STUDY ON THE SUITABILITY OF THE DIFFERENT WASTE...

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Vienna, August 2011

STUDY ON THE SUITABILITY OF THE DIFFERENT WASTE-DERIVED FUELS

FOR END-OF-WASTE STATUSIN ACCORDANCE WITH ARTICLE 6 OF THE

WASTE FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVESecond Interim Report

Project management 28 Helga Stoiber 29

Authors 30

Helga Stoiber 31 Maria Tesar 32 Antonia Bernhard 33 Monika Denner 34 Thomas Gallauner 35 Michael Gössl 36 Sebastian Köppel 37 Judith Oliva 38 Hubert Reisinger 39 Barbara Stoifl 40 Birgit Walter 41 Brigitte Winter 42

Ilse Schindler, QM Industry & Energy 43 Brigitte Karigl, QM Waste Management 44

Peter Sander (Niederhuber Hager Rechtsanwälte) 45 David Suchanek (Niederhuber Hager Rechtsanwälte) 46

Title photograph 47 © Umweltbundesamt 48

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Acknowledgement 51 The study was commissioned by JRC/IPTS – European Commission Joint Research Centre, Institute for 52 Prospective Technological Studies, Seville 53

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For further information about the publications of the Umweltbundesamt please go to: http://www.umweltbundesamt.at 58 59

Suitability of WDFs for End-of-Waste Status

Umweltbundesamt Vienna, August 2011 3

CONTENTS 60

VOLUME I 61

62

CONTENTS..............................................................................................3 63

PREFACE ................................................................................................6 64

Definition of Waste .............................................................................................6 65

Prefixes and Conversion Factors for Units used............................................8 66

Conversion Units................................................................................................8 67

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...........................................................10 68

1.1 Objectives and Scope.........................................................................10 69

1.2 Methodological Approach ..................................................................11 70

1.3 Technical Characterisation of WDFs ................................................13 71

1.4 Generation, trade and use of WDFs ..................................................16 72

1.5 Market and Demand ............................................................................32 73

1.6 Specifications and Standards............................................................35 74

1.7 Legal Situation ....................................................................................38 75

1.8 Environment and Health Considerations .........................................41 76

1.9 Considerations for Suitability for End-of-Waste..............................43 77

2 INTRODUCTION........................................................................49 78

3 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE ......................................................50 79

4 TECHNICAL CHARACTERISATION OF WDF .........................52 80

4.1 Data Sources .......................................................................................52 81

4.2 Availability and Aggregation of Data ................................................53 82

5 GENERATION, TRADE AND USE............................................55 83

5.1 Data Sources .......................................................................................55 84

5.2 WDF Data .............................................................................................65 85

5.3 Use of WDFs in Relevant Sectors ...................................................132 86

6 MARKET AND DEMAND ........................................................154 87

6.1 Data Basis..........................................................................................154 88

6.2 Biogas ................................................................................................154 89

6.3 Biodiesel ............................................................................................154 90

6.4 Bioethanol..........................................................................................154 91

6.5 Pyrolysis Products............................................................................154 92

6.6 Gasification Products .......................................................................154 93

Suitability of WDFs for End-of-waste Status

4 Umweltbundesamt Vienna, August 2011

6.7 Waste Oil ........................................................................................... 154 94

6.8 Edible Oil and Fat ............................................................................. 154 95

6.9 Waste Solvents................................................................................. 154 96

6.10 Industrial Liquid Waste Concentrates............................................ 154 97

6.11 Wood Waste...................................................................................... 154 98

6.12 Waste Tyres, Waste Rubber............................................................ 154 99

6.13 Waste Plastics .................................................................................. 154 100

6.14 Waste Paper...................................................................................... 154 101

6.15 Waste Textiles .................................................................................. 154 102

6.16 Biowaste (in the meaning of the WFD)........................................... 154 103

6.17 RDF .................................................................................................... 154 104

6.18 Animal By-products and derived products ................................... 154 105

6.19 Dried/dewatered Municipal Sewage Sludge .................................. 154 106

6.20 Dried / dewatered Industrial Sewage Sludge ................................ 154 107

7 SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS ..................................154 108

7.1 How can specifications and standards be declared legally 109 binding? ............................................................................................ 154 110

7.2 Data Basis ......................................................................................... 154 111

7.3 European Standards and Specifications ....................................... 154 112

7.4 Specifications and Standards on MS Level................................... 154 113

7.5 Voluntary / Commercial Agreements ............................................. 154 114

7.6 Comparison to conventional fuels ................................................. 154 115

8 LEGAL SITUATION ................................................................154 116

8.1 European Union................................................................................ 154 117

8.2 National Legislation and Case Law – Overview............................ 154 118

8.3 Austria ............................................................................................... 154 119

8.4 Germany............................................................................................ 154 120

8.5 Czech Republic................................................................................. 154 121

8.6 Netherlands....................................................................................... 154 122

8.7 United Kingdom................................................................................ 154 123

8.8 Estonia .............................................................................................. 154 124

8.9 Luxembourg...................................................................................... 154 125

8.10 Slovakia............................................................................................. 154 126

9 CONSIDERATIONS ON ENVIRONMENT AND 127 HEALTH IMPACT....................................................................154 128

9.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of WDFs.................................. 154 129

9.2 Environmental and Health Impact .................................................. 154 130

9.3 Incineration as Waste / as Non-waste............................................ 154 131



9.4 Environmental and Health Considerations - Overview ...............154 132

10 CONSIDERATIONS ON SUITABILITY FOR END-OF-133 WASTE ....................................................................................154 134

10.1 Art. 6 (1) a) WFD: Common Use of WDFs .......................................154 135

10.2 Art. 6 (1) b) WFD: Existing Market or Demand ...............................154 136

10.3 Art. 6 (1) c) WFD: Fulfilment of Technical Requirements, 137 Legislation, Standards......................................................................154 138

10.4 Art. 6 (1) d) WFD: No Adverse Environmental or Human 139 Health Impacts...................................................................................154 140

