Study Skills Guide Uni

7/29/2019 Study Skills Guide Uni

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Learning in Higher Education


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Learning in Higher Education

Contents

1. LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION .................. 42. LEARNING STYLES AND PREFERENCES .............. 43. LISTENING .............................................. 6Getting the Most from a Lecture......................................... 6Before the Lecture ........................................................ 6

During the Lecture ......................................................... 8After the Lecture ........................................................ 10Listening in Group Discussions ............................................ 10Purposes of Notes ........................................................ 11Forms of Notes ........................................................... 12Non-linear Notes ......................................................... 13Making Best Use of Your Notes ......................................... 14Using Notes for Assignments and Revision .............................. 14Organising Your Notes .................................................... 15

4. READING ............................................... 17Purposes of Reading....................................................... 17Reading Quickly ........................................................... 18Reading Slowly and Critically ............................................. 18Reading from the Computer .............................................. 19'Listening' through your Screen ......................................... 205. WRITING ............................................... 21The Process of Writing ................................................... 21Relevant Writing .......................................................... 22The Use of Other Peoples Ideas........................................ 25Ways to Avoid Plagiarism ................................................ 25Referencing Conventions .................................................. 26Referencing from the Internet .......................................... 286. ESSAY WRITING ...................................... 29Analyse the Questions .................................................... 29Plan Your Approach ....................................................... 30Gather and Sort Information ............................................ 30Structure your Essay ..................................................... 30


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Write Your First Draft ................................................... 30Check Your Essay for Coherence and Relevance ....................... 31Check Your Spelling, Sentence Structure and Punctuation ............ 31Write Your Final Draft ................................................... 31Presentation of your writing ............................................. 317. PREPARING FOR EXAMS .............................. 33Thinking Positively ......................................................... 33The Day of the Exam .................................................... 33What Is the Question Asking? .......................................... 35How Should You Tackle an Essay? ....................................... 36Write a Beginning ......................................................... 36Write a Middle ............................................................ 36Write an End .............................................................. 368. PRESENTATIONS ...................................... 37Preparation ................................................................ 37Overcoming Nerves ....................................................... 38Delivery Techniques ....................................................... 389. USING VISUAL AIDS ................................. 3910. GROUP PRESENTATIONS ............................. 3911. ANSWERS .............................................. 40Exercise 1 Answering the Question ................................... 40


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1.Learning in Higher Education

This section of the course looks at various aspects of how students learnand work at university.

There is a section on learning styles that encourages you to consider whatworks best for you. Different people like to use various study methods

and there is also usually a particular time of the day when we find we can

concentrate best and seem to get more done.

We will also look at ways of getting the most out of lectures and reading

in order to produce better work and therefore maximise the marksreceived for written assignments. Tips on how to set out essays and to

properly reference any work produced are also included.

Exam techniques and presentation skills are also included in this section

although they will not be covered until later in the course.

2. Learning Styles and PreferencesIf you ever wondered why you might be more comfortable with some

teachers than with others, it may relate to your learning style. Some

people like to build up their information methodically bit by bit andrespond well to teachers who present it that way. Others look for the

'big picture' and find it difficult to learn new information if they can'tsee how it fits in.

Some theorists divide people into types according to their learningpreferences, such as:

visual related to writing, remembering what you've read,

visual related to images, remembering graphs, pictures, shapes,

colours,


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auditory remembering things you have heard,

physical remembering things you have done.

You can have some fun with topics that fit into your own preferred way oflearning. Learning does not have to mean just sitting turning over pages

of a book with half your mind elsewhere. If the material is not presented

in a way that you like, you can turn it into something more suitable byputting it in your own words, creating an image, making a recording or a

model, or just by talking to someone about it. Think about how you like to

receive your information.

Most of us have a mixture of styles and preferences and won'tnecessarily always conform to 'type': but it is still worth thinking about

how you might get your information in a way that suits you rather thanjust the way it is initially presented.

The most important thing is to always work to your strengths. You will

have a bit more flexibility to do this at university than at school, as yourhours will not be so rigid. If you do your best work at midnight then this

is when you should tackle any assignments you may have.


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3. LISTENINGLectures used to be the main medium of learning and for some students

this is still the case. The effectiveness of lectures is being questioned incurrent thinking, as it can be a very passive process for students. The

efficiency of lectures, on the other hand, means that information can be

passed to a large number of people at once.

Getting the Most from a Lecture

If there is a danger of the lecture being too passive for students, then

you will need to find ways of minimising that danger. The main point ofthis section is to encourage you to think of a lecture as something thathappens in the middle of a process; in other words, you should also takeinto account what happens before and after the lecture.

Before the Lecture

Because it is such a passive process, the main function of a lecture is toget information across to the students. Many students feel comfortable

with this; they like to think Ill get the information and then Ill give it

back to the lecturer at an appropriate time. This will show that Ive

learned something. Though this may happen sometimes, students who

take this simple approach often fail to achieve real understanding.

It is important for you to think about the purpose of the lecture. Is ittrying to give you a detailed picture or a framework to assist your

reading? If you have been given a framework, then the lecturer will notbe happy just to get this back. You will be expected to have filled insome details for yourself.

