get prettier at
closing time effect, (Gladue & Delaney, 1990) Glasses (Terry
& Macy, 1991) Physical Attraction Good male names: Alexander,
Joshua, Mark, Henry, Scott, Taylor, Jonathan Blake Dycus Good
female names: Elizabeth, Mary, Jessica, Ann, Brittany, Isabella Bad
male names: Otis, Roscoe, Norbert, Ogden, Willard, Eugene Bad
female names: Mildred, Frieda, Agatha, Harriet, Rosalyn, Tracy
Beauty and Culture Obesity is so revered among Mauritania's white
Moor Arab population that the young girls are sometimes force-fed
to obtain a weight the government has described as
"life-threatening". Are these cultures really that different?
Courtship Opening Lines Female Courtship Rituals Introductions
Kleinke et al, 1990; Cunningham, 1989
Looked at the effectiveness of different types of opening lines in
laboratory, and then real life settings Likeability Introductions
Kleinke et al, 1990; Cunningham, 1989 Setting Best Line
Worst Line Bar Do you want to dance? Bet I can out-drink you!
Laundromat Want to have a cup of coffee while were waiting Those
are some nice undies you have there Beach Want to play frisbee? Let
me see your strap marks. Female Courtship Rituals
Womens flirting behavior Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1989): Smile Lift
Eyebrows in fast jerky motion Open their eyes wide Lower their
eyelids Tilt heads down and to the side Look away Female Courtship
Rituals
Moore (1985; 1989): Female courtship behaviors were defined as that
specific subset of nonverbal behavior that consistently resulted in
male attention 52 items identified Courtship found to be more
important that physical attraction for garnering male interest.
Male Courtship Rituals
Submissive displays: Palms up, shoulder shrug, tilt head. Dominance
displays: Entering personal space, putting arm around shoulder,
swagger. Resources displays: Paying for food, drink.Wearing
expensive clothes.Bragging. Male Courtship Rituals
Male rituals harder to chronicle (Taflinger, 1996): The less
ritualized and more original his approach is, the more likely a
woman is to accept it This leads to ad hoc courtship by human
males. Love Passionate Love Compassionate Love
My stomach feels weird, I want to be with you all the time, I cant
stop thinking of you kind of love. DOES NOT LAST FOREVER. Love that
comes from people living shared lives together and depend on one
another for love and support. Can last foreveror cannot Can include
passionate love Includes self disclosure Years of marriage Wife
Husband Marital Satisfaction over Time 1 2 3 5
In a longitudinal study that spanned ten years, married couples
rated the quality of their marriages. On average, these ratings
were high, but they declined among both husbands and wives. As you
can see, there were two steep drops, occurring during the first and
eighth years of marriage. (Kurdek, 1999.) 1 2 3 5 4 6 7 8 9 10
Years of marriage Ratings of marital quality Wife Husband Years
Before and After Divorce
Changes in Life Satisfaction Before and After Divorce In this
study, 817 men and women who were divorced at some point rated how
satisfied they were with life on a scale of 0 to 10 every year for
eighteen years. Overall, divorcees were less satisfied than their
married counterparts-a common result. On the question of whether
time heals the wound, you can see that satisfaction levels dipped
before divorce, rebounded afterward, but did not return to original
levels. It appears that people adapt but do not fully recover from
this experience. (Lucas, 2005.) 0.00 -0.50 -1.00 2 4 -8 -2 6 -6 -4
Life Satisfaction Ratings Years Before and After Divorce Divorce
Liking & Loving for Dating Partners and Same-Sex Friends
IndexWomenMen Love for Partner Liking for Partner Love for Friend
Liking for Friend Satisfaction Love marriages Arranged marriages 90
80 70 60 50 40 0-1
No man or woman really knows what love is until they have been
married a quarterof a century. --- Mark Twain Lovemarriages
Satisfaction Arranged marriages 90 80 70 60 50 40 0-1 1-2 2-5 5-10
10+ Years of marriage Relationship Conflict --- Some Issues
Jealousy --- Men Sexual infidelity (60%) Women Emotional infidelity
(83%) Communication --- Demand-withdraw interaction pattern
(Females wish to discuss problems, men avoid/withdraw from such
discussions) Sex Children Money Different expectations What
predicts stability?
When is divorce less likely? First or second marriage? Older or
younger at marriage? More or less educated partners? Stable or
unstable jobs? Cohabitation or non-cohabitation? Parental divorce
or no parental divorce? Group Behavior How do groups affect our
behavior? Social Facilitation Theory
If you are really good at something.or it is an easy taskyou will
perform BETTER in front of a group. If it is a difficult task or
you are not very good at ityou will perform WORSE in front of a
group (social impairment). Conformity Studies Adjusting ones
behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. Aschs Study
of Conformity Aschs Results About 1/3 of the participants
conformed.
70% conformed at least once. To strengthen conformity: The group is
unanimous The group is at least three people. One admires the
groups status One had made no prior commitment Social Influence
Difficult judgments Easy judgments Conformity highest on important
judgments Low High Importance 50% 40 30 20 10 Percentage of
conformity to confederates wrong answers Participantsjudged which
person in Slide 2 was the same as the person in Slide 1 Reasons for
Conforming Khan Academy
Normative Social Influence: Influence resulting from a persons
desire to gain approval or avoid disappointment Informational
Social Influence: Influence resulting from ones willingness to
accept others opinions about reality Would how you dress for school
be affected, if you lived in small-town Texas?
When could this be an example of normative social influence? When
could this be an example of informative social influence? Milgrams
Study Of Obedience Experimenter Prompts:
Please continue (or Please go on). The experiment requires that you
continue. It is absolutely essential that you continue. You have no
other choice, you must go on. Results of the Milgram Study What did
we learn from Milgram?
Ordinary people can do shocking things. Ethical issues. Would not
have received approval from todays IRB (Internal Review Board).
Group Dynamics Situational Influence
Home Advantage in Major Team Sports Home Team GamesWinning
SportStudiedPercentage Baseball23, % Football 2, Ice hockey 4,
Basketball13, Soccer37, Home teams win about 6 of 10 games. Social
Loafing The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort
when pooling efforts toward a common goal than if they were
individually accountable. One of the reasons I hate group work
Group Polarization Groups tend to make more extreme decisions than
the individual. Groupthink Group members suppress their
reservations about the ideas supported by the group. They are more
concerned with group harmony. Worse in highly cohesive groups.
Deindividuation People get swept up in a group and lose sense of
self.
Feel anonymous and aroused. Explains rioting behaviors. Zimbardos
Prison Study
Showed how we deindividualize AND become the roles we are given.
Philip Zimbardo has students at Stanford U play the roles of
prisoner and prison guards in the basement of psychology building.
They were given uniforms and numbers for each prisoner. What do you
think happened? Institutional Aggression and Zimbardos Stanford
Prison Study
Explain the study in one paragraph using both the Pathological
prisoner syndrome and Pathology of power. Why didnt the good guards
say anything to the bad guards? Describe what happened at Abu
Ghraib. What situational factors were at play that led the US
military people to act like they did? Can cause and effect ever
TRULY be found in these complicaticated cases of institutional
aggression? Social Relations Conflict
perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas Social Trap
or Prisoners Dilemma Axelrod & Hamilton (1981) a situation in
which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their
self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
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