Study Unit - Introduction to Operating Systems

Study Unit

Introduction toOperating SystemsReviewed By

William Scannella

All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or service markshave been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should not beregarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.

About the Reviewer

William Scannella has more than 25 years experience in the PC

and information technology industry. He has worked as a help

desk analyst, desktop support technician, software tester, and sys-

tems analyst. He has developed print and online documentation

and training for in-house developed and off-the-shelf systems. He

has a master’s degree in technical writing from Miami University of

Ohio.

Copyright © 2011 by Penn Foster, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright maybe reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic ormechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any informationstorage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copy-right owner.

Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton,Pennsylvania 18515.

Printed in the United States of America

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A computer requires both hardware and

software for operation. In this study unit,

we’ll introduce you to the main software

component of the computer, known as the

operating system. The operating system is

the primary controlling software that

provides the link between application pro-

grams (such as word processors, spreadsheets, or databases)

and the computer hardware. For example, the operating

system is responsible for displaying data on the monitor,

retrieving and storing information on the disk drive, and

printing data on the printer. The operating system communi-

cates with each hardware device to pass information in the

correct format between the device and the application pro-

gram. The operating system also manages the data in memory

and secondary storage while simultaneously performing

many other background tasks.

When you complete this study unit, you’ll beable to

• Describe how an operating system controls and commu-nicates with input/output devices

• Identify some typical types and examples of applicationprograms

• Describe how the operating system interfaces withapplication programs

• Explain the general purpose and operation of the basicinput/output system (BIOS) and its relationship to theoperating system

• Identify the various operating systems along with theircharacteristics, features, and capabilities

• List the prominent features of past and current operat-ing systems

• Define and compare single-tasking and multitasking

• Define and compare single-user and multi-user operatingsystems

• List the various PC processors and compare their speedsand capabilities

• Explain the relationship between hardware and operat-ing systems

• Describe the format and use of command-line commands

v

OPERATING SYSTEM BASICS 1Understanding Operating Systems 1Operating-System Programs and Accessories 8Practical Exercise 1 13

EVOLUTION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS 16A Brief History 17Multitasking 19File Names and Extensions 20

PC HARDWARE, PROCESSORS, AND OPERATING SYSTEMS 23

PC Processors 23PC Operating Systems 26Command-Line Commands 51Practical Exercise 2 67

ANSWERS 69

Contents

Contents

Remember to regularly check “My Courses” on your student home-

page. Your instructor may post additional resources that you can

access to enhance your learning experience.

1

OPERATING SYSTEM BASICSIn this study unit, you’ll be given an introduction to operat-

ing systems. Here you’ll learn the basic purpose, principles,

and functions of a typical operating system. You’ll discover

what an operating system does and how it acts to control the

flow of data between application programs, the computer,

and attached input/output devices.

Understanding Operating SystemsAs you learned in previous study units, an operating system

(OS) is a set of basic programming instructions to the lowest

levels of computer hardware. Operating systems are the

foundational layer of programming code upon which all other

functions of the computer are built.

The two most common types of operating systems are desktop

and server. Desktop operating systems are those in personal

computers used by one person at a time. Server operating

systems are usually in more powerful computers connected to

a network and used by many people at the same time.

The fundamental function of the operating system is to

handle input/output functions. The OS serves as an inter-

face between application software and hardware (as shown in

Figure 1) and performs the following tasks:

• Handles input from the keyboard and mouse

• Handles output to the monitor and printer

• Handles modem communications

• Handles network communications

Introduction to OperatingSystems

Introduction to Operating Systems

• Controls I/O with all bus devices

• Controls data storage and retrieval

• Enables multimedia such as audio and video

Some OS programs use specific software to control certain

pieces of hardware inside the computer. This software is

called a device driver. A device driver translates computer

code, for example, to display text on a monitor or movements

of a mouse into action. A separate device driver is available

for each device inside the computer, as shown in Figure 2.

Most OSs have a standard way of communicating with a

certain type of device driver. The device driver contains the

code to communicate with the chips on the device.

This arrangement means that when another piece of hard-

ware is added to the computer, the OS code doesn’t have to

change. All that has to be done is to load a new device driver.

Some examples of devices are

• Keyboard

• Mouse

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FIGURE 1—OperatingSystem GeneralConfiguration Chart

Introduction to Operating Systems 3

• Printer

• Hard disk

• Monitor

• CD-ROM

• DVD players

Disk Driver Code

File System CodeOPERATING

SYSTEM

DiskController

SOFTWARE

HARDWARE

Hard DiskDrive

Hard DiskDevice Driver

Optical DiskDrive (CD/DVD)

Optical DiskDevice Driver

FIGURE 2—DeviceDrivers Interfacing Chart

TECHNICAL NOTE

When a device doesn’t respond to commands from the computer,

try reloading the device driver. In some cases an updated device

driver is necessary and is often available from the device manufac-

turer’s Web site.

Other free device driver sites include

• www.driverguide.com

• www.driversearch.com

• www.driverzone.com

• www.pctools.com/guides/drivers

• Digital cameras

• Bar code scanners

• Modems

Operating systems also communicate with application soft-

ware, as shown in Figure 3.

Introduction to Operating Systems4

Disk Driver Code

File System Code

OthersDisksMouse

Mouse

Keyboard

Keyboard

Screen

Screen

Printer

Print DeviceDriver

ScreenDriver

KeyboardDriver

MouseDriver

OPERATING SYSTEM

APPLICATION PROGRAM (such as a word processor or spreadsheet)

Application ProgramInterfaces

DiskController

SOFTWARE

HARDWARE

Hard DiskDrive

Hard DiskDevice Driver

Optical DiskDrive (CD/DVD)

Optical Disk(s)Device Driver

FIGURE 3—Application programs communicate with hardware through the OS.


Application software includes word processors, spreadsheets,

computer-aided drafting (CAD), games, accounting and busi-

ness management programs, and any other program a user

may choose to run. When an application program accesses a

piece of hardware, it sends a request to the OS to execute

the task. The application program may have to access the

keyboard to see if any commands have been sent, or access

the monitor to display the application’s status while perform-

ing the task.

Programmers of application software need only know how to

communicate with the OS. The OS in turn knows how to

communicate with the keyboard, monitor, and peripherals. In

other words, an application program can send a request to

the operating system such as “Copy this letter to the hard

drive.” The OS understands the command and takes care of

all the details that may be unique to a particular computer—

details the application’s software writer doesn’t have to know.

There are some applications designed for DOS or UNIX

that directly access hardware devices, but most of these

applications are now obsolete. Software performance can be

improved by writing directly to I/O ports or devices, but it’s

not a good programming practice because compatibility with

other computers is lost.

Every time the PC is booted up, it looks at a start-up program

in the BIOS (basic input/output system). The BIOS is stored

in read-only memory (ROM). Figure 4 shows a sample BIOS

setup screen.

The BIOS initializes the mouse, keyboard, monitor, and hard

drive, tests some hardware like the central processing unit

(CPU), and loads other parts of the OS that provide advanced

functions for applications. Figure 5 shows a standard operat-

ing system design.

Figure 5 definitions:

• Application software includes word processors, spread-

sheets, computer-aided drafting, games, and more.

• The operating system kernel is the core of the operating

system; it coordinates OS functions such as control of

memory and storage. The kernel communicates with the

BIOS, device drivers, and the API to perform these func-

tions. It also interfaces with the resource managers.


FIGURE 4—Sample BIOS Setup Screen


• Application program interface (API) software is designed

to communicate with the application and user. API

translates requests from the application into code that

the operating system kernel can understand and pass on

to hardware device drivers. It translates data from the

kernel and device drivers so the application can use it. It

also provides an interface to the BIOS.

• The basic input/output system provides I/O functions to

communicate with system devices such as disks, moni-

tor, keyboard, and mouse. BIOS resides in ROM, so it’s

always present and usually loads other operating system

components during start-up.

• Device drivers are programs that take requests from the

API via the kernel and translate them into commands to

manipulate specific hardware devices, such as the key-

board, printer, and monitor.

API(Application Program Interface)

Computer hardware(disks, memory, CPU, mouse, keyboard,

screen, printer, etc.)