In fact, lecturers have many purposes for their lectures. This is

demonstrated in the following statements from two lecturers from thesame department:


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A If you think that these lecture notes will help you pass the exam,then youd better think again. We expect you to do some reading

too.

B I give quite detailed lecture notes. If you use these along with thehandouts Ive given you, you should have enough to pass the exam.

Some students ask whether it is right to have these differences its

confusing and they would like all lecturers to be the same. But the topics

are different and will require different approaches. The same lecturer

may even give an outline one day and a detailed background to anexperiment on another occasion. It is important that you are aware of

this.

Another feature that leads to different purposes and approaches is thelecturers own learning style. If a lecturer likes to get the big picture of

a subject, then the lecture will be an overview possibly given very

enthusiastically as the lecturer wants to motivate you to further study.

On the other hand, a lecturer who likes to build up a subject logically,

step by step, may show all these steps very clearly.

Some lecturers will use the lecture in novel ways to pose questions, raise

issues and even to disturb students. Having your ideas challenged canlead to an opening of your mind which is essential for learning something

new. So, before the lecture, it is worth thinking about what the purpose

might be. What do you already know about:

the title of the lecture,

the lecturers personality and preferences,

where the lecture fits into the course?

You might not know the answers to some of these questions. However,there are other questions you can ask:

what do I already know about this topic?

is there anything about this in the textbook (or other sources,

e.g. the Internet)?


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what was the last lecture about?

is this lecture likely to be useful for my essay?

will this lecture tell me about x?

Your own purpose might not be quite the same as the lecturers. For

instance, the lecturer might want to enthuse you with a passion for the

subject, while all you want is a set of decent notes that will help you writeyour essay!

By asking yourself questions before the lecture, you are preparing your

mind for the lecture itself. If the lecture is part of a connected series,

this is particularly helpful; but even if it is not, the more thinking you cando beforehand, the more likely you are to provide some fertile ground

for the lecture.

During the Lecture

You have to do several things at once in a lecture, e.g.

listen,

think,

write,

sketch,

ask questions

It is no wonder people find it hard to concentrate. If you have prepareda little beforehand, it may be easier to work out what is going on; in any

case, you should establish the general structure as soon as you can.

Listen for signposts the lecturer might give, e.g.

the objectives of this lecture are...

I shall start with an overview and then describe a particular

problem,


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this lecture is in three sections...

If a lecturer has a highly structured approach to lecturing, thenpatterned notes might be possible. For example, the response to this

lecture is in three sections for some people is to draw three large

branches extending from the topic in the centre of the page as shownbelow.

HEALTH

Health Promotion Health Education

Health Protection

Governments White Paper: Designed To Care 1997

For people who prefer linear notes, there may still be a decision aboutwhat the page should look like. If there are likely to be a lot of technical

words, would it be a good idea to draw a margin and write any unfamiliarwords in it in order to look them up later? Or perhaps you could put anyquestions that occur to you in a margin.

While the lecturer is talking, you will want to get down key points.Sometimes it can be hard to see what these are. For example, some

lecturers get annoyed if students copy down every detail of anecdotesand examples; other lecturers say that the examples are what help the

students remember the underlying principle.

The balance between listening and writing is up to you, even if lecturers

complain about it. However, their advice might be useful, as it might not

have occurred to you how important the examples could be. Learn from

your approaches at lectures. You can experiment a little to find out whatworks best for you. If a particular approach has not been successful,

find out what the main points were after the lecture by talking to the

lecturer or other students or going to the library to look the topic up.


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After the Lecture

Your work is not finished when the lecture is. Because of the passive

nature of lectures, you need to do something so that you make notesinstead of taking them. The very first useful thing you can do is number

your pages (some people do this during the lecture). Unnumbered notes

soon get into a muddle. It may also be useful to datethe lecture pages chronology is often a reliable way to organise notes.

It is a good idea to look at your notes again within 24 hours. This is

before you have forgotten what your own shorthand might mean. If you

think there is a danger that your notes will not be easy to understand

later, then rewrite them so that they are.

Many students find it useful to compare lecture notes with otherstudents. This can be very reassuring. If it also promotes discussion onthe topic, that will help your learning as well.

Listening in Group Discussions

A more interactive approach to listening is when you have the opportunityto contribute to what is being said. Group discussions are very usefulbecause it is here that you can try out your ideas and then refine them in

the light of other peoples comments. Some students are afraid to do

this for fear of appearing stupid; however once you have realised that

you have the right to put forward your ideas and defend them, but

change your mind about them later if appropriate, then you will realisehow useful discussions can be for learning.

Listening skills will help this refinement. By listening to counter examples

to your ideas, you will be able to refine your defence of them or accept

that there are alternative explanations.

In a lively discussion, there are many things that can get in the way of

this process. Even where you sit in the discussion can make a difference.

Students with poor hearing may find they are sitting in the wrong placeto hear the speakers properly. Noise in the communication can come

from less obvious sources. For example, people who have strong opinionsor prejudices might not be prepared to listen to counter arguments.