10.5 Results: WDFs that seem suitable for EOW as a WDF .................154 141

ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................154 142

GLOSSARY .........................................................................................154 143

LITERATURE.......................................................................................154 144 145

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VOLUME II 147

ANNEX 1: TECHNICAL DATA SHEETS 148

ANNEX 2: ALLOCATION OF CN8 CODES 149

ANNEX 3: GENERATION 150

ANNEX 4: TRADE 151

ANNEX 5: USE 152

ANNEX 6: SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS 153

ANNEX 7: LEGAL SITUATION 154

ANNEX 8: ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH IMPACT 155

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PREFACE 161

Definition of Waste 162

Waste Framework Directive (WFD, Directive 2008/98/EC) 163

Under the Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) the definition of waste is: 164 “any substance or object which the holder discards or intends or is required to 165 discard” (cf. Chapter 8.1.1.1). 166

Guidance for the interpretation of the concept of waste , including a clarification 167 of the term “waste” – in particular taking into account decisions of the ECJ - are 168 being currently prepared in a guidance document developed by the European 169 Commission. 170 171 Waste Incineration Directive (WID, Directive 2000/76/EC) 172

The waste Incineration Directive (2000/76/EC) refers in its definition of waste to 173 the definition of "waste" set out in the Waste Framework Directive (formerly, 174 75/442/EEC and 2006/12/EC now 2008/98/EC). Note that the definition in the 175 WID is restricted to solid and liquid waste. 176

In addition, plants treating only particular types of waste, e.g. vegetable waste 177 from different sources, cork waste and untreated wood waste, are excluded 178 from the scope of the WID (article 2(2)(a)). 179

180

Large Combustion Plant (LCP) Directive (2001/80/EC) 181

The Large Combustion Plant Directive (2001/80/EC) does not contain a defini-182 tion of waste, but defines “fuels” referring to a waste definition: 183

“‘Fuel’ means any solid, liquid or gaseous combustible material used to fire the 184 combustion plant with the exception of waste covered by Council Directive 185 89/369/EEC (…), Council Directive 89/429/EEC (…), and Council Directive 186 94/67/EC (…).” The three Directives were repealed by the Waste Incineration 187 Directive (2000/76/EC) as from 28 December 2005 and the abovementioned 188 definition should be understood as referring to that Directive1. 189

190

Industrial Emissions (IED) Directive (2010/75/EU) 191

The IED Directive (2010/75/EU) defines "waste" as defined in article 3(1) of 192 the Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC): 193 194 Similarly to the LCP Directive (and in line with the exclusions under the 195 WID), the IED also contains a definition of “biomass”, which comprises : 196 197

1 [Note however that art. 2(11) contains a definition of "biomass", covering also particular types of waste (parallel with WID, art. 2(2)(a)) – this definition is different from the one in the RES Directive]

Definition of “waste”


No definition of “waste”

Definition of „fuel“




a) products consisting of any vegetable matter from agriculture or for-198 estry which can be used as a fuel for the purpose of recovering its 199 energy content; and 200

b) particular types of vegetable waste, cork waste and untreated wood 201 waste excluded from the WID scope. 202

Renewable Energy Sources (RES) Directive (2009/28/EC) 203

In the Directive on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable 204 sources (2009/28/EC) the term ´waste´ is not specifically defined. 205

According to the RES Directive, “biomass” means the biodegradable fraction 206 of products, waste and residues from biological origin from agriculture (in-207 cluding vegetal and animal substances), forestry and related industries in-208 cluding fisheries and aquaculture, as well as the biodegradable fraction of in-209 dustrial and municipal waste. 210

“Energy from renewable sources” according to Directive 2009/28/EC means 211 energy from renewable non-fossil sources, namely wind, solar, aerothermal, 212 geothermal, hydrothermal and ocean energy, hydropower, biomass, landfill 213 gas, sewage treatment plant gas and biogases. 214

Thus, waste streams are taken into account for the purposes of the directive 215 only to the extent that they are of biogenic origin, while the fossil part of 216 waste streams is not considered. By way of biennial reports, each Member 217 State shall submit information on how the share of biodegradable waste in 218 waste used for producing energy has been estimated, and what steps have 219 been taken to improve and verify such estimates. 220

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Waste-derived fuels (WDFs) within the scope of this project 222

In this study, the term “waste-derived fuels” is understood in a wide and com-223 prehensive sense, so as to include any type of fuel, be it solid, liquid or gas, 224 which is obtained from waste. The following gaseous, liquid and solid waste-225 derived fuels (except those excluded from the scope of the WFD 2008/98/EC) 226 are investigated in this study: 227

Biogas, 228 Gaseous output from gasification, 229 Gaseous output from pyrolysis, 230 Biodiesel, 231 Bioethanol, 232 Waste oil (mineral and synthetic), 233 Waste oil (vegetable oils, cooking oils), 234 Waste solvents (halogenated and non-halogenated), 235 Industrial liquid waste concentrates, 236 Liquid pyrolysis output, 237 Wood waste, 238 Waste tyres and waste rubber, 239 Waste plastics, 240 Waste paper, 241

Definition of “biomass”

No definition of “waste”

Definition of “biomass”

Definition of “energy from renewable sources”

Biodegradable waste fractions are taken into account as renewable energy sources



Waste textiles, 242 Biowaste (as defined in Directive 2008/98/EC), 243 RDF (WDF derived from non-hazardous waste), 244 Animal by-products and derived products, 245 Dried/dewatered municipal sewage sludge, 246 Dried/dewatered industrial sewage sludge, 247 Solid pyrolysis output. 248

249

Prefixes and Conversion Factors for Units used 250

Table 1: Prefixes for units used 251

Prefix Symbol Conversion Factor

Piko p 10 -12 0.000000000001

Nano n 10 -9 0.000000001

Mikro μ 10 -6 0.000001

Milli m 10 -3 0.001

Kilo k 10 3 1,000

Mega M 10 6 1,000,000

Giga G 10 9 1,000,000,000

Tera T 10 12 1,000,000,000,000

252

1 ppm (in weight) = 1 mg/kg = 0,001 g/kg = 0.000001 kg/kg 253

= 0.001 ‰ = 0.0001 % 254

255

Conversion Units 256

The following calorific values, i.e. lower heating values (LHV), were used for 257 calculations of WDF mass (volume) into energy contents, or vice versa: 258