Application software(spreadsheet, word processor, etc.) SOFTWARE

OPERATINGSYSTEM

HARDWARE

BIOS Operating system kernel

Optionaldrivers for

other functionsand devices

Resourcemanagers

Devicedrivers

FIGURE 5—StandardOperating System Design


• Resource managers are programs that manage computer

memory and central processing use.

• Optional device drivers allow control for other peripherals

like cameras and scanners.

• Computer hardware is everything tangible in a computer

system.

While operating systems incorporate basic I/O functions,

they also handle other functions like logic, time and date,

memory management, and other advanced features.

All operating systems have different capabilities. Some are

for use on home computers and others are needed to run

business systems. How a computer is going to be used will

dictate what operating system needs to be installed.

At this point you should have a good understanding of how

the operating system interfaces with application programs

and how it controls hardware devices. You know that the

operating system provides a user interface that allows you

to communicate through the operating system to the com-

puter hardware and application programs.

Operating-System Programs and AccessoriesThe operating system provides many basic tools and appli-

cation programs to help maintain and keep your PC running

at peak efficiency. Some of these tools let you customize the

user interface to your preferences.

Each operating system is different. However, we’re going to

discuss some examples of helpful tools and application soft-

ware included in a typical Windows operating system. You

may want to follow along on your computer during this dis-

cussion. These tools and software programs will assist you

in using, maintaining, troubleshooting, and customizing

your PC. For more detail on any of the following topics, use

the Windows “Help” function on your computer. For now,

let’s discuss some system tools, and then talk about ways to

customize your computer. We’ll finish our discussion with

an overview of some basic application software commonly

included with the operating system.

8


System Tools

A number of tools are included with the operating system to

help maintain a personal computer. In Windows, they’ll be

found under System Tools, accessed through the Start menu.

In Vista and Windows 7, the Start menu is a globe icon in

the lower left corner of the screen. Figure 6 shows the

sequence of screens that you navigate to reach the System

Tools selections.

Once there, you’ll find several utilities that enable you to per-

form maintenance tasks or display status information. The

following paragraphs show a few examples.

System information. By choosing the System Information

selection, you can display detailed information about your

computer system. Under the main selection, you can display

information such as the operating-system version, type of

processor in your computer, amount of RAM that’s installed,

percentage of resources currently free, and available space

remaining on your hard drive. Other options under System

Information allow you to display detailed information about

FIGURE 6—Menu Path to System Tools


hardware resources, components, and the software environ-

ment. This information can be extremely valuable for

troubleshooting operating problems.

Hard-disk maintenance tools. Disk Cleanup and Disk

Defragmenter, found under System Tools, are used to manage

and maintain hard drives.

Disk Cleanup removes unused files from the disk drive. As

the PC is used over time, old temporary and unused files

build up on the drive. The Disk Cleanup program allows you

to specify the types of files that you want removed, such as

temporary Internet files, downloaded program files, and files

in the Recycle Bin. By keeping the hard drive free from clut-

ter, you’ll have more space for your programs and data, as

well as improved performance.

Disk Defragmenter is another tool that can improve system

performance and increase disk space. When you use your

computer, information is continually written to and erased

from the hard drive. When data or programs are removed

from the drive, blank areas on the disk are created. As other

information is written on the disk, the operating system may

use several smaller blank areas to store the new information.

This causes the stored information to become fragmented.

Fragmented files reduce performance because of the extra

time it takes to read and write the data to various portions of

the disk. The Disk Defragmenter rewrites and reorganizes the

data on the disk so the files are contiguous.

Customizing Your Computer

In addition to the tools described earlier, the operating sys-

tem provides a set of tools to change settings and customize

the interface and functionality of the computer. In Windows,

they’ll be found in the Control Panel (Figure 7). Click Start,

choose Control Panel, then click Display All Control Panel

Items.

Changing your desktop display. Select the Display icon

to make changes to the screen appearance and operation.

You can adjust screen resolution, calibrate color, enable the

Magnifier to enlarge part of the screen, set custom text size,

choose a screen saver, etc.

10


Changing mouse properties. Selecting the Mouse icon

opens a window that allows you to modify the way your

mouse operates. Adjustments here include alterations to the

configuration of buttons, pointer visibility and speed, wheel

scrolling behavior, and other useful settings.

Changing keyboard properties. Selecting the Keyboard

icon opens the Keyboard Properties window, where you can

set the character repeat rate and delay as well as the cursor

blink rate. You can also program any special keys your key-

board may have.

Setting date and time properties. Selecting the

Date/Time icon opens the Date/Time Properties window.

This tool sets the computer clock to the current date and

time so that files will be properly date-stamped when created

and modified. You can also enable automatic Daylight

Savings time adjustments. In addition, you can synchronize

your computer clock with an Internet time server to ensure

that the clock on your computer is accurate. Your clock is

typically updated once a week, and needs to be connected to

the Internet for the synchronization to occur. Click the

Change Settings button to choose from several time servers

listed.

FIGURE 7—Control Panel Features for Customizing Desktop Display and Operation

Application Software

In addition to tools and customizing functions, a full-featured

operating system also provides some basic applications to

perform common tasks. Since these applications are integrated

in the operating system, the output from one application can

usually be used in another. For example, an illustration

created in Adobe Photoshop can be inserted as a picture into

a Microsoft Word document, because operating systems have

built-in processes to pass files between applications.

You’ll find several applications that are bundled with Windows,

although not strictly part of the operating system itself. Click

on the Start icon and select All Programs, followed by

Accessories. Following is a partial list.

Calculator. This handy program performs the functions of a

standard pocket calculator or scientific calculator. With this

calculator, you can do simple, statistical, and scientific calcu-

lations. A feature of the scientific calculator that you might

be interested in is that you can convert a number to other

number systems such as hexadecimal or binary.

Notepad. This is a very basic word processor that’s easy to

use and ideal for quickly writing short pieces of text. The pro-

gram doesn’t contain any of the text-formatting features found

in larger word processors. Common uses of the Notepad

application might include the writing of short notes, memos,

and lists.

WordPad. This is a basic word processing application

designed for day-to-day correspondence, reports, and other

formal documents. Many of the basic text-formatting, font

size, and font selection features found in larger word process-

ing programs are included in WordPad. This application also

allows you to insert a wide variety of objects including charts,

mail, images, and other documents.

Paint. The Paint program is a drawing application that

allows you to create graphic designs, freestyle drawings, and

paintings in full color or black-and-white. Pencils, brushes,

color applicators, and shape tools are available to help you

create your drawing. Tools are also available that allow you to

stretch, skew, flip, and rotate your work.



Imaging. The Imaging application lets you scan and work

with digitized images. Basic tools allow you to perform basic

editing and resizing of images. Several images can be viewed

simultaneously using reduced-size images called thumbnails.

Snipping. The Snipping tool enables you to capture screen

shots of anything on your desktop. These images can then be

annotated, saved, or shared.

Practical Exercise 1The following exercises are written specifically for Windows

Vista/Windows 7. Other Windows operating systems have

similar functions, and you should be able to perform the

same tasks with little difficulty. We don’t recommend work-

ing with an OS older than Windows XP, however.

Practical Exercise 1A

In this exercise, you’ll explore some of the options available

to you in the Resource Monitor.

1. Click on Start (or the Windows icon at the lower left cor-

ner of the display screen).

2. Click on the Resource Monitor icon (or type “Resource

Monitor” into the Search programs and files field)

3. With Overview selected, what are the other types of

information available from this panel?

4. Locate Processes under Memory, and list the subcate-

gories shown.

5. Under CPU Processes, right-click on a process and list

the available selections in the menu.

6. Continue to navigate through the Resource Monitor to

familiarize yourself with the information available. Close

the panel when you’ve finished.

Check your answers and results against those on page 69.


Practical Exercise 1B

There are several reasons you might need to open Device

Manager in Vista or Windows 7. Device Manager is used to

manage system resources for your hardware, update device

drivers, resolve conflicts between devices, and other impor-

tant tasks.

1. Click on Start and then click on Control Panel.

2. Under the System and Security option, select System

and then click Device Manager.

3. In the list of devices, select Display Adapter. The specific

software driver for your monitor/screen will be listed.

4. Right-click on the entry and select Properties. What’s

the device status?