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Some people may have an underlying motive for the discussion taking a

particular direction (for example, to promote a political view). Sometimes

people thinkothers have a hidden motive, when they dont.

To help listening when a speaker is not clear, good feedback is necessary.Listeners may respond by trying to repeat back to the speaker in theirown words what they think the speaker has said; this can highlight anymisunderstandings.

It can be useful to make notes of a group discussion especially if some

action is expected as an outcome of the discussion. The advice forlecture notes would be useful for group work but there is far less likely

to be a structure in a group discussion. A good facilitator might try tointroduce a structure for ease of understanding, by summing up the mainpoints every so often and indicating how they relate to each other.

Purposes of Notes

Some of the broad purposes for having notes are:

they remind us of important points

they summarise large amounts of material

they assist learning by forcing us to process information.

When you are writing an essay, preparing a presentation or revising for an

exam you will be very grateful that you have a set of notes to work from

and there will be no question in your mind that notes serve a usefulpurpose. However, when students take notes, they often forget about

these purposes. Having your purpose in mind as far as possible at the

start will help you to make more useful notes.


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Even the words take notes and make notes indicate different

approaches.

when you take notes, you are taking someone elses words

and writing them down, for a purpose which may not be veryclear,

when you make notes, you are making the ideas your own foryour own purpose.

Forms of Notes

Notes dont have to consist of a set of phrases or sentences on l ined

paper. They can appear in many guises. If someone is partially sighted,

for example, their notes might be in Braille or on tape. Students withdyslexia also often prefer to have their notes on tape, though there are

disadvantages (for example, it can be more difficult to find a specific

part of a tape).

Before reading on, can you think of as many different formats for notes

as possible? Bear in mind the sorts of learning preferences people have.Here are just some suggestions.

The book itself (if it is your own!) as a source of notes

margin comments, underlined words, key points highlightedin appropriate colours, pieces of paper with headings

inserted at appropriate pages.

Notes in diagram form sometimes called spider diagrams,mind-maps, etc,

Drawings or a story board,

Notes on index cards, put in alphabetical order,

Notes on audio tape perhaps using a Dictaphone,

Notes kept on a computer, e.g. using the Notepad feature;

key points cut and pasted into a word-processed document.


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Most notes, however, are linear notes that is, they go across and down

the page starting at the top left hand corner. Features from the other

approaches may help you to augment your linear notes; for example, canyou add colour or shape to them?

It is worth exploring a couple of other methods in a little more detail.

Use these ideas to prompt ideas of your own.

Non-linear Notes

The main distinct approach is the non-linear approach to note makingwhich has several different names, such as mind maps, spider diagrams

etc.

The example below shows how this is done. Starting with the main topicin the middle of the page, several branches are drawn from this with the

most important subtopics written on them. Each branch can be further

subdivided, until you are getting down to a very detailed level. Eachbranch could be a different colour. Pictures and links are encouraged in

this approach.

Lectures

discuss

file

read

follow up

afterwards

use

help

read

file

compare

tapes

under-standingnotes

cutline editstyle

concentration

info discussion

start

research

map

review

audience

cheap

valuable

purpose

personality

find

absorb

habit?frame

reading

notestape?


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The benefit of this approach is that it forces you to identify key words

and to group and link ideas together. It can be quite hard to do this in

some circumstances (e.g. a lecture) and non-linear lecture notes might bevery rough but made to look more artistic later. Some people find it

easier to see the application of non-linear notes to mapping the chapterof a book or planning an essay.

Making Best Use of Your Notes

If you have written notes for a specific purpose, then it will not be too

hard to see what use they will have. They may have more than one use, of

course, and some of these uses may be unexpected. This means that youhave to know what notes you have and where to find them.

Using Notes for Assignments and Revision

When you have a useful set of notes, it will be important to see how they

relate to your assignment topic. Some of your notes may not be relevant

for this assignment. There is a danger that students try to cover everypiece of information just because they have notes on it. Use your notes

intelligently in conjunction with the question asked in the assignment.

For exams, you are not quite sure what is going to be relevant and what is

not. Your notes will be an important guide as to what the coverage mightbe.

As exams are based more on memory than many learning tasks,establishing a system of frequent review might help you. For example:

Re-read your notes:

24 hours after you have written them

then a week later

then a month later

then six months later


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This is quite a difficult routine to establish, but students who use it

say that it helps.

If you start this process at the beginning of a course, then you will build

up slowly into the appropriate routine. In week 1, for instance, you wouldonly be reading the previous days notes.

Even if you dont use such a strict revision process, it is worth thinking

about the principles involved. Put simply, these are:

review soon after you have taken the notes,

review frequently.

To do this, you need to be very organised.

Organising Your Notes

Re-reading your notes will also give you the opportunity to edit them.

Cross-reference the main ideas, compare and contrast different theories,

and add further comments. In other words, readwith a purpose as well.