Table 2: Lower heating values (LHV) assumed for WDFs within the scope 259

LHV WDF Unit

MIN MAX

Biogas MJ/Nm3 25.6 25.6

Biodiesel MJ/kg 36.6 36.6

Bioethanol MJ/kg 26.7 26.7

RDF (WDF from mixed non-hazardous wastes) MJ/kg 13.0 18.0

Waste Oil (mineral and synthetic) MJ/kg 27.0 34.2

Waste tyres, waste rubber MJ/kg 27.2 31.5

Edible oil and fat MJ/kg 12.0 31.8

Waste solvents MJ/kg 23.0 32.0

Wood waste MJ/kg 7.3 19.5

Waste plastics (pure) MJ/kg 13.6 41.0

Prefixes

ppm

LHVs used



LHV WDF Unit MIN MAX

Waste paper MJ/kg 9.4 23.9

Waste textiles MJ/kg 13.0 21.8

Biowaste (as in WFD) MJ/kg 6.7 7.3

Animal by-products and derived products MJ/kg 17.0 39.0

Dried/dewatered municipal sewage sludge MJ/kg 3.7 15.7

260

Table 3: Use of WDFs per year in the European Union in tonnes (or 1,000 Nm3 for 261 biogas, respectively), corresponding energy amounts in TJ based on minimum and 262 maximum energy contents, reference year 2008 or latest year where data are available 263 (Key Sources: EUROSTAT, WASTE STATISTICS, ENERGY STATISTICS, NATIONAL WASTE 264 MANAGEMENT PLANS, TU WIEN 1999, NRW 2005; EC 2010) 265

Used Quantities Energy content (LHV)

Tonnes/year (1,000

Nm3/year)

TJ/year MJ/kg (MJ/Nm3)

WDF

MIN MAX MIN MAX

Biogas*,** 6,818,175 174,545 174,545 25.6 25.6

Biodiesel** 399,600 14,625 14,625 36.6 36.6

Bioethanol** 0 0 0 26.7 26.7

`RDF´ (WDF from mixed non-hazardous wastes)

7,400,000 96,200 133,200 13.0 18.0

Waste Oil (mineral and synthetic)

1,544,851 41,711 52,834 27.0 34.2

Waste tyres, waste rubber

1,261,000 34,299 39,722 27.2 31.5

Edible oil and fat 125,000 1,500 3,975 12.0 31.8

Waste solvents 955,500 21,976 30,576 23.0 32.0

Wood waste 24,000,000 175,200 468,000 7.3 19.5

Waste plastics (pure) 6,477,674 88,096 265,585 13.6 41.0

Waste paper 10,296,241 96,785 246,080 9.4 23.9

Waste textiles 154,500 2,009 3,368 13.0 21.8

Biowaste (as in WFD) 1,180,027 7,906 8,614 6.7 7.3

Animal by-products and derived products

7,130,000 121,210 278,070 17.0 39.0

Dried/dewatered munici-pal sewage sludge

2,003,283 7,412 31,452 3.7 15.7

Total (Tonnes/year) 62,927,676

Total (1,000 Nm3/year) 6,818,175

Total (TJ/year) 883,475 1,750,646

*) For Biogas, the amount is given in 1,000 Nm3 and the LHV is given in MJ/Nm3. 266 **) Only waste-derived amounts 267



1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 268

1.1 Objectives and Scope 269

The objective of this study is to provide detailed information and analyses to the 270 European Commission on all the relevant aspects needed for proposing the 271 end-of-waste status of fuels derived from waste. It analyses the suitability of dif-272 ferent waste-derived fuels (WDFs) for obtaining the end-of-waste status in ac-273 cordance with the requirements set out in Article 6 (1) of the Waste Framework 274 Directive2 : 275

“Certain specified waste shall cease to be waste within the meaning of 276 point (1) of Article 3 when it has undergone a recovery, including recy-277 cling, operation and complies with specific criteria to be developed in 278 accordance with the following conditions: 279

(a) the substance or object is commonly used for specific purposes; 280

(b) a market or demand exists for such a substance or object; 281

(c) the substance or object fulfils the technical requirements for the spe-282 cific purposes and meets the existing legislation and standards applica-283 ble to products; and 284

(d) the use of the substance or object will not lead to overall adverse 285 environmental or human health impacts. 286

The criteria shall include limit values for pollutants where necessary and 287 shall take into account any possible adverse environmental effects of 288 the substance or object.” 289

290

In this study, the term “waste-derived fuels” is understood in a wide and com-291 prehensive sense, so as to include any type of fuel, be it solid, liquid or gas, that 292 is obtained from waste. 293

The definition and scope of “waste” is as provided in Article 2 of the Waste 294 Framework Directive 2008/98/EC. Some of the fuels covered in the study are 295 always waste-derived, while others are not necessarily waste-derived or only 296 partly waste-derived (e.g. biogas, biodiesel, bioethanol). Only waste-derived fu-297 els or waste-derived shares of fuels respectively are within the scope of this 298 study. 299

The study covers the European Union and its 27 Member States. 300

The reference year is 2008, according to the latest statistical data. 301

The following gaseous, liquid and solid waste-derived fuels (with the exception 302 of those excluded from the scope of the WFD 2008/98/EC) are investigated in 303 this study: 304

Biogas, 305 Gaseous output from gasification, 306

2 Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on

waste and repealing certain directives

Objectives

Art. 6 (1) Waste Framework Directive

Scope

EU-27

Reference year 2008

Scrutinized WDFs



Gaseous output from pyrolysis, 307 Biodiesel, 308 Bioethanol, 309 Waste oil (mineral and synthetic), 310 Waste oil (vegetable oils, cooking oils), 311 Waste solvents (halogenated and non-halogenated), 312 Industrial liquid waste concentrates, 313 Liquid pyrolysis output, 314 Wood waste, 315 Waste tyres and waste rubber, 316 Waste plastics, 317 Waste paper, 318 Waste textiles, 319 Biowaste (as defined in Directive 2008/98/EC), 320 RDF (WDF derived from non-hazardous waste), 321 Animal by-products and derived products, 322 Dried/dewatered municipal sewage sludge, 323 Dried/dewatered industrial sewage sludge, 324 Solid pyrolysis output. 325

326

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1.2 Methodological Approach 328