5. Click the Driver tab. What are the options you can

select here?

6. Continue to navigate through the Device Manager and

find the driver files associated with the keyboard, mouse,

and other devices.

7. Close all windows and the Control Panel when you’re

finished.

Check your answers and results on page 70.


Self-Check 1

At the end of each section of Introduction to Operating Systems, you’ll be asked to pause

and check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Self-Check”

exercise. Answering these questions will help you review what you’ve studied so far.

Please complete Self-Check 1 now.

1. An operating system acts as an interface between _______ and _______.

2. Which of the following statements is true of a computer’s BIOS?

a. It’s stored in RAM.b. It communicates with the hard disk, monitor, and other system devices.c. It’s considered a piece of hardware.d. It’s stored in cache.

3. You’ve connected the cable from a new printer into the printer port of the computer, pluggedthe printer power cord into the wall outlet, and loaded paper. When the print icon on a Wordfile is pressed, the printer does nothing. What is the probable cause of the printer’s failure toprint?

a. The printer isn’t compatible with your computer.b. The printer icon in the Windows Word file isn’t connected.c. You forgot to install the device driver for the printer.d. The 36-pin Centronics connector at the printer end of the cable is defective.

4. Which of the following is used to control computer memory?

a. Application Program Interface (API)b. Resource Managerc. Batch processd. Random access memory (RAM)

Check your answers with those on page 69.


EVOLUTION OF OPERATING SYSTEMSThis portion of the study unit begins with a brief history of

operating systems. It’s important you have a basic knowledge

of operating system history to understand how operating

systems got to where they are today. You’ll see how the func-

tions of early operating systems were continually improved

and how new features were developed to improve the opera-

tion and use of the PC. While reading this section, pay

particular attention to the timing of new operating system

releases. Note that development was relatively slow in early

years, but has increased significantly in recent years. This

trend should demonstrate the need for you to continually

keep abreast of new operating system developments in order

to maintain and troubleshoot the latest PCs.

Following the history of operating systems, you’ll learn about

the change from older operating systems able to do one task

at a time, to newer operating systems that support multi-

tasking. Multitasking is a function of the operating system

that allows the PC to run multiple programs at the same

time. The last topic we’ll discuss concerns file naming. The

operating system is basically a program similar to application

programs, in that it’s composed of numerous files that pro-

vide the program’s unique functions along with additional

files that contain specific information. Following the discus-

sion on multitasking, we’ll describe a portion of the file name

called the file extension, which is used to identify types of files.

A Brief HistoryThe first modern computers with something that resembled

an operating system as we know it today were designed by

scientists and mathematicians to perform specific tasks.

Most were larger than a minivan, with memory storage pro-

vided by reel-to-reel magnetic tapes. Operating systems were

very basic and rarely did more than read a code on the mag-

netic tape.

In the late 1960s, engineers were designing computers with a

wider variety of tasks in mind. Computers became capable of

handling very complex tasks, but used operating systems

specific to each machine. Computer communications began

during this period and sparked the need for more uniform

operating systems, faster data transfer, more memory, and

better ease of use.

During this time many operating systems were created, but

one that rose to the surface faster than the others was OS/8

from Digital Equipment Corporation’s DPD series. While

other operating systems were good, OS/8 seemed to be the

most reliable and could also run Multics, which was the

foundation for the first version of UNIX. Multics was the first

practical and popular multi-user multitasking operating system.

Table 1 shows a brief history of operating system develop-

ment. In the table, “First” doesn’t mean it was the first time

it was developed, but the first time it was mass produced

and widely accepted in the marketplace.



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MultitaskingOne of the most important features of Windows is that it

allows you to open and run several programs at one time.

Each program you open appears in its own “window” on the

display screen. When multiple windows are opened (multiple

programs started), you can individually monitor and control

each program through its own window.

However, conflicts can occur between two or more programs

running at the same time. This can cause hang-ups and

crashes. This is because the OS allows programs to directly

access hardware resources. So if problems occur, close some

of the programs running in the background.

The Taskbar at the bottom of the screen shows what programs

are open (Figure 8). They’re displayed graphically in buttons

on the Taskbar. Although multiple windows are displayed on

the screen, only one window can be active at a time. The

Taskbar indicates which window is active by showing its but-

ton as depressed. To change the active window, you can

Table 1 (contd)

OPERATING SYSTEM RELEASES

Operating SystemApprox.

DateBits Effect

Windows Home Server 2007 32/64Media sharing, file backup, and duplication for

consumers

Windows Vista 2006 32/64

64-bit version broke the four-gigabyte (4GB) memory

barrier and enabled 10 times faster execution; offered

enhanced security

Windows Server 2008 2008 64

Builds on enhanced security; management and admin-

istrative features new to Vista including Core, Active

Directory, and policy improvements

Windows 7 2009 32/64

Incremental upgrade; more compatible with applications

and hardware than Vista; new taskbar and performance

improvements


either click on the Taskbar button of the window to make it

active, or you can click on the window itself, if it’s displayed

on the screen.

File Names and ExtensionsEvery computer file has a name. One purpose of the name is

to describe the content of the file. In the DOS operating sys-

tem and in early versions of Windows, file names were limited

to eight characters and couldn’t contain any spaces. More

recent Windows systems allow long, multiple-word file names

with spaces, making it much easier to describe file content.

Often, a file name is followed by a period (used as a divider)

and an extension, usually consisting of three characters. The

purpose of the extension is to indicate the type of file or some-

times to identify the software package used to create the file.

The following box contains common file extensions that you

should be familiar with. Familiarizing yourself with these file

extensions will help you in troubleshooting by readily know-

ing the purpose or origin of a file.

FIGURE 8—The Taskbar shows the icons of programs currently runningand files that are open. Placing the cursor over the icon will produce apreview of the file. Here, placing the cursor over the icon for InternetExplorer displays a small version of the current Web page.


Extension Description and Purpose

BAT Batch file containing DOS commands

BMP Bitmap file used to store images

CAB Cabinet file containing compressed files. Commonly used to distribute software.

Files must be extracted before use.

COM Command file used to start an application program

DLL Dynamic-Link Library file containing a subprogram or routine that can be initiated

from other programs

DOC Document file created by Microsoft Word 2003 and earlier

DOCX Document file in Open XML format created by Microsoft Word 2007 or later

DRV Device driver that lets the operating system interface with a particular device

EXE Executable file that starts an application program

GIF Graphics Interchange File used for images

HLP Help file used for Windows

INF Information or setup file

INI Initialization file used in Windows 3.x for application and operating environment

control. Also used in later versions of Windows to be backward compatible with

3.x.

JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group file used for graphics images

MPEG Moving Pictures Expert Group file used for motion pictures

PPT Presentation file created by Microsoft PowerPoint

RTF Rich Text Format used to store text documents

SYS System files used by the operating system for start-up

TIF or TIFF Tag Image File Format used to store graphic images

TXT Text file used to store text only

VDD or VxD Virtual device driver that’s a 32-bit driver and runs in protected mode

XLS Spreadsheet file created by Microsoft Excel

ZIP Zipped file that has been compressed and must be unzipped, or expanded,

before use

386 Files used by Windows 3.x for device drivers


Self-Check 2

1. Which operating system was developed first?

a. MS-DOS c. Mac OSb. UNIX d. CP/M

2. What company first introduced the mouse and graphical user interface (GUI) to the general public?

a. IBM c. AT&T Bell Labsb. Macintosh d. Microsoft

3. What was the first operating system used by the IBM PC?

a. MS-DOS c. Windowsb. UNIX d. PC DOS

4. True or False? To keep the end user from damaging the system, some OS computer fileshave no names.

5. What do file extensions tell the technician and end user?

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________



PC HARDWARE, PROCESSORS,AND OPERATING SYSTEMS In this portion of the study unit you’ll learn about the devel-

opment of PC hardware and operating systems. For a PC to

function properly, the hardware and operating system must

be compatible. This means that the hardware must match the

capabilities of the operating system. As a result, you must be

careful when upgrading a PC to a newer operating system to

ensure that the current hardware can support any additional

operating system requirements and features. In some cases,

when you install a new operating system, you may also need

to upgrade the hardware.