Organising your notes would also include:

filing them you need to establish some kind of system for

storing your notes where you can find them. It is very easyto end up with a huge pile of notes which are so

disorganised that you cant find anything. A lot of the time

you have invested in making your notes will be wasted if youdont take the time to work out a simple and effective filingsystem

classifying them notes could be classified under author,

but you may find it more useful to classify them undersubject. This way you can build up your own small library of

materials for each subject that you are studying.

keeping them there will come a time when you will need to

discard some of your notes. However, dont be too hasty.


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Being over-anxious to have a clearout can often lead to

articles being thrown out that could come in useful at a

later date. Dont assume that because you are moving intoanother year of study, e.g. from 1st to 2nd year, that you

wont need the notes you made in first year. You willprobably find yourself looking back to these notes in order

to build on previous knowledge. Its probably safer and

wiser to keep your notes for the whole length of the

course.


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4. READING

You can remember about 20 per cent of what you read.

This is why at university we make notes on important things and read

selectively to concentrate on the most important issues.

You will be given a short list of recommended reading for your essay.

This short section offers you some ways of approaching the reading youare expected to do.

Purposes of Reading

As with listening, asking a question before reading is a very usefulstarting point. For example, a student might have been asked to write a

psychology essay on the following topic:

How effective is the use of unpleasant images in changing

people's attitudes to smoking?

The essay is about attitudes and the student will be looking for

evidence to support or refute the idea that unpleasant images can changepeople's attitudes. They will also look for evidence that specifically

relates to smoking. These are some of the thought processes a good

student might have:

This evening I want to find out as much as I can about the useof images in attitude change. I'll use the indexes and contents

pages to find out what my books say about it. Some questions

are:

How might images change attitude?

What do the books say about unpleasant images?


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Reading Quickly

You won't be able to read every single page of every book that is

recommended by your lecturers. Some students feel very uncomfortableabout this. It is helpful to develop techniques of scanning and skimming

books so that you can find the bits where you should be giving your

attention.

As well as scanning contents pages and indexes, it is worth looking for

introductions, summaries and conclusions to the book, to sections or to

individual chapters. These can all be useful for providing an overview,

especially when you look at them with a specific question in mind.

To skim read a section or chapter to see how useful it is, you can quickly

look down the page for particular words in our example, you might lookfor 'image', 'attitude' or even 'smoking'. Being alert to these words doeshelp you to spot them more quickly.

If the book doesn't seem to be saying much about your main themes, is itgoing to be useful? It still might: there are other words that might

catch your eye that you hadn't anticipated, such as 'scare tactics' or'undesirable'. As you skim, you might also see lots of big words that youdon't know. These can be off-putting, but you are not reading closely at

the moment so you can worry about them later.

Another good idea is to read the first sentence in every paragraph. Some

writers make their first sentence the most important one othersentences provided detail or examples of the point they are making.

(This is useful to know about for your own writing too.)

Reading Slowly and Critically

When you have found a passage or chapter you think is important, then

you will want to set aside an appropriate time to read in depth and to readcritically to try to answer your question. Your time management will help

here: you might say, for example, 'I'll allocate no more than two hours to

this' and try to complete the task in that time. If you do it more quickly,


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that's a bonus; if it looks as if it needs longer, then you will need another

study session. This helps you feel that the reading is manageable.

Being critical doesn't mean that you have to reject everything the writer

has said' it does mean that you should retain your questioning approach.

There are many more questions that might be going through your mindnow:

How is the chapter structured?

What is the author's main point and do I agree with it?

Does it contradict anything I have read before?

What would be the most useful format for my notes?

Is there anything here I would want to quote directly? (not

the whole chapter though!)

What does this word mean?

For example, if you were reading about attitudes, you might come across

the expression 'cognitive dissonance' and you might not understand it. Ifit's frequently found in the material you have been asked to read, then

you need to take the time to ensure you understand its meaning. The

best thing to do is to read something carefully and then try to write themain idea in your own words. Then you can check with the original to see

whether you have understood it correctly.

Reading from the Computer

When you have finally found the information you want, there may be quitea lot of it. Having information on a screen is not quite the same as havinga physical book in your hands that you can flick through, check the index,

mark and so on. However, some of these facilities may actually beavailable to you, in a slightly different form:


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flicking through scroll through the document to get an

overall feel for what it is about,

checking the index using your research question, perform

a search on the document with a key word. Note thecontext where it appears and ask yourself whether this

might be relevant to your purposes,

marking relevant paragraphs cut out relevant paragraphs

and put them in a separate file, using the notepad facility

or a word processing package. Remember that this is stilloriginal material and you need to say where it comes from if

you ever use it in your essay.

Many people would still find this trickier than reading a physical

document. It may be a question of getting used to it; however, if you cant

print out the document, it might make more sense to regard it as alecture rather than a book and listen to it instead, as described below.

'Listening' through your Screen

In a typical lecture, you only hear the material once and your notes have

to be your record of the event. You could say the same of the book that

is much in demand and is due back in the library in an hour. It really doesconcentrate the mind, thinking that this is the only opportunity to get the

information I need.