The following methodological approach was used: 329

Technical Characterisation of WDFs: 330

Firstly, data for the different waste-derived fuels are gathered with regard to 331 their chemical and physical properties on the basis of published literature data. 332 The use of individual WDFs with regard to energy generation that is currently 333 made is investigated (e.g. heat/power/CHP generation, use in relevant industrial 334 sectors, transport, households). The WDFs within the scope are divided into the 335 following three categories: 336

Category 1: Intentionally produced fuels (feedstock materials are both 337 waste and non waste). 338

Category 2: Generic waste streams, which are partly used as a fuel (WDF 339 without any or only minor conditioning), partly recovered or disposed of. 340

Category 3: WDFs, which are produced intentionally with the aim to be used 341 as a fuel (feedstock materials are wastes only, i.e. RDF). 342

Generation, Trade and Use of WDFs: 343

Secondly, the amounts of WDFs generated in the European Union are identified 344 by using primarily data from Eurostat Waste Statistics and Eurostat Energy Sta-345 tistics. Additional data sources (studies, interviews) were used and/or generated 346 WDF amounts were calculated or estimated. 347



The amounts of WDFs that are traded within the European Union as well as be-348 tween the European Union and third countries were extracted, if available, from 349 the COMEXT database of the European Foreign Trade Statistics (FTS). 350 The amounts of WDFs that are used for energy recovery in the European Union 351 are identified by using primarily data from Eurostat Waste Statistics (on WDF 352 level) and Eurostat Energy Statistics (aggregated WDF data on the level of in-353 dustrial and other sectors). Data from IEA Energy Statistics are used where 354 relevant. 355 356 Following these steps, the fulfilment of the conditions of the WFD was as-357 sessed: 358

Market and Demand: 359

The market situation (e.g. market relations and dynamics, market prices / gate 360 fees and their development over time) for WDFs is described on the basis of 361 publicly available data sources and expert knowledge. 362

Specifications and Standards: 363

Relevant European and national standards and specifications for WDFs and the 364 criteria they define are described, distinguishing between stan-365 dards/specifications for WDFs that 366

are legally binding or not legally binding, and 367 have or do not have context to end-of-waste status. 368

Additional information sources are interviews with MS representatives in the 369 EU-27. 370

Legal Situation: 371

Legislation and court cases on the European level and in European Member 372 States, if relevant, are described. Apart from research on legislation and juris-373 diction done by attorneys Niederhuber Hager Rechtsanwälte, information is also 374 gathered by means of interviews with MS representatives in the EU-27. 375

Environment and Health Impact: 376

Considerations on the environmental impact of WDF incineration as non-waste 377 are effected, taking into account e.g. existing legal requirements on EU level 378 and the individual WDFs’ chemical and physical properties. 379 Existing EU policies that may be affected when WDFs reach the end-of-waste 380 status, e.g. the principles of the waste hierarchy according to the WFD, or exist-381 ing recycling targets, are scrutinized. 382

Suitability for end-of-waste: 383

Based on the data gathered in the work packages described previously, consid-384 erations on the suitability for end-of-waste of the WDFs within the scope of the 385 study are made, in accordance with the end-of-waste criteria defined in Arti-386 cle 6 (1) of the Waste Framework Directive, i.e.: 387



a) The substance or object is commonly used for specific purposes. 388 b) A market or demand exists for such a substance or object. 389 c) The substance or object fulfils the technical requirements for the specific 390

purposes and meets the existing legislation and standards applicable to 391 products. 392

d) The use of the substance or object will not lead to overall adverse environ-393 mental or human health impacts. 394

395

396

1.3 Technical Characterisation of WDFs 397

Key parameters describing the quality of waste-derived-fuels (WDFs)3 are the 398 lower heating value (LHV), water content, ash content, chlorine content, content 399 of aluminum, arsenic, heavy metals and conveyance properties (such as bulk 400 density, particle size, particle form). 401

Starting with characterization by mean values of element contents (Cl, N, P, 402 metals…) in the 1990ies, reported mostly in [mg/kg DS] and sometimes in 403 [mg/MJ], development in the recent years is to use median values, usually me-404 dian (50th percentile), 80th percentile and 90th percentile. 405

For the common waste streams/WDFs generated and traded in high 406 amounts in at least some of the 27 European Countries, useful and specific 407 data sets on composition are available. Most data sets are from Germany and 408 Austria using both mean values and median / percentile values. Data are rare 409 for some waste streams that are of minor relevance for energy utilization (e.g. 410 industrial liquid waste) or hardly in use anywhere. Data sheets for technical 411 characterization of WDFs are contained in Annex 1. 412

For the three parameters with values to define classification properties ac-413 cording to CEN/TS 15359:2006 (i.e. lower heating value, chlorine content 414 and mercury content), information on the variability of the investigated WDFs is 415 compiled subsequently. CEN/TS 15359:2006 provides a longer list of parame-416 ters, but without limit values being defined, and some of these parameters are 417 only optional. 418

Several WDFs investigated in this study, such as edible oil and fat, waste 419 plastics and animal fat, in general have high heating values (>15GJ/tonne). 420 Others such as biowaste or liquid waste concentrates are characterised by low 421 calorific values (0-5 GJ/tonne). A third group of WDFs was identified where the 422 calorific value strongly varies. These are waste plastics from production resi-423 dues, dried or dewatered industrial sewage sludge, waste oil and waste paper. 424 These ranges are caused by the waste source and by the different WDF pro-425 duction processes applied. 426

Data compiled in this study reveals that highest chlorine contents are found 427 in waste tyres, edible oil and fat and waste plastics, with the highest levels in 428 PVC, obviously. Wood waste and waste paper typically have notably low chlo-429 rine-contents. In general, dried or dewatered sewage sludge from industrial or 430

3 Waste-derived fuels are intentionally produced from waste and non-waste (Category 1), or from

waste only (Category 3), or are waste streams partly used as fuel (Category 2) (cf. Chapter 1.4).