We’ll begin with a review of popular PC processors. Here

you’ll be given an overview of processor development along

with the new features introduced with each processor. You’ll

also learn about popular PC operating systems, beginning

with the early Disk Operating Systems, known as DOS. This

information on operating systems includes Windows, Unix,

and Mac OS. Each operating system is discussed separately

so you can easily follow the development of each system.

Finally you’ll be provided with information about commands

you can enter and execute in Windows, UNIX, and Mac OS.

These commands allow you to perform basic functions such

as program and file management.

PC ProcessorsThe following is a list of CPUs:

1. Intel

2. Intel Itanium

3. AMD

4. Motorola/Freescale

5. SPARC

6. Alpha

Intel

Intel CPUs are typically found in IBM-based PCs. The CPU

used in the first IBM PC was the 8088. No cache memory

was needed because the internal and external clocks ran at

the same speed.

The next version, the 8086 CPU, was identical to the 8088,

except it had a 16-bit data path. The 80286 (often referred to

as the 286) was the next big jump in computer technology.

The 286 had more advanced chip functionality, making more

commands available to the user, and had higher clock speeds

of up to 40 MHz. See Table 2 for a chronology of Intel CPUs.


Cache is a storage area for CPU outputoverflow until other PCcomponents can catchup. The internal clockcontrols the speed ofthe CPU. The externalclock controls the speedof components the CPUinterfaces with.

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UPC raeY /suBataDstiBsuBsserddA

zHMkcolC.tnI kcolC.txEzHM

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8808 8791 02/8 8–1 8–1 oN

6808 8791 02/61 61–4 61–4 oN

68208 2891 42/61 04–8 04–8 oN

XS68308 5891 42/61 04–61 04–61 oN

XD68308 5891 42/23 04–61 04–61 oN

XS68408 9891 42/61 08–61 04–61 seY

XD68408 9891 42/23 021–61 04–61 seY

muitneP 3991 82/23 332–61 66–61 seY

elibomrofmuitneP

sretupmoc

3991 82/23 003–61 66–61 seY

orPmuitneP 5991 82/46 002–33 05–33 seY

IImuitneP 7991 63/46 055–66 001–66 seY

noeX 8991 63/46 0002–005 004 seY

IIImuitneP 9991 63/46 0621–006 331–001 seY

4muitneP 1002 63/46 0023–0031 008 seY

Table 2A: 1978–2001


Intel ItaniumThe Itanium processor is built on the RISC-based EPIC

architecture and is a significant departure from previous

Intel processors.

Intended for very large-scale operations, the Intel Itanium

processor is a 64-bit chip with 733 MHz and 800 MHz ver-

sions. The system has a 64-bit system bus and multiprocessor

capability of up to 2.2 gigabits per second. Both L1 and L2

cache are built into the chip. L3 cache can be either 2 MB or

4 MB operating at full internal clock speed.The chip features

the complete EPIC design allotment of 256 64-bit registers

that can operate as rotating registers. The unusually power-

ful Itanium processor is setting the stage for the future.

AMDAdvanced Micro Devices develops and manufactures

Windows-compatible processor units (CPUs), graphics pro-

cessing units (GPUs), and nonvolatile flash memory. Their

CPU line includes the Athlon, Opteron, and Phenom families.

Their latest innovation is the Fusion, which will merge a CPU

and a GPU.

RISC meansReduced InstructionSet Computer. EPICmeans ExplicitlyParallel InstructionComputing.

Table 2B: 2001–2010

INTEL CPU CHRONOLOGY

CPU Year Bus Transfer Clock Cache

Itanium 2001 100 MHz 1.0 GHz 256 KB

Celeron 2002 133 MHz 800 MHz 128 KB

Pentium M 2003 400 MHz 400 MHz 2 MB

Pentium Extreme 2005 1066 MHz 3.2 GHz 4 MB

Pentium D 2006 800 MHz 3.2 GHz 2 MB

Intel Core 2 2006 1333 MHz 3.0 GHz 4 MB

Pentium Dual Core 2007 1066 MHz 3.33 GHz 2 MB

Atom 2008 667 MHz 2.13 GHz 1 MB

Core i3 2009 10 GB/s 3.33 GHz 4 MB

Core i7 2010 6.4 GT/s (Quick Path) 3.6 GHz 12 MB

Motorola/Freescale

For years, Motorola made chips mostly for Macintosh com-

puters. Motorola spun off its chip business in 2003 and

established Freescale Semiconductor. The company contin-

ued to supply microprocessors to Apple Inc. until 2006, when

Apple transitioned to an Intel-based product line. Freescale is

now an industry leader in embedded microprocessors for

automobile applications.

SPARC

SPARC (Scalable Processor Architecture), originally developed

by Sun Microsystems, was released in open-source form in

2006, meaning the design is available to any company. It was

used in 2009 by Fujitsu for the Venus processor, rated at 128

GFLOPS (128 billion floating-point operations per second).

Alpha

Alpha CPUs were developed by Digital Equipment Corporation

(now owned by Compaq). The last model was phased out in

2004.

PC Operating SystemsThere are a variety of operating systems in use today. How a

computer is going to be utilized will govern the operating sys-

tem that will be needed. Some of the most common operating

systems are Windows, UNIX, and Mac. Following are some

operating systems past and present.

DOS

The Disk Operating System (DOS) is obsolete, making it rare

to find anyone using it these days. The DOS text-based com-

mand line has given way to the more popular graphical user

interface (GUI).



Windows 3.x

Windows 3.x was the first IBM PC operating system to use a

graphical interface. The foundation of Windows 3.x is a 16-bit

operating system running on top of DOS.

Windows 95

This was the first 32-bit OS that didn’t rely on DOS. It had

backward compatibility but wasn’t recommended. Windows 95

required about twice the memory, processor speed, and

hard-disk space of Windows 3.x. Windows 95 also had more

functions than Windows 3.x, such as a faster GUI, Plug-and-

Play capabilities, improved networking capabilities,

multitasking, and others.

The GUI of Windows 95 provided a workspace called the

desktop where programs could be run; files moved, managed,

and manipulated; and where access to networks and the

Internet was simple. The desktop made access to available

peripherals almost intuitive

(Figure 9).

Kernel and APIs. The kernel

is a set of core operating-

system programs that handle

many functions, including

talking to the CPU and peri-

pheral devices. Kernels reside

in the system directory and

are loaded into memory or vir-

tual memory. An Application

Program Interface (API) opens

the kernel so it can perform a

specific function.

FIGURE 9—Windows 95 Start Menu


Plug and Play (PnP). Plug and Play enables the operating

system to recognize Plug and Play devices. When PnP detects

new hardware, it communicates with it to determine what

device drivers are necessary, what resources to allocate to

the use of the device, and how to configure the new device.

Before PnP, hardware was configured manually. Manual

configurations were often tedious and time-consuming.

ActiveX and the Component Object Model (COM). Clicking

and dragging files from folder to folder and dragging files to

e-mail messages and various places on a network are the

function of ActiveX and Component Object Model. ActiveX

and COM make shortcuts possible, and make using Windows

easier than anything developed before.

The registry. The registry was a new concept for the way

software and hardware were configured, and how information

was stored and managed. Windows 3.x was the first with a

registry, but it wasn’t used exclusively until Windows 95.

The registry is a hierarchical database that provides the

following information:

• Operating-system configuration

• Service and device driver information and configuration

• Static turning parameters

• Software and application parameters

• Hardware configuration

• Performance information

• Desktop configuration

When software reads or writes to the registry, it uses operat-

ing system functions. Windows can share registry data over a

network.

When you make a backup file for Windows, be sure to also

back up the registry. It’s a crucial tool in restoring the oper-

ating system should the need arise.

Multitasking. Windows 95 had a system called Task

Supervisor to detect tasks that were stuck. When a task

was stuck, Task Supervisor would display an option to the

28


user to close the task. In Windows 95 preemptive multitask-

ing, the operating system had control of multitasking, which

made it very difficult for a program to gain control of the CPU.

Network and communications. Windows 95 networking

functions were completely different from previous Windows

versions, in that the network drivers were part of the

Windows operating system. Windows 95 was able to commu-

nicate over a network with many other operating systems.