If you have a document to read on a computer, it may be helpful to

concentrate your mind in the same way. For example, you can decide that

you are only going to read it once and write down the most importantpoints. Look out for the 'signpost' words and clues to the structure such

as headings and highlighted words, as you might listen for emphasis in a

lecture.

Just as in a lecture, you may find that you want to go back to the topiclater and do some further reading or 'listening'. But thinking about it as

a lecture on a computer may save you hours of wading through pages of

printouts from the Internet. If you just try looking up 'cognitivedissonance' on a search engine, you will probably see what I mean!


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5. WRITINGPurposes of Writing

Before you read on, you might want to spend a moment or so thinkingabout the reasons most academic courses give you written assignments todo.

Writing can:

reinforce and consolidate learning it is very often the case

that until you are forced to write about something, you don't

really know how much you actually know about the subject.

Having to write about a particular subject will force you toconsider what you have learned and what you still need to learn

demonstrate your knowledge and understanding assignments

give you the opportunity to demonstrate that you have

understood the concepts and theories taught on your courseand can apply them to the real situation. This is good practice

for you in the future when you are required to explain andpresent arguments at work. You will also be able to see foryourself the relevance and application of what you have been

studying

provide opportunities for evaluation of learning a written

assignment gives your tutor the opportunity to identify andcorrect any gaps in your understanding of the subject. Thus,

assignments are very useful progress indicators both for youand your tutor. Feedback from your tutor is an importantfactor in your ability to improve your learning and writing.

The Process of Writing

Writing depends on you being both creative and critical. If you try to

be both at the same time it can cause blocks.


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To overcome a writing block, try one of the following:

write down all the points you want to mention as they come into

your head and don't put them into the right order until a dayor so later,

write down what you know already about the subject, thenidentify any gaps in your knowledge,

leave the introduction until last,

make a mind-map

talk to someone else about your ideas,

use the outlining facility of a word-processing package (e.g.Word) to start you off.

People are different in the ways they can get started. Some people liketo plan carefully before they write anything; others like to find out whatthey are thinking by writing a draft for themselves that no one else sees.

It is a good idea to leave your rewriting until a later date. You are thenusing the critical part of your brain rather than the creative part. This

means you have to plan your time appropriately to allow for more than one

draft.

Relevant Writing

Not answering the question is one of the most common pitfalls of studentwriting. Writing a very good answer to a question that wasn't set will gain

you no marks at all. We will keep coming back to this point when we lookat each of the types of writing you may be asked to do. For now, try thefollowing exercise:


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Exercise 1 Answering the Question

Most assignments will have words that contain key instructions. Thefollowing is a list of key instruction words:

a. discuss e. illustrate

b. compare f. contrast

c. evaluate g. criticise

d. describe

Read through the following explanations. Now, using the list of key words

above, assign one key instruction to each of the explanations. Try todecide for yourself what the answer is before checking.

1. appraise or assess the worth of something,

2. explain the differences; explain the distinction between,

3. examine or argue; give reasons for and against,4. give your opinion; make a judgement about the concept of,

5. describe an example; or using a figure, explain,

6. look for similarities and differences,

7. give a detailed account; explain.

(answers at the end on the booklet)


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Sometimes, there will be three or four different parts to a question. Ifthis is the case, you must make sure that you have answered all parts.

The next exercise is an example of a question that contains three parts.

In some cases, particularly in assignments that require short answers,

individual marks are awarded to each part of the question. This allocation

of marks can be extremely useful in determining how much time and

effort you should spend on each part of the assignment.

When answering an assignment question, therefore, you need to:

read and re-read the question thoroughly before making a starton the assignment,

allocate appropriate time and effort to the various parts of the

assignment

refer back to the question throughout your assignment to make

sure that you are on the right track and have not strayed from

the precise wording of the question. Having a copy of thequestion in front of you (pinned to the wall or clearly positioned

on your desk) will help.

Now try the following exercise.

Exercise 2

Having completed the first exercise, consider the following assignmentquestion.

Leaders are born and not made.

Discuss this statement with reference to your own experience. Evaluatethe role of education in improving leadership performance. Suggest threeforms of training that would be beneficial in improving leadership

performance.


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This assignment contains three parts but provides no information on how

many marks will be allocated to each part. The key instructions are

'discuss', 'evaluate' and 'suggest'. These three words and yourunderstanding of them are crucial in answering all three parts of this

question.

By breaking the question into parts and highlighting the instructions, youwill see exactly what the question is asking:

discuss this statement with reference to your own experience,

evaluate the role of education in improving leadership performance,

suggest three forms of training that would be beneficial in improvingleadership performance.

Breaking the assignment down into parts will help you to formulate the

question better in your own mind and structure your answer. Use a

highlighter and highlight the key words. This way, you will keep yourselffocused on the actual requirements of the question.

The Use of Other Peoples Ideas

For most academic essays or reports, you will depend on material fromother writers. If you do not acknowledge the fact that you are using

other writers, you are plagiarising. It is wrong to take someone else's

work and pass it off as your own and university lecturers and tutors have

been asked to be very strict about this.