Data sets in Annex 1

CEN/TS 15359:2006

Lower heating value

Chlorine



municipal origin also reveals low contents of chlorine. Especially waste plastics 431 from production residues as well as from separately collected packaging waste 432 differ a lot with regard to chlorine contents. 433

Comparably highest contents of mercury were identified for pyrolysis products, 434 waste plastics from separately collected packaging waste, RDF and dried or 435 dewatered municipal sewage sludge. Available information indicates low mer-436 cury contents in edible oil and fat as well as in waste tyres and waste rubber. 437 Wide ranges were identified in data for waste textiles and dried or dewatered 438 industrial sewage sludges. 439

The following metals can be found in waste-derived fuels in varying concentra-440 tions: 441

Aluminium (Al) 442 Antimony (Sb) 443 Arsenic (As) 444 Barium (Ba) 445 Beryllium (Be) 446 Cadmium (Cd) 447 Chromium (Cr) 448 Cobalt (Co) 449 Copper (Cu) 450 Iron (Fe) 451 Lead (Pb) 452 Manganese (Mn) 453 Molybdenum (Mo) 454 Nickel (Ni) 455 Selenium (Se) 456 Tellurium (Te) 457 Thallium (Tl) 458 Tin (Sn) 459 Vanadium (V) 460 Zinc (Zn) 461

Mercury

(Heavy) Metals



Persistent organic pollutants may occur in certain waste streams used as 462 WDF, e.g. waste oils. 463

464

The following substances can be present in waste-derived fuels and contrib-465 ute to environmental and health impact, and are released mainly in their oxi-466 dized forms or in the form of acid substances. 467

Boron (B) 468 Bromine (Br) 469 Fluorine (F) 470 Nitrogen (N) 471 Phosphor (P) 472 Sulphur (S) 473

474 Different waste/WDF qualities are defined by European Standards as well as 475 on Member State level, e.g. in Austria, Belgium (Flanders), Finland, France, 476 the Netherlands, Italy, Slovakia, Sweden and United Kingdom. Member States 477 standards usually contain long lists of values for metals and physical parame-478 ters. 479

480

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Other substances

National standards



1.4 Generation, trade and use of WDFs 481

Waste-derived fuels (WDF) which were investigated in this project can be clas-482 sified into three categories: 483

Table 4: Overview on WDFs in the scope of the project 484

Classification WDFs within the project scope

Biogas (with the exemption of landfill gas)

Biodiesel

Bioethanol

Syngas from Gasification

Pyrolysis gas

Liquid pyrolysis output

Category 1: Intentionally produced fuels, feed-stock materials may be waste and/or non waste

Pyrolysis and gasification solid output

Waste oil

Edible Oil and Fat

Waste Solvents

Industrial Liquid Waste Concentrates

Wood Waste

Waste Tyres, Waste Rubber

Waste Plastics

Waste Paper

Waste Textiles

Biowaste (according to definition in the WFD)

Animal By-products and derived products

Dried or dewatered municipal sewage sludge

Category 2: Generic waste streams, which are partly used as a fuel (WDF without any or only minor condi-tioning), partly recovered or dis-posed of.

Dried or dewatered industrial sewage sludge

Category 3: WDFs, which are produced inten-tionally with the aim to be used as a fuel, feedstock materials are wastes only

´Refuse derived fuels` (`RDF`): Different types of solid fuels prepared from mixed non-hazardous waste, e.g. MSW, C&D waste, shredder residues), including materials such as wood, plastic, paper, etc.

485

The basic sources for determining WDF generation were European Waste Sta-486 tistics and Energy Statistics 487

Data on WDF trade between European Member States as well as into and out 488 of the European Union were gathered from European Foreign Trade Statistics 489 (FTS), as far as detailed data were available. As key data source the Eurostat 490 COMEXT database was used. 491

Where no detailed statistics on incineration and energy recovery of waste cate-492 gories were available, estimates were made based on subtraction of quantified 493 uses (recycling, landfill, accumulation to stocks, trade) from generated amounts. 494 In order to narrow and validate the thus obtained ranges, additional information, 495 such as national waste management plans, further European Statistics (Water 496 Statistics), industry data or studies, e.g. JRC (2010), were consulted. 497

Generation data

Trade data

Use data



The following explanations are of relevance regarding information on data for 498 the three different WDF categories described in Table 4: 499

500

WDF use 501 For category 1 WDFs (i.e. intentionally produced fuels, where feedstock materi-502 als are both, waste and non waste), use refers to those amounts of these fuels, 503 which are waste-derived. 504 For category 2 WDFs (i.e. generic waste streams, which are suitable to be a 505 fuel, i.e., which are partly used as a fuel, partly recovered or disposed of), use 506 refers to those amounts of the generic waste streams which are reported as 507 used or are derived from calculations. 508 For category 3 WDFs (i.e. those, which are produced intentionally with the aim 509 to be used as a fuel and where feedstock materials are wastes only = RDF), 510 use refers to the amounts of RDF produced. 511

512 Traded amounts 513

For category 1 WDFs, figures refer to traded amounts of the biofuel (including 514 the non-waste-derived share). 515 For category 2 WDFs, figures refer to traded amounts of generic waste streams 516 (including the shares which are not used as a fuel). 517 For category 3 WDFs (i.e. RDF), no trade statistics are available. 518 519

An overview of the amounts of WDFs generated, used and traded in the EU-27 520 in the reference year 2008 is given in Table 5. An overview of the respective 521 energy amounts is given in Table 6. 522

523

524



Table 5: Overview of the amounts of WDFs generated, used and traded in the EU-27 in 525 the reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Waste and Trade Statistics) 526

WDF Quantities, 2008 (Tonnes/year or 1,000 Nm3/year respectively)*

Trade with Non-EU Trade within MS

WDF

Generation Energy Use Import Export Import Export

Biogas*,** 6,818,175 6,818,175 n.d.*** n.d. n.d. n.d.

Biodiesel** 399,600 399,600 27,382 35,188 540,811 372,711

Bioethanol** 0 0 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Pyrolysis products n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Gasification products n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.


7,400,000 7,400,000 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.


2,849,003 1,544,851 46,258 3,555 228,902 46,258


3,121,000 1,261,000 105,844 272,827 286,880 295,987

Edible oil and fat 500,000 125,000 7,040 8,169 149,285 102,684

Waste solvents 2,730,000 955,500 7,005 242 5,909 13,363

Wood waste 68,420,000 24,000,000 2,017,307 174,347 5,746,650 4,701,660

Waste plastics 14,920,000 6,477,674 242,958 2,240,060 1,528,411 1,367,848

Waste paper 58,710,000 10,296,241 1,021,321 11,175,080 11,206,368 10,789,449

Waste textiles 3,090,000 154,500 298,048 1,027,156 955,456 926,128

Biowaste (as in WFD)**** 1,180,027 1,180,027 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.