Internet connectivity was an add-on in Windows 95 and was

called Internet Explorer. Tasks like generating a pulse or tone

for dialing and connecting was new in Windows 95. Formerly

an application had to perform those tasks. Network driver

technology that supports the use of modems to access net-

works and the Internet over phone lines is called dial-up

networking (DUN). With the addition of the Plus!™ add-on set

of utilities, a computer with a modem could be set up as a

DUN server to receive calls over phone lines and allow callers

access to shared files.

Windows 95 also had built-in fax support. The only thing

necessary was a modem capable of sending and receiving fax

data.

Windows 98

Some of the problems with Windows 95 were solved in

Windows 98, but for the most part the two operating systems

were very much alike. In fact, most of the code was identical.

Some of the revisions in Windows 98 included

• Auto registry repair during the boot process

• Expanded PnP support

• ActiveX Technology standard

• Advanced power management features

• Support for multimedia applications

• Standard equipment universal serial bus (USB)

• Improved cooperative multitasking for 16-bit applications

• Greater integration of Internet and networking features

USB enables you toconnect several devicesto one bus. It’sintended to replaceserial and parallel bustechnologies.


• Extended multimedia support

• Expanded network support for high-speed networking

• Ability to perform upgrades over the Internet

The look of Windows 98 changed from Windows 95. Compare

Figures 9 and 10.

Because of ActiveX technology it was possible to put short-

cuts to Internet objects right on the desktop. Internet objects

could even be set to update automatically.

30

FIGURE 10—Windows 98 Start Menu


Windows Millennium Edition (Me)

Windows Me was the last Windows operating system that

used cooperative multitasking for 16-bit applications, used

preemptive multitasking for 32-bit applications, and retained

the ability to run older 16-bit DOS and Windows software. It

was also the last Windows operating system that gave appli-

cations direct access to hardware without going through the

operating system kernel.

Windows Me was intended for use by home computer users.

Some offices used Windows Me because of backward compat-

ibility with older applications the business may have stored a

lot of information on. In a business environment, Windows Me

was better suited as a stand-alone and used only for archive

retrieval; when connected to a network with a Windows NT or

Windows 2000 domain, Windows Me often didn’t communi-

cate well.

Windows Me enhanced support for infrared devices and the

latest plug and play technology, called Universal Plug and

Play (UPnP). UPnP was better suited to recognizing more

modern devices like cameras and TVs. Windows Me was also

equipped with better networking capabilities for home use.

Windows New Technology (NT)

Windows NT differed from other versions of Windows because

of the system architecture. NT built on the Intel platform

to make an operating system that could be used on very

powerful computers with a choice of RISC or CISC processor

architecture. While many architectures were available, sup-

port for high-end IBM PC and DEC Alpha architectures was a

constant for Windows NT.

Windows NT looked very much like Windows 98. Compare

Figures 10 and 11.

A big difference between Windows 98 and Windows NT was

that the operating system kernel in Windows NT ran in

privileged mode, which protected it from problems caused by

malfunctioning programs. Privileged mode gave the system an

extra level of security from intruders and prevented system

crashes caused by erratic operation of applications.


Direct access to the computer’s memory was allowed from the

privileged mode. Applications that needed access to memory

and hardware issued a request to an operating-system ser-

vice, rather than to a direct memory or hardware instruction.

Preemptive multitasking. Windows NT used preemptive

multitasking rather than cooperative multitasking. The

advantage was that the operating system had more control of

what the system would do and when, making performance

much more predictable. Because Windows NT was designed

nearly from scratch with no restrictions, it tended to outper-

form all Windows versions that came before it.

As with most newer and faster systems, Windows NT required

more memory, disk space, and a faster CPU. A Windows NT

workstation could use two CPUs, and a Windows NT server

could use as many as four CPUs. The technology that allowed

all CPUs to operate at the same time was called symmetric

multiprocessing (SMP). Windows NT 3.51 and 4.0 supported

SMP.

Windows NT workstation and server. In a Windows NT

workstation, the kernel was optimized for maximum perform-

ance to run interactive applications such as screen updates

and fast retrieval and storage of data.

32

FIGURE 11—Windows NT Start Menu


In Windows NT server, the kernel was optimized for maxi-

mum network and disk performance. All features of the

workstation were included on the server, but not all features

of the server were included in the workstation. The Windows

NT server was marketed as being able to handle 15,000 users

at the same time. A Windows NT workstation could handle 10

users at the same time.

Networking support. Because Windows NT was designed

as a multi-user system, the networking features were more

powerful than those of any Windows versions before it.

Windows NT supported network connectivity protocols that

were compatible with IBM mainframes, UNIX computers,

Macintosh computers, all Windows-based computers, Novell

NetWare servers, and a host of others. It also supported high-

speed networking connectivity and remote access over phone

lines and the Internet.

Security. A security feature of Windows NT required a

user to log on with a user name and password. Because

Windows NT provided security at many levels, it had a C2

top-secret security rating from the U.S. government. Security

levels included

• File and folder protection

• User accounts and passwords

• File folder and account auditing

• File server access protection on a network

• File server management controls

Windows 2000

While Windows 2000 was built on Windows NT technology, it

was a more robust operating system and included a signifi-

cant rewrite of the Windows NT kernel. Windows 2000 ran

about 30% faster, had more advanced networking support,

and supported new technologies like VPNs (Virtual Private

Networks). Some of the more prominent features of Windows

2000 included Active Directory, DNA, Kerberos security,

IntelliMirror, power management, and increased language

support.

Active Directory. Active Directory was a database used to

store information about resources at various levels (hierar-

chies) for local and universal management. These groupings

were called containers. The Active Directory provided a means

to quickly find a specific resource through indexing. Active

Directory was revised to extend functionality and improve

administration in Windows Server 2003. Active Directory

was improved with the advent of Windows Server 2003R2,

Windows Server 2008, and Windows Server 2008 R2, and

was renamed Active Directory Domain Services.

Distributed Network Architecture (DNA). To match the

needs of all networks, Windows 2000 offered new ways to

distribute network and management resources. With Windows

2000, multiple servers could be designated as domain con-

trollers. Each server could then contain a copy of the Active

Directory and verify user log-in and passwords.

Kerberos security. Kerberos was created by Massachusetts

Institute of Technology as a solution to network security

problems. Kerberos allows two parties to communicate on an

open network without interruption by other users. A special

communication protocol enables a client to initiate contact

with a server and request secure communication. The server

provides an encrypted key that’s unique to that communica-

tion. The Kerberos protocol uses strong cryptography so that

a client can prove its identity to a server (and vice versa)

across an insecure network connection. After a client and

server prove their identity, they can also encrypt all of their

communications to assure privacy and data integrity. Both

Windows 2000 Server and Windows 2000 Professional sup-

port Kerberos.

IntelliMirror. The IntelliMirror™ management technologies

were a set of powerful features built into the Windows 2000

operating system, designed for desktop change and configu-

ration management. IntelliMirror™ used features in both

Windows 2000 Server and Windows 2000 Professional to

allow users’ data, software, and settings to follow them.

The features of IntelliMirror™ increased the availability of a

user’s data, personal computer settings, and computing envi-

ronment by intelligently managing information, settings, and

software. Based on policy definitions, IntelliMirror™ was able



to deploy, recover, restore or replace the user’s data, software,

and personal settings in a Windows 2000 Professional–based

environment.

Power management. Both Windows 2000 Server and

Windows 2000 Professional supported OnNow Technology,

making a sleeping system instantly accessible to users at

the touch of a button. As with appliances, the computer

needed to be always on and ready for use, but in an energy

conservation mode when not in use. This state of low power

consumption was called the sleeping or hibernating state.

When the computer was in the sleeping state, the computer

hardware, the system, and applications running on the com-

puter needed to be capable of responding immediately to the

power switch, communications events, and other actions. If

all applications handled power state transitions gracefully,

the user would perceive a smoother operation. Applications

that don’t handle these transitions can fail when the power is

turned off and then on, because of data loss or a dependency

on a device that may have been removed.

Languages. To broaden the linguistic base, Windows 2000

Professional added Hindi, Chinese, and several versions of

English.

Windows 2000 Server and Windows 2000 Professional

Windows 2000 Professional was the Windows operating sys-

tem for business desktop and laptop systems. It was used to

run software applications, connect to Internet and intranet

sites, and access files, printers, and network resources.