Ways to Avoid Plagiarism

Use your own words as much as possible. When making notes from

books, lectures, electronic media or other sources, try to put the mainpoint into your own words, e.g.:


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close the book and don't look at it again until you have

summarised the key points yourself (if you're tempted to open

the book again, sit on it!),

try to remember the main points of the lecture or electronictext, write them down and then check any notes you took.

Acknowledge ideas and direct speech from other people. Academicwriting always uses other people's ideas as background or evidence for

the new piece of work. It saves people having to rediscover ideas all the

time. If you use someone else's idea, then say so. If you use their direct

speech (the actual words they wrote) then you must put it in inverted

commas.

Referencing Conventions

Different subject areas might use different conventions for using

references. For example, you might see either:

The ideas originated with Smith2 who ran three test experiments.

The ideas originated with Smith (1998) who ran three test experiments.

The second example is now the more usual the Harvard Method and isthe one used here. But check with your lecturers, tutors or department

to see what is expected in your own subject.

The Harvard Method of ReferencingThere are various ways in which you can acknowledge the source of the

writing. The following are some examples:

Indirect Referencing here you acknowledge the source of the writingby putting it into your own words. For example:

Occasionally a writer will challenge the prevailing methodologies. Buzan

(1989), for instance, believes that linear note taking does not follow the


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natural patterns of the brain. Buzan's mind-maps make non-linear

connections between ideas.

Direct Quotation if you only want to refer to a few words, then

acknowledge the source and put the exact words in quotation marks:

The advice that Ellis and Hopkins (1985) give about the use of reference

material, stress the need to use evidence to support your statements.

This evidence, they suggest, might come in the form of a survey,

statistics, or a quotation from a recognised authority.

On the other hand, you might want to refer to a longer passage. In thiscase, you should indent it from your main text:

Until students understand the specific academic use of the word

argument, they are unable to participate fully in the academic community.Nightingale (1988) points to research that suggests that this lack of

participation is at the heart of the literacy problem:

They discovered that there was, in fact, little need for simplistic

remedial programmes aimed at usage, mechanics or spelling, or evendeveloping syntactic sophistication. There were, however, serious

deficiencies in students' higher order skills such as their capacity toanalyse information critically and to extend their argument beyond

the kinds of platitude used by the public media.

It is only when students try to cope with these problems that their writing

becomes incoherent.

Note that in all these examples, the convention is to give the author and

the date of publication. At the end of your essay or report you must give

the full source. Using the Harvard method, these references wouldappear as follows:

REFERENCES

Buzan, T (1989) Use Your Head, BBC Books,


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Ellis, R and Hopkins, K (1985) How to Succeed in Written Work andStudy, Collins,

Nightingale, P (1988) Language and Learning: A Bibliographical Essay in

G Taylor et al (eds) Literacy by DegreesSRHE/Open University Press.

The references are presented in alphabetical order according to the

surname of the author. If you are unable to use italics for the title of abook or journal, then it is acceptable to underline it. Note that individual

articles are not italicised you can, however, put inverted commas roundthem though not everybody does.

Until you are confident about using references, it is a good idea to seehow it is done in academic textbooks and follow the style. Remember,

though, that if your department wants you to use a particular style,

that is the one you should follow.

Referencing from the Internet

With an increased use of the Internet, students frequently want to referto websites or correspondence. The basis for advice is to try to keep asclose to the Harvard method as you can and add relevant information that

might help your reader to find it. Walker (1997) adds the version or filenumber, the document date or date of last revision, the address and the

date of access.

Here is an example of a link that might be quoted (and one that is worth

looking at for advice on this):

Walker, J Columbia Online Style: MLA-Style Citations of Electronic

Sources.Vers.1.2 Rev.11/97.

http://www/cas/usf.edu.english/walker/mlahtml (18 March 1998)


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6. ESSAY WRITINGThe following are suggested stages for writing an essay. Note that they

do not all have to be completed on the same day. In fact, your essay willbenefit from being written over several days (if not weeks).

analyse the question,

plan your approach,

gather and sort information,

structure your essay,

write your first draft,

check your essay for coherence and relevance,

check your spelling, sentence structure and punctuation,

write your final draft,

proof-read your final draft.

We will now take a brief look at each.

Analyse the Questions

Allow yourself time to understand the question and make sure you know:

the topic - what it is about,

the focus - what the scope is, the limitations,

the key instruction - what you have been asked to do.

Keep going back to the question.


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Plan Your Approach

It is probably worth thinking about your essay structure even before you

start your reading. Think about the implications of the question and howthis might affect your planning. This will help you to focus your reading.

You can always change your plan later. Most essays have an argument,

which can be traced throughout. What is yours likely to be?

Some people like to return to plan their essay briefly, some want more

detail and some dont plan until after their first draft. Go with what feels

most comfortable.

Gather and Sort Information

Look for information, which specifically relates to the question ratherthan trying to read a whole book. Any information you are going to use in

your essay is evidence. It should be used to support statements, whichyou yourself are making. Think about what you are going to quote directly

and what you are going to put into your own words.