10,730,000 7,130,000 303,388 476,535 2,887,908 2,066,611

Industrial Liquid Waste Con-centrates

n.d. n.d. 42,745 6,744 26,959 5,476

Dried/dewatered municipal sewage sludge

10,243,000 2,003,283 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Dried/dewatered industrial sewage sludge

n.d. n.d. 2,858 9,819 11,750 5,395

Total (Tonnes/year) 184,292,630 62,927,676 4,122,154 15,429,722 23,575,289 20,693,570

Total (1,000 Nm3/year) 6,818,175 6,818,175 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

*) For Biogas, the amount is given in 1,000 Nm3 and the LHV is given in MJ/Nm3. 527 **) Only waste-derived amounts 528 ***) n.d.: No data available 529 ****) refers to the combustible share of collected biowaste 530



531

532

Table 6: Overview of the energetic quantities of WDFs generated, used and traded in the EU-27 in the reference year 2008 (calculated on the basis of the amounts given 533 in Table 5 and the lower heating values given in Table 2) 534

WDF Quantities, 2008 (TJ/year)

Trade with Non-EU Trade within MS Generation Energy Use

Import Export Import Export

WDF

Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.

Biogas* 174,545 174,545 174,545 174,545 n.d.** n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Biodiesel* 14,625 14,625 14,625 14,625 1,002 1,002 1,288 1,288 19,794 19,794 13,641 13,641

Bioethanol* 0 0 0 0 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Pyrolysis products n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Gasification products n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.


96,200 133,200 96,200 133,200 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.


76,923 97,436 41,711 52,834 1,249 1,582 96 122 6,180 7,828 1,249 1,582


84,891 98,312 34,299 39,722 2,879 3,334 7,421 8,594 7,803 9,037 8,051 9,324

Edible oil and fat 6,000 15,900 1,500 3,975 84 224 98 260 1,791 4,747 1,232 3,265

Waste solvents 62,790 87,360 21,977 30,576 161 224 6 8 136 189 307 428

Wood waste 499,466 1,334,190 175,200 468,000 14,726 39,337 1,273 3,400 41,951 112,060 34,322 91,682

Waste plastics (pure) 202,912 611,720 88,096 265,585 3,304 9,961 30,465 91,842 20,786 62,665 18,603 56,082

Waste paper 551,874 1,403,169 96,785 246,080 9,600 24,410 105,046 267,084 105,340 267,832 101,421 257,868

Waste textiles 40,170 67,362 2,009 3,368 3,875 6,497 13,353 22,392 12,421 20,829 12,040 20,190

Biowaste (as in WFD) 7,906 8,614 7,906 8,614 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Animal by-products and derived products***

182,410 418,470 121,210 278,070 5,158 11,832 8,101 18,585 49,094 112,628 35,132 80,598

Industrial Liquid Waste Concentrates****

n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Suitability of WDFs for End-of-waste Status – Error! Style not defined.

20 Umweltbundesamt V

WDF Quantities, 2008 (TJ/year)

Trade with Non-EU Trade within MS Generation Energy Use


WDF

Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.

Dried/dewatered mu-nicipal sewage sludge

37,899 160,815 7,412 31,452 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Dried/dewatered indus-trial sewage sludge*****

n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 11 45 36 154 43 184 20 85

Total (TJ/year) 2,038,612 4,625,718 883,475 1,750,646 42,039 98,404 167,146 413,575 265,297 617,609 225,998 534,659

*) Only waste-derived amounts 535 **) n.d.: No data available 536 ***) For Animal by-products and derived products, LHVs between 17 and 39 MJ/kg were estimated, corresponding to Meat and bone meal (MBM) and to Animal fat, which are 537 the main WDFs derived from the rendering industry. These minimum and maximum LHVs values apply well to traded and used amounts, but may be lower for generated amounts 538 which comprise also animal by-products of lower LHVs, such as blood, intestinal contents etc. (no detailed data available). 539 ****) These liquids consist overwhelmingly of water. Therefore their energy content is negligible. 540 *****) As a first approximation, the lower calorific values of dried/dewatered municipal sewage sludge were used to calculate the energetic quantities of industrial sewage sludge. 541 542

543

Suitability of WDFs for End-of-Waste Status – Error! Style not defined.


1.4.1 Generation and use of individual WDFs 544

With the exception of animal-by- products and wood waste, Germany is the 545 major producer/user of WDFs. Particularly remarkable are the by far largest 546 quantities of WDF from mixed non-hazardous wastes (RDF) in Germany. 547 Finland generates the largest quantities of waste-derived wood. The United 548 Kingdom is an important producer of waste-derived biogas and of fuel derived 549 from animal by-products and products derived thereof, as well as of fuel derived 550 from plastics and paper waste. France is a further important producer of WDF 551 from animal by-products and products derived thereof. 552

Edible oil and fat and WDF derived from biowaste, which was for the purpose of 553 this project assumed as the screening overflow from composting plants and 554 from pre-treatment prior to anaerobic digestion, as well as the waste-derived 555 share of biodiesel and bioethanol are the by far lowest WDF streams. 556

For category 2 WDFs (i.e. generic waste streams, which are partly used as a 557 fuel, partly recovered or disposed of), Figure 1 provides a comparison of gen-558 eration (i.e. of the waste stream, from which the WDFs derive) and WDF use. It 559 is outlined, that only small shares of the total generation of waste paper, mu-560 nicipal sewage sludge, waste plastics, waste textiles and waste tyres/waste 561 rubber become a WDF. The major part of these fractions is subjected to mate-562 rial recovery procedures such as recycling or, in the case of municipal sewage 563 sludge, use as fertilizer in agriculture. 564

565

566

Figure 1: Comparison of WDF generation and use, in tonnes/year (reference year 2008 567 or latest available) 568

Most important producers/users of these WDF



For the year 2008 (or the latest year, where data are available), it is estimated 569 that about 61.6 million tonnes of solid and liquid WDF and 6,800 million Nm3 570 biogas were used, corresponding to an energy amount of about 504 to 680 PJ 571 (cf. Table 3). 572