Microsoft Windows 2000 Server was the multipurpose net-

work operating system for businesses of all sizes. Windows

2000 Server could

• Share files and printers reliably and securely

• Build Web applications and connect to the Internet

• Handle an unlimited number of users simultaneously

• Perform active directory management

• Perform network management

• Conduct Web-based management services

• Provide network-wide security management

• Perform application services management

• Provide network printer management through Active

Directory

• Secure high-speed network connectivity

Advanced Server. Windows 2000 Advanced Server was the

server operating system for a line of business applications

and e-commerce. Windows 2000 Advanced Server included

all the features and application availability of Windows 2000

Server, with additional scalability and reliability features,

such as clustering. It was designed to keep business-critical

applications up and running in the most demanding scenar-

ios. Advanced Server helped ensure systems were available

by addressing the causes of both planned and unplanned

network and server downtime. It also had features that let

applications grow to support large numbers of users and

data.

Datacenter Server. The Windows 2000 Datacenter Server

was the most powerful and functional server operating sys-

tem ever offered by Microsoft at the time. It supported up to

32-way symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) and up to 32 giga-

bytes (GB) of physical memory. It provided both 4-node

clustering and load-balancing services as standard features

(Figure 12). It also provided the best Internet and Network

Operating System (NOS) services of all the versions of

Windows 2000 Server. The Datacenter Server was optimized

for large data warehouses, econometric analysis, large-scale

simulations in science and engineering, online transaction

processing (OLTP), and server consolidation. It was designed

with very reliable high-end drivers and software, and was

developed to work optimally in high-traffic computer networks.

Windows XP and Server 2003

Both Windows XP, which is the desktop version, and

Windows Server 2003 (formerly Windows.net), which is the

server version, are an upgrade of Windows 2000, with most


Clustering is connectingtwo or more servers toact as one.


changes in the GUI (Figure 13). Windows XP and Server 2003

remove icons from the desktop and incorporate them into the

start menu.

Users who are more comfortable with Windows 2000 can

simulate its user interface in Windows XP and Server 2003

by selecting the option Use Classic Interface.

Workstation

Workstation

Workstation

Workstation

Workstation

Clusteredservers acting

as one

Windows2000server

Windows2000 server

Windows2000 server

Connecting hub

FIGURE 12—Server Clustering

Windows XP and Server 2003 offer more capabilities than

Windows 2000 for keeping photo albums, playing music, run-

ning video and audio files, playing games, and using other

multimedia applications. A built in firewall offers better

Internet security and the ability to remotely control the com-

puter through an Internet connection using a tool called

Remote Desktop.

Windows XP comes in two versions: Professional and Home

Edition. Windows XP Professional is the upgrade to Windows

2000 Professional, intended for office use. XP has the ability

to create accounts for different operating system users.

Windows XP Home Edition is the upgrade to Windows Me.

Windows XP and Server 2003 have an updated control panel

allowing the user to customize all types of Windows settings.

(Figure 14).


FIGURE 13—Windows XP Desktop and Start Menu


Programs written for earlier versions of an operating system

may not run on updated versions. Windows, however, has

various methods of running software originally designed for

older versions of the operating system. Windows NT and

successors have various subsystems to run these legacy

applications. With the introduction of Windows 7 (Business,

Ultimate, or Enterprise editions), Windows XP Mode enables

full compatibility with older programs supported under

Windows XP via Microsoft Virtual PC. The Windows XP

Compatibility Wizard can tell you if the program version you

want to run will work with XP. As shown in Figure 15, select

the program you want to run, then select the operating

system it was written for. The results of the process will

determine if the program will be compatible.

FIGURE 14—Windows XP Professional Control Panel

Sales of Windows XP were discontinued in 2010. The OS will

continue to be supported with security updates only until

April 8, 2014, at which point support will be completely

terminated.

Windows 2003 Server is available in various versions similar

to the Windows 2000 Server—Enterprise Server, Datacenter

Server, and Web Server.

Windows 2003 Server is a minor upgrade from Windows

2000 and contains the following features:

• New GUI interface used with Windows XP

• Faster network logon authentication through Active

Directory

• Several hundred new group policies that can be set to

manage user workstations


FIGURE 15—Windows XP Program Compatibility Wizard


• New tools for managing server resources

• Ability to run on 64-bit Itanium computers

• Remote server management

• Enhanced ability for users to run programs on the server

through Microsoft Terminal Services

Windows Vista

Windows Vista was released in 2006 to business customers,

and to consumers in January 2007. It featured enhanced

security, a new user interface, and several new applications

bundled as part of the OS. In addition to the new user inter-

face, security capabilities, and developer technologies, several

major components of the core operating system were

redesigned.

Security. Some specific areas where Windows Vista intro-

duced new security and safety mechanisms included User

Account Control, Network Access Protection, and new digital

content protection mechanisms. User Account Control did

away with the need to run as an administrator for everyday

tasks. Network Access Protection (NAP) prevented Vista

clients from connecting to a network without having the

proper security updates. The new Internet Explorer 7 browser

kept malicious software (malware) and Web sites from chang-

ing configuration settings.

Interface. The transparent Aero interface was the most

noticeable change from previous versions. The taskbar still

contained the quick launch section, any open applications,

and the system tray. Hovering over an open application icon,

however, would display a preview of that window. The Start

button changed from a square to a round icon (the Windows

pearl orb) in place of the word “Start,” but the layout

remained consistent with XP and 2000. Windows Explorer

was modified with the addition of a Details pane, which

showed information on the selected file, including thumbnail

views.

Technical features. Several major components of the core

operating system were redesigned. These enhancements were

visible to software developers but not to end-users. For the


redesign of the networking architecture, Vista incorporated

Internet Protocol v6 and comprehensive wireless networking

support. Desktop Window Manager offloads tasks to the

graphics processing unit, and installs drivers without requir-

ing a system reboot. Many improvements were made to the

memory manager, process scheduler, heap manager, and I/O

scheduler.

Windows Registry. The registry contains information and

settings for all the hardware, operating system software,

application software, users, and preferences for the PC.

Beginning with Windows 95, it provided a single database of

configuration files that might otherwise be scattered all over

the system. In Vista, the registry was virtualized, meaning

that applications are prevented from writing to system folders

in Vista’s file system and to the “machine wide keys” in the

registry. As a result, the registry in Vista doesn’t become

excessively large or bloated as it did in XP. It doesn’t, how-

ever, prevent standard user accounts from installing or

running applications. These changes carried over into the

Windows 7 operating system.

System Restore. This function, introduced in XP, allows

users to create a restore point, which is a copy of the com-

puter’s configuration at a specific point in time. Thus, if the

computer crashed or the operating system became corrupted,

you could restore the system to a previous working state.

Beginning with Vista, the system itself sets restore points

automatically; for instance, any time you install new software.

New and upgraded applications. Vista implemented

several new and upgraded applications as part of the OS,

including the following:

• Windows Mail replaced Outlook Express.

• Backup and Restore replaced NTBackup.

• Windows Contacts replaced Windows Address Book.

• Windows Calendar, a new application that supported

sharing, subscribing, and publishing of calendars

• Windows Fax and Scan, an integrated faxing and scan-

ning application

• Windows Meeting Space replaced NetMeeting, a peer-to-

peer collaboration application.

42


• Paint was given new features, such as a crop function,

and the undo limit was raised from 3 to 10.

• WordPad was changed to support the Text Services

Framework.

• Sound Recorder was rewritten to support recording clips

of any length and saving them as WMA.

• Snipping tool, a screen-capture tool that allows for

taking screen shots

• Windows Photo Gallery, a photo and video library

management application.

• Windows Movie Maker supports smooth Direct3D-based

effects and transitions, editing and outputting HD video,

importing recorded DVR-MS format videos, as well as

burning the output movie on a CD.

• Windows DVD Maker, a DVD creation application

(Applications can also pass an XML file to DVD maker

for authoring and burning.)

Windows 7

Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental

upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being more

compatible with applications and hardware than Vista, which

caused significant problems for many users. Development

focused on multitouch support, a redesigned Windows shell

with a new taskbar, a home networking system called

HomeGroup, and performance improvements. Some standard

applications that were included with prior releases of

Microsoft Windows, including Calendar, Mail, Movie Maker,

and Photo Gallery, weren’t included in Windows 7. Rather,

they were made part of the no-charge Windows Live

Essentials suite. Windows 7 uses a variety of new tools to

locate inefficient code paths and to prevent performance

problems.

Interface. The Aero style has been carried forward from

Vista (Figure 16). The taskbar has seen the biggest visual

changes, where the Quick Launch toolbar has been replaced

with the Superbar, allowing applications to be pinned to the


taskbar. Buttons for pinned applications, in turn, are inte-

grated with the task buttons. These buttons also enable the

Jump Lists feature to allow easy access to common tasks and

reordering of taskbar buttons. To the far right of the system

clock is a small rectangular button that serves as the Show

desktop icon, called Aero Peek. Additionally, the Aero Snap

feature automatically maximizes a window when it’s dragged

to the top of the screen, and allows you to snap documents

or files on either side of the screen for comparison between

windows.

Technical features. For developers, Windows 7 includes

improved networking tools to build Web services, new fea-

tures to shorten application install times, reduced User

Access Control prompts, simplified development of installation

packages, and improved linguistic tools. Richer color depths

and more robust video modes are supported. There’s better

compatibility with solid-state drives and newer versions of

USB drives.

44

FIGURE 16—Windows 7 Desktop


File system. Windows 7 incorporates many engineering

changes to reduce the frequency of write-and-erase cycles.

This results in better performance for solid-state drives.

Explorer libraries. Explorer in Windows 7 supports

Libraries, which present a unified view of files both on the

local machine and on a linked remote drive on a network.

UNIX System V Release 4 (SVR4)UNIX conforms to one of two main standards, Berkeley

Software Distribution (BSD) or SVR4. Table 3 is a list of UNIX

versions.

Extensive work has been done to improve the user interface

to UNIX. The most dramatic effort has been the addition of

Windows-type interfaces on top of UNIX such as X-Windows,

Suntools, NextStep, Motif, OpenLook, etc. (Figures 17 and 18).

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Single UNIX Specification The Open Group XPG4, POSIX and ISO C


FIGURE 17—Linux GUIDesktop

FIGURE 18—Linux Terminal Emulation Window


These Windows type interfaces don’t change UNIX itself, but

are built on top of UNIX to provide a more intuitive user

interface. Each of the different user interfaces has advantages

and disadvantages. Currently, an intensive development

effort is being done on all of these graphical user interfaces.

Vendors providing UNIX have also done some work to improve

the GUI of their particular versions of UNIX, for users with-

out Windows-type interfaces.

UNIX runs on many different computer systems ranging from

small desktops to the largest computers in the world. Once a

user has learned UNIX, the skills can be used on many dif-

ferent systems. This ability for a user to work on many

different makes of computer systems without retraining is

called user portability.

Many users of other operating systems have converted to

using UNIX because they feel UNIX will be the last operating

system they’ll have to learn.

There’s been an effort to define what’s an open system in the

international standards area. An open system is a system

that allows application portability, system interoperability,

and user portability between many different computer vendor

hardware platforms. UNIX is a good example of the advan-

tages to the user of having an open system.

From a simple beginning as a personal research project to an

important role in the operating systems on a wide range of

computers, from desktop micros to the largest mainframes,

UNIX has and will have a large impact. The strength of UNIX

is its portability across multiple vendor hardware platforms,

vendor independent networking, and the strength of its

application-programming interface.

These benefits are so strong that the relatively weak end-user

interface hasn’t slowed the adoption of UNIX. Because end-

users have seen a drop in the cost of computing when multiple

vendors can provide the same operating system and software

solutions using UNIX, you can expect to come across a few

UNIX operating systems during your career.

Mac OS

Apple Computer’s Macintosh line of PCs revolutionized

operating systems. The Mac OS was the first to introduce

an all-graphical user interface and all-graphical shell.

Because the GUI of the Mac OS is so intuitive and popular

with users, Microsoft adapted their systems with a similar

look and called it Windows. Note the subtle differences in

Figures 13 and 18.

Mostly because many of the graphical functions are included

in the BIOS, which resides in ROM, the hardware architecture

of the Mac OS is very different from most other platforms.

Beginning with System 7.1, Apple incorporated System

Enabler files that allowed older versions of the OS to support

new hardware. When the next version of the OS was released,

support for the most recent Macs was included so that the

enabler file wasn’t needed for that model. Hardware architec-

ture to run a Mac OS is very dependent on the operating

system version. Apple hardware and software are closely

interconnected, leaving a narrow window for operating sys-

tem solutions. Only Apple manufactures Apple-compatible

hardware. At the time of this writing Apple currently has no

other licensed manufacturers.

Mac OSs weren’t multitasking prior to version 8.0; they were

task-switching with the aid of a MultiFinder. In Mac OS

Version 8.0 and above, multitasking is standard. CPU

resources are shared among all open applications.


FIGURE 18—Mac OS X Desktop (truncated)


Peer-to-peer networking has been a Mac standard since its

inception. The protocol is called AppleTalk. AppleTalk can be

used in all versions of Apple computers and in Windows and

Linux using the netatalk command. With the use of optional

clients or servers that provide AppleTalk compatible services,

most Mac computers can be easily networked to other networks.

The Mac OS can use its networking features to share printer

and disk resources. In version 8.x and higher, there are

extensions that will let Mac computers share resources using

protocols other than AppleTalk, including standard Internet

protocol TCP/IP.

The Mac OS has been exceptional in its support of video,

audio, and graphics. It’s especially popular in businesses

that deal with the performing and graphic arts. Mac font

management and colorSync color-matching technologies have

given it an edge in the pre-press fields, and QuickTime has

made it popular for multimedia, sound, and video production.

Mac OS 9.x introduced features for better hardware and

Internet access. Some examples are

• Printer-sharing panel to manage and share a USB

printer on a network

• Point-to-Point Protocol for remote communications

• Personal Web sharing for creating Web pages others

can access

• Java applets that can be run from the finder tool

• Network Assist Client tool used by network administra-

tors to control the computer

Mac OS X

X represents the Roman numeral 10. Version 10 had a new

GUI called Aqua, and was a major change for Apple. Some

programs and utilities were replaced. The Version 10 menu

has the following options:

• About This Mac

• Get Mac OS X Software

• System Preferences

TCP/IP stands for“Transmission ControlProtocol/InternetProtocol.”

• Dock

• Location

• Recent Items

• Force Quit

• Sleep

• Restart

• Shut Down

• Log Out

With Mac OS X, the Apple menu can’t be customized as

in previous versions. System Preferences is similar to the

Windows Control Panel, with nearly all the same functions.

The Dock function can now be customized through System

Preferences for applications the user wants to include.

Through Dock you can start several applications and switch

between them in a multitasking environment.

Mac OS X is factory configured so that different users can

use the operating system in their own workspaces without

affecting other users. The new Log Out function allows a user

to log out without turning off the computer and rebooting.

Mac has replicated some popular Windows features, in that a

Mac window can now be customized so that contents appear

in columns. Window tile bars now have buttons to maximize,

minimize, or close the window. Some windows have drawers

that offer information.

The new Internet Connect tool performs functions like the old

Remote Access tool. It enables the user to set up an Internet

connection, configure a modem, and monitor the status of a

connection. Internet applications include Mail from Apple

and Internet Explorer from Microsoft.

OS X for Intel-based Macintosh Computers

Macintosh OS X versions are named after big cats. The latest

production version is 10.6, and is known as Snow Leopard.

This is the successor to version 10.5, known as Leopard, and

is the first version of the OS to run solely on Intel-based Macs.



(Prior to 2006, Macintosh computers were based on the

Power PC processors manufactured by Motorola/Freescale.)

The resulting architecture also allows the new Intel-based

Macs to run Windows-based software.

Command-Line CommandsThe following DOS commands are intended to give you a

basic understanding of what’s necessary to use command-

line commands, whether it’s DOS or some other operating

system. These may be helpful when you can boot only to a

command prompt.

Basic Command Format

When you select the DOS prompt, a window opens displaying

the system prompt.

C:\WINDOWS>

This system prompt indicates that the command line is

presently set to the “Windows” folder (called a directory) on

the “C” drive. The directory displayed on the command line is

called the current directory. Any command you enter uses

this as its reference point.

The most basic of commands require no additional para-

meters. An example of this is the cls command to clear the

screen. If you type cls /? and press Enter following the

prompt, you’ll see the format of the cls command. In this case,

there are no other parameters and the response is simply a

brief description of what the command does. By entering only

cls after the prompt, the command is executed. The screen

(window) is cleared and only the prompt appears at the top of

the window.

Other examples of basic commands are the Time and Date

commands. Neither of these commands require additional

parameters. The commands simply cause the display to show

the current setting of the time or date; however, the cursor is

placed under the displayed time or date to allow you to make

a change. If you don’t wish to change the displayed value,

simply press the Enter key.

Command Parameters

Some commands require that you enter parameters. An

example is the command to make a new directory. This com-

mand can be entered as md or mkdir. By entering md /? or

mkdir /? on the command line, you’ll see the format for the

command. In this case, the format is shown as md or mkdir

followed by [drive:] path. Because drive: is enclosed in

brackets, the parameter is optional. However, you must spec-

ify the path. The path is the string of directories leading to

where you want the new directory created. The last directory

in the list is the name of the new directory you want to create.

Directory names are separated by a backslash (\).

For example, if you want to create a new directory called

“test1” in an existing directory called “repair” you could enter

the command:

c:\windows> mkdir \repair\test1

Note that the “repair” directory is preceded by a backslash.

This first backslash indicates that the string is to begin at

the root directory and not at the “windows” directory. The

root directory is the basic directory for the drive from which

all other directories branch out. The “windows” directory is

subordinate to the C drive root directory.

If your command prompt shows “windows” as the current

directory, you can go to the root directory using the change

directory command cd or chdir. By entering the command

chdir \ after the windows prompt, the prompt will change to

c:\> showing that you’re at the root directory. In this case,

you wouldn’t need to enter the initial backslash before

“repair” in the preceding example because you’re already in

the root directory.

Command Switches

Certain commands have switches that allow you to further

specify how a command is to be executed. Switches are

entered in the command by preceding the switch designation

with a forward slash (/).



For our example, let’s look at the “dir” (directory) command,

which allows you to display the subdirectories and files

contained in a specific directory. If you’re following along on

your PC, enter dir /? to display the directory command

format. One thing to note before we continue with our dis-

cussion on switches is that this command doesn’t have any

required parameters. If the command is entered with no

parameters, the entire contents of the current directory are

displayed. By entering parameters, you can control what you

want displayed.

The switches for the directory command allow you to specify

how you want the information to be displayed. For example,

if you’re displaying a large directory, your display screen will

quickly fill and continue to roll until all files are displayed.

The /P switch is a handy switch to control the display by

stopping (pausing) after each full screen of information. By

specifying /W, a wide-screen multicolumn format is used to

display more items on the screen at one time. Many other

switch options are available to control the display function.

To set switches, merely enter the switches, such as /P /W /L

at the end of the command after the parameters.

Wildcards

Wildcards are characters used when specifying file names or

extensions in commands. A wildcard is a “global” or “don’t

care” character that can be entered as part of the file name

or extension to indicate that any character in that spot is

acceptable. An asterisk (*) is used as a wildcard to represent

a group of characters. A question mark (?) is used to repre-

sent a single character.

Wildcards are very convenient when you want to use a single

command, such as a copy or a delete command, to apply to

many files. For example, if you want to delete all files having

an extension of .doc, you could enter the command del

*.doc. This would delete any named file in the current direc-

tory having an extension of .doc.

In another example, suppose you enter the command del

t?test.doc. In this example all .doc files having a filename

with a “t” as the first character and “test” as the third,

fourth, fifth and sixth characters will be deleted.

Command Summary—Windows

There are many more parameters and command format

considerations than we’ve discussed. However, once you learn

how to use these commands, you can put a string of com-

mands into an executable file. (In DOS, this is called a batch

file and has an extension of .bat.) You can then run the file,

which will execute the commands in sequence. This is a handy

way to write a program or routine that you may want to exe-

cute several times or perhaps run on different computers.

To access the DOS prompt and use the commands listed in

Tables 4 and 5, do the following:

In Windows XP, Vista, and Windows 7

Click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories and

click Command Prompt.



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Command Summary—UNIX

To access the Command Prompt window and use the com-

mands listed in Tables 6 and 7, do the following:

GNOME interface

Click GNOME Terminal. To access documentation on any of

these commands, type man. To advance through lines in the

documentation, type q in the text window. To close, type Exit

and press Enter. Notice that these commands are similar to

those in Mac OS X because Mac is based on UNIX.

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6

7


Command Summary—Macintosh

To access the Command prompt and use the commands

listed in Tables 8 and 9, do the following:

Open Macintosh HD

Double-click Applications, double-click Utilities, and

double-click Terminal.

To access documentation on any of these commands, type

man. Notice these commands are similar to those in Red Hat

Linux because Mac is based on UNIX.


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9


Practical Exercise 2

Using Command-Line Commands

In this exercise you’ll practice using DOS command-line com-

mands using Windows XP, Vista, or 7.

1. Open the Command Prompt window.

2. If you’re not currently at the root directory, type cd \

<enter> after the prompt to go to the root directory. C:\>

should now be displayed as the prompt.

3. Minimize your Command Prompt window. Open Notepad

(located under Start/All Programs/Accessories) and

create a small file consisting of a few words. Save the

file as Test1.txt on your C: drive in the root directory.

4. Connect a flash or thumb drive to one of the USB ports.

(If you don’t have one, jump to Step 7.)

5. Return to your Command Prompt window and type copy

test1.txt d: <enter> (where d is the designation for the

USB drive) following the C:\> prompt.

6. Return to Windows and display the contents of your USB

drive. The file test1.txt should appear.

7. If you don’t have a USB drive, do the following: Make a

new directory on the C: drive by typing md c:\prac2

<enter>.

8. Then type copy test1.txt prac2 <enter>.

9. Change directory to prac2 by typing cd prac2 <enter>.

10. List contents of directory by typing dir <enter>.

11. The file test1.txt should be listed in the directory.

Check your answers on page 70.


Self-Check 3

1. The Mac OS that has a significantly new user interface is called _______.

2. G4 is the _______ generation of the _______ processor.

3. The Intel Pentium 4 processor operates at what internal clock speeds?

__________________________________________________________

4. The first widely used PC CPU was manufactured by Intel. The model number was _______.

5. What Windows-based operating system was the first to implement Kerberos security?

__________________________________________________________


69

Self-Check 1

1. application software, hardware

2. b

3. c

4. b

Self-Check 2

1. b

2. b

3. a

4. False. All computer files have names and are available

to anyone who knows how to access them.

5. File extensions indicate the type of file or sometimes

identify the software package used to create the file.

Self-Check 3

1. Mac OS X

2. 4th generation of the PowerPC or 64-bit RISC-based

MPC74xx

3. 1.3 GHz to 3.8 GHz

4. 8088 (The phrase “widely used” is key here.)

5. Windows 2000

Practical Exercise 1A

2. With Overview selected, the window displays information

about the CPU, memory, disk, and network.

4. The subcategories under Memory are Reserved,

Modified, In Use, Standby, and Free.

5. Under CPU Processes, the available selections in the

menu are End Process, End Process Tree, Analyze Wait

Chain, Suspend Process, Resume Process, and Search

Online.

Answers

Answers

Answers70

Practical Exercise 1B

4. The device status is: “The device is working properly.”

5. The options you can select here are Driver Details,

Update Driver, Roll Back Driver, Disable, Uninstall.

6. The driver files you find will vary.

Practical Exercise 2

4. You would need to add /Y to the command.

7. On the line following your copy command you should

see “1 files(s) copied” displayed to show that the com-

mand was successful. Note that in the command we

didn’t need to identify the drive location (source) for the

test1 file because the current directory was the C drive

root directory. However, we did need to specify the file

type or extension .txt. If the file extension isn’t provided,

you’ll get a “File not found” message and the file won’t

be copied.

Study Unit - Introduction to Operating Systems

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