Structure your Essay

Does the information you have gathered and sorted fit in with yourrough plan, whether it is a mental or written down one? Perhaps the

following will force you to rethink your ideas - if so, you should go back tothe question to make sure youre still on target to answer it.

Write Your First Draft

Your first draft might be very rough. If you are still unsure of the

sequence of your themes, you could write each paragraph on a separate

sheet and then fit them together later. If you do this, you will need tomake sure that you include links between the themes. The main thing is to

get words on paper; you can always polish them up later.


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Check Your Essay for Coherence and Relevance

Check that you have a logical sequence and that the connections are

clearly made between the different parts of your essay. For instance,your conclusion should be the result of the arguments put forward in your

essay and should resolve the problem that was explained at the beginning

of your essay.

Check Your Spelling, Sentence Structure and Punctuation

If you are a computer user, you should use the spell-checking and

thesaurus facilities.

Write Your Final Draft

Make sure that your final draft is neatly laid out. Use wide margins, well-spaced paragraphs, neat handwriting and do not add any pen marks which

are not appropriate.

Presentation of your writing

We all know how important first impressions can be, and this isparticularly true of your writing. Your reader will expect it to look like

an academic piece of writing. This includes being accurate for spelling,grammar, punctuation, use of vocabulary and sentence structure. You

should leave these issues to the final draft of your writing and thenconsider them very carefully indeed.

When you write your final draft, you should have your reader in mind.

What will your document look like? Here are some tips:

use a word processor or typewriter to produce the final versionof your work. If this is not possible, make sure that your

handwriting is neat and tidy,

use standard A4 size paper,


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have a clear title page which includes your name, your course

and subject, the date and for whom the assignment is intended

and, of course, an appropriate title,

number your pages,

use double spacing to make reading easier,

provide space for the reader's comments by leaving widemargins,

don't write to the very bottom of the page; leave about 5 cm.

This will also be useful for comments,

include a list of contents to help your reader understand thestructure of your work. A separate list of any diagrams, tables

or graphs should be included if necessary,

make sure that the pages are firmly bound together,

keep a copy of your own work,

follow any specific instructions about layout or presentation,e.g. the use of numbered headings, referencing conventions,

use a spell-checker and a grammar checker if you can

understand it.

proof-read carefully to pick up small mistakes and typographical

errors,

make sure you have followed the instructions: if you were

asked for a report, don't hand in an essay.


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7. Preparing for ExamsOne of the best ways you can help yourself to prepare for the exam is to

see yourself in as much detail as possible doing what needs to be done tobe successful in it.

Thinking Positively

This has two benefits:

you have to work out what needs to be done so you are morelikely to do it

positive visualisation has been proven to be successful;many athletes use it to help them with their sport, for

example.

Picture yourself on the day of the exam looking at the questions andknowing that you can answer them. If you think you are likely to have an

attack of nerves, picture yourself recovering from that allowingyourself time to get yourself composed. See yourself analysing each

question carefully and spending a sensible length of time answering it.

See yourself looking into your own mind for your 'triggers' to theinformation you need. That might help you to determine how these

triggers should be put together in the way that is best for you.

The Day of the Exam

On the front page of your exam paper, you will see what is known as

rubric the basic instructions for the exam. This includes how manyquestions you have to answer and any restrictions e.g. which sections

they should come from. Make sure you follow these instructions carefully

as it would be a pity to lose marks because you have not answeredquestions from the correct section.


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Here is a rather complicated exam paper rubric from a few years ago.

9.30-12.30

Attempt question 1 and THREE others, at least ONE from Section B

and ONE from Section C. (Question 1 carries 31 marks and all other

questions 23 marks.)

Students had 180 minutes to cope with this. What was the best way of

spending this time?

First of all, you will need some time to read over the paper and work outwhich questions to answer as well as question 1. If you allow 10 minutes

for this, this gives some time to get used to being in an exam (and getover the panic!) Another 10 minutes at the end of a three- hour examsgives some flexibility in case youve been struggling. So that leaves 160

minutes. Almost a third of the marks come from question 1, so perhapsalmost a third of the time should be allocated to it say 55 minutes.

That leaves 105 minutes for the other three questions that neatly divides

into 35 minutes each.

So a good strategy for this exam would be:

Reading the paper, settling down 10 mins

Question 1 55 mins

Question 2 35 mins

Question 3 35 mins

Question 4 35 mins

Checking over 10 mins

Some people, however, would prefer simply to launch into question 1 andworry about the rest of the paper later. This would be OK, as long as youleave sufficient time. If you spent much more than an hour on question 1,

then you would not be allowing sufficient time for the other questions.

Sometimes, people ask whether it would be a good idea to concentrate on

your three best questions in a situation like this. The advice is that it

rarely would be. In an essay type question, the first 25% is relatively


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easy to get the last 25% almost impossible. In that case, you will get

more marks for trying more questions.

Similarly, in multiple choice exams, you might have 60 minutes to answer

20 questions. Effectively that gives you three minutes to read andanswer each question. Any question where you spend any longer will meana sacrifice in one of the other questions. It may not seem fair, butplanning your time is a necessary part of your exam strategy.

What Is the Question Asking?