573

WDFs with high amounts in Generation/Use 574

The six WDF contributing most significantly to overall WDF quantities in genera-575 tion and use, both in terms of weight and energy, are: 576

Wood waste 577 Waste plastics 578 Waste paper 579 `RDF` (WDF from mixed non-hazardous wastes) 580 Animal by-products and derived products 581 Biogas 582

583

Partly waste-derived Bio-fuels 584

Of the WDFs contained within the scope of the study at hand, Biogas, Biodiesel 585 and Bioethanol are only partly waste-derived: 586

Among the fuels which are intentionally produced from waste and non-waste 587 feedstock material, biogas is the only one with a substantial percentage being 588 waste-derived. According to literature data, 15% of biogas other than landfill 589 and sewage gas result from waste. Thus, in total more than 50% by energy of 590 the total biogas production is waste-derived. 591

Concerning biodiesel, accurate data on the share of waste-derived biodiesel is 592 not available, partly due to varying classification of input material as waste or 593 non-waste by producers and Member States. The share of waste-derived bio-594 diesel seems to be low. However, even if 5% of total biodiesel would be waste-595 derived, the amount of waste-derived biodiesel would be low compared to other 596 WDFs in terms of weight as well as in terms of energy. 597

Concerning bioethanol, the share of wastes in feedstock material for the pro-598 duction of bioethanol is negligible. 599

600

Development of WDF Generation/Use over time 601

The generation of the following waste-derived fuels increased from 2004 to 602 2008: 603

´RDF´ (WDF from mixed non-hazardous waste) 604 Waste plastics 605 Biogas 606 Waste tyres/waste rubber 607 Waste edible oil and fat 608

Generation of waste paper and wood wastes increased in 2006 compared to 609 2004. In 2008, however lower quantities were reported. 610

WDF use

Biogas

Biodiesel

Bioethanol

Development of WDF generation over time



A trend to decrease was observed for fuels derived from 611 Waste solvents 612 Waste oil 613

Quantities of the remaining WDFs either remained constant over the observed 614 time, such as animal by-products and derived products or waste textiles, or the 615 available information does not allow for drawing proper conclusions. However, 616 taking into account the European targets concerning the reduction of land-filling 617 of biodegradable waste, the quantities of wood waste and waste paper being 618 incinerated are expected to increase. 619

Biodiesel production is continuously increasing; however, the share of waste-620 derived biodiesel is expected to vary considerably over time due to fluctuating 621 prices of the various feedstock materials. 622

Comparison of WDF use with European Energy Statistics 623

The WDFs are summed up according to the corresponding categories of the 624 European Energy Statistics database (e.g. in Table 3 between 411 and 625 1,036 PJ of waste streams that are corresponding to the category wood, wood 626 waste & other solid waste in energy statistics are listed). In Table 7, the result-627 ing values are compared to the gross inland consumption of the energy statis-628 tics. 629

The gross inland consumption is calculated by the indigenous production 630 plus imports minus exports adjusted by stock changes. Except for statistical 631 differences this corresponds to the final energy consumption plus the trans-632 formation sector, the energy sector and distribution losses (Eurostat, IEA, 633 UNECE 2009). 634

Table 7: Gross Inland Consumption and amounts of WDFs use in TJ/year in the year 635 2008 (Source: Eurostat Waste and Energy Statistics) 636

Fuel Input WDF Fuel Input (TJ/year)

Gross Inland Consumption, EU-27 2008 (TJ/year) (%) MIN MAX

Wood, Wood Waste & Other Solid Waste

2,971,847 4.7% 410,521a) 1,035,584a)

Biogas 317,603 0.5% 174,545 174,545

MSW 621,643 1.0% n.d.d) n.d. d)

Industrial Waste 86,507 0.1% 282,283b) 521,916b)

Biogasoline (Bioethanol) 76,169 0.1% 0 0

Biodiesel 348,533 0.6% 14,625 14,625

Other Liquid Biofuels 69,896 0.1% 1,500c) 3,975c)

Solid Fuels 12,824,959 20.3%

Oil 27,462,654 43.4%

Gas 18,453,137 29.2%

Total 63,232,948 100% 883,475 1,750,646

Share 100% 1.4% 2.8% a) Sum of the waste streams/WDFs Wood Waste, Animal By-products and derived products, 637

Waste paper, Waste textiles and Municipal Sewage Sludge. Furthermore, it is possible that also 638 Waste Tyres/Rubber and RDF are partially reported under this category. 639

Quantitative use

Gross Inland Consumption



b) Sum of the waste streams/WDFs Waste Oil, Waste Solvents, Industrial Liquid Waste 640 Concentrates, RDF, Waste Plastics and Waste Tyres/Rubber. 641

c) Edible Oil and Fat d) n.d.: No data available 642 Table 7 shows that at current consumption levels, WDFs for incineration may 643 account for up to 2.8 % of gross inland consumption. 644

A comparison of the gross inland consumption (fuel input) for the reference year 645 2008, as given in Table 7, with quantities of WDFs (cf. Table 3, Figure 1) 646 shows: 647

Industrial waste is the only category where the WDF quantities for incinera-648 tion in the EU are higher (282-522 PJ) than the gross inland consumption 649 (87 PJ) of all EU Member States. 650 Waste plastics (88-266 PJ) and RDF (96-133 PJ) generation according to 651 Waste Statistics (Table 3) generation each alone would be more than the re-652 ported gross inland consumption of industrial waste according to Energy Sta-653 tistics (Table 7). 654 The sum of generated waste oil, waste solvents and waste tyres/rubber ac-655 cording to Waste Statistics (Table 3) would also exceed the gross inland con-656 sumption of industrial waste according to Energy Statistics (Table 7). 657 While waste tyres/rubber input (34 - 40 PJ) to incineration is based upon a 658 solid reference (ETRMA) and the amount of incinerated waste solvents (22 - 659 31 PJ) is considered to be a conservative estimate, it has to be noted that for 660 waste oil (42 - 53 PJ, 1.54 million tonnes) amounts were estimated whereas 661 Energy Statistics report significantly lower amounts for R1 incineration (11 - 662 14 PJ corresponding to 420,000 tonnes). 663 RDF and waste tyres/rubber might (partly) be reported in Energy Statistics 664 under the category “Wood, Wood Waste and Other Solid Waste”. 665 The differences for waste plastics can be explained by the fact that in several 666 Member States there are still considerable amounts of this waste streams be-667 ing landfilled, so that the estimated amounts of WDFs according to Waste 668 Statistics are significantly higher than the gross inland consumption of indus-669 trial waste as given in Table 7. 670