Now, we come to the questions themselves. Whether it is a mathsproblem or an essay, it is vital that you answer the question asked. Look

out for instruction words: calculate, estimate, discuss, evaluate.When the instruction is a verb, it is fairly clear. Sometimes, however,

you have to work out the instruction as in the following example.

What tools are available to a government to control the growth

of the money supply? Answer with reference to the policy of

UK monetary targeting during the 1980s.

The broad topic that the students will have been studying is growth ofthe money supply. There is a big danger that a student will remember the

causes of growth of the money supply and ignore all the other words in

the question. The question focuses on control of the growth and also UKtargeting and the 80s. Causes are not mentioned at all.

The instruction is hidden in the words what tools. You would beexpected to give examples of tools and justify your choice of examples.

It wont necessarily work every time, but it is worth looking at questions

and asking yourself:

What is the broad topic that we studied that this relates

to?

How is the question focused? (e.g. are there any timeperiods mentioned, or specific groups of people?)

What is the instruction word?


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Look back at the section on writing at university. You will see that we

covered this then as well. It is just that you have to respond rather morequickly under exam conditions.

How Should You Tackle an Essay?

When you have analysed the question, a lot of ideas may come to you at

once. The problem is that they might not come in the right order. Youcould jot them down quickly and then number them to show in which order

you should present them in your essay. You can always score this plan out

before you hand your paper in (or leave it, if you think it might help theexaminer understand what you were trying to do).

Write a Beginning

If you find you cant think how to start your essay, dont be afraid to

leave a space and write your beginning last. The beginning is where you

set out your stall what you are going to do to answer the question. Youmight not be fully aware of this until you have done it. (It depends on

what kind of writer you are).

Write a Middle

This is the main body of your essay. Start a new paragraph for each new

point or theme if you have made a plan, you have probably identifiedthese. Link your sentences and paragraphs with signposts that help the

reader. Use examples and evidence to back up your main argument.

Write an End

Remember the logic of your argument. Your end is likely to one of the

following: Summary of the main points. Therefore orThe conclusion is xxxx because.


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8. PresentationsAs part of this course, you will participate in a small group presentation

towards the end of the course.

By presenting as part of a group, you will have the opportunity to develop

your presentation skills and also the ability to work effectively withothers.

Most employers today highly value good presentation skills and the abilityto work well as part of a team. Indeed it is not unusual to be asked to

give a presentation as part of a job interview.

The following paragraphs give an outline of the important points to

consider when giving presentations in general. In addition, there are tips

on how to present as part of a group.

Preparation

This is the most important aspect of a successful presentation. Failureto prepare can only lead to disaster. Consider the following:

If a presentation is being formally assessed, make sure youknow what the criteria for assessment are.

It is vital that you know your material well. Write out what

you want to say in detail and then work on reducing it to

headings and prompts which can be put onto cards,overheads etc.

Rehearse you can do this by talking into a mirror, taperecorder or even to a willing audience of family or friends.Timing is vital if you are asked to speak for 10 minutes

you must stick to this.

Ensure you know how to operate any equipment you wish to

use such as overhead projectors or computers before youstart the presentation.


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Overcoming Nerves

Most people find the prospect of standing up and speaking in front of an

audience daunting. However you can use various techniques to overcome

this. Thorough preparation obviously helps, as you will feel moreconfident and in control if you have taken the steps outlined above. You

could also try some of the following:

Relaxation techniques such as breathing exercises.

Make sure you turn up on time it is advisable to arrive early to

get all your preparations out of the way before your audiencearrives.

Have a drink of water to hand in case nerves cause your mouth togo dry.

Delivery Techniques

Make eye contact with the audience throughout the presentationIf you find this difficult you could look slightly over their heads

this will still give the impression you are looking at them.

Speak in a slow, clear and slightly louder voice than normal.

Try to relax and smile where appropriate.

Be conscious of your non-verbal communication and try to avoid

moving around too much or fidgeting.

Let the audience know if you prefer them to ask questions as the

end or as you go through the presentation.


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9. Using Visual AidsMake sure you know how to work equipment. Dont distribute handoutsbefore the end, as people may tend to read them rather than focus on

you.

When using an overhead projector:

switch it off when you are not showing a slide as theblank screen can be distracting,

think about where you are standing dont block thescreen,

use a pen to point out on the slide where you want the

audience to focus, employ show and reveal technique cover up the slide

and progressively uncover the information as you go

through it, dont put too much information on each slide or use too

many coloured pens.

10. Group PresentationsThe general points above are relevant for group presentations, but thereare other considerations:

Share the workload equally.

Clarify the tasks each member of the group is responsiblefor.

Discuss any concerns or differences of opinion. Ifagreement cant be reached, put it to a vote and go with the

majority.

Be clear about each persons role during the presentation.

Work and present co-operatively dont hog the limelight.

Be supportive when other group members are presenting

e.g. smile encouragingly, display positive body language.

Above all try to relax and enjoy the experience!


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11. AnswersExercise 1 Answering the Question

1. c

2. f

3. a

4. g

5. e

6. b

7. d

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