For all other categories, the WDF quantities could be or are likely to be part 671 of the gross inland consumption. 672

For Wood, Wood Waste and Other Solid Waste, there are uncertainties 673 concerning the share of wood waste contained in this category (estimated to 674 be about 25 %) and concerning other waste categories that could possibly be 675 included in this category, as e.g. RDF and waste tyres/rubber. Although there 676 are reporting guidelines4 for allocating renewable waste for Eurostat, IEA and 677 UNECE Energy Statistics, it is possible that the methodology applied in allo-678 cating these waste streams is inconsistent among the twenty-seven EU 679 Member States. 680

681

4 Renewables Annual Questionnaire 2008 and Historical Revisions, edited by Eurostat, IEA and

UNECE, July 2009. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/energy/documents/Ren_Excel_User_Manual.pdf, p. 4: „Industrial Waste (non-renewable): Report waste of industrial non-renewable origin (solids or liquids) combusted directly for the production of electricity and/or heat. The quantity of fuel used should be reported on a net calorific value basis. Renewable industrial waste should be re-ported in the Solid Biomass, Biogas and/or Liquid Biofuels categories.“

Industrial Waste WDF > consumption

All other categories WDF < consumption Wood, Wood Waste and other Solid Waste



Use of WDFs in combustion and incineration processes 682

An overview on the kind of energy that is produced by incineration of waste 683 streams/WDFs in the European Union is given in Table 8: 684

Table 8: Use of WDFs in combustion and incineration processes 685

Waste/WDF/Fuel Heating and

Coolingb)

Powerb)

CHPb)

Industryprocess

c)

Mobility

Biogas X X X (X) X

Biodiesel X

Bioethanol X


X X X


X X X X

Edible oil and fat X X X X X

Waste Solvents X X X X

Wood waste X X X (X) Xd)

Waste tyres, Waste rubber

X X X X

Waste plastics X X X X

Waste paper X X X X

Waste textiles X X X X

Biowaste a) Xe) Xe) Xe) (Xe)) Xe)


X X X X

Dried/dewatered sludges

X X X X Xe)

a) As defined by the WFD 686 b) Co-incineration in public thermal power stations and autoproducer thermal power stations, 687

as well as in incineration in plants dedicated to waste-incineration 688 c) Final energy consumption, e.g. in cement kilns or blast furnaces 689 d) Via wood gas production (Sweden) 690 e) Via biogas production 691 692

The sectors utilizing the highest amounts of WDFs in 2008 according to 693 EUROSTAT (cf. Figure 2) are: The Public Thermal Power Sector utilizing 694 518 PJ wastes/WDFs corresponding to 3.4 % of the gross inland consumption 695 of this sector in total; the Autoproducer Thermal Power Sector utilizing 317 PJ 696 wastes/WDFs corresponding to 13.9 % of the gross inland consumption of this 697 sector in total, followed by the Pulp and Paper Industry with 119 PJ resp. 13 % 698 of the gross inland consumption – with an overwhelming amount of wood, wood 699 waste and other solid wastes. The Mineral Industry Sector (mainly Cement In-700 dustry) utilizes 72 PJ wastes/WDFs corresponding to 4.9 % of the gross inland 701 consumption of this sector in total. The District Heat Sector reports 87 PJ 702 wastes/WDFs (57 PJ of these are municipal solid waste) corresponding to 703 11.9 % of the gross inland consumption of this sector in total. 704

Incineration of WDF



705

706

Figure 2: WDF consumption and WDF contribution to EU-27 Gross Inland Con-707 sumption, according to industrial sectors (Data source: Eurostat Energy Statis-708 tics) 709

710

Concerning Biogas and liquid Biofuels, the European legislation on Renewable 711 Energy Sources 2009/28/EG setting Biofuel targets clearly influenced their in-712 crease in use in the transport sector. 713

714

WDFs substituting fossil and biomass fuels and waste/WDF 715

The use of particular WDFs in processes does not merely depend on the in-716 tended energy product (electricity, process/district heat, steam) but on the proc-717 ess and incineration aggregate in use. For example, liquid WDFs such as waste 718 solvents or waste oil will most probably be used in an installation that is already 719 equipped with a dosing unit and burner for liquid fuels; pulverized coal boilers 720 will predominantly co-incinerate waste that can be fed to the boiler in form of 721 similarly dry and small-size particulates, such as sewage sludge or meat and 722 bone meal; boilers with grate-firing are delicate with regard to high-calorific 723 waste fractions such as waste plastics, which can damage the grate by over-724 heating it (unless the grate has been designed for high-calorific input) etc. 725

Also the possible amounts of WDFs incinerated depend highly on the proc-726 ess/incinerator. While co-incineration in coal fired power plants is usually about 727 5% of the thermal input, in fluidized bed reactors or rotary kilns a 100% WDFs 728 of one or more types can be incinerated provided that their technical specifica-729 tion does not harm the product, the plant and the environment. It is emphasized 730 that the use of WDFs in different processes is highly different between the 27 731 EU Member States. 732

WDFs cannot only substitute fossil or biomass fuels, but also other WDFs. A 733 survey on the kind of fuel that can be substituted by incineration or co-734

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

WD

F co

nsum

ptio

n (P

J)

WDF consumption according to sectors (EU-27, 2008)

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

(%)

WDF contribution to the gross inland consumption of the sectors (EU-27, 2008)



incineration of waste streams/WDFs indicating the incineration aggregates is 735 given in Table 9. 736

Table 9: Waste streams/WDFs substituting fossil and biomass fuels and waste/WDF in 737 defined incineration aggregates 738

Fuel/WDF

Coa

l

Oil

Gas

Bio

mas

s

Woo

d, W

ood

Was

te

and

Oth

er S

olid

Was

te

MSW

Indu

stria

l Was

te

Bio

gas

Bio

dies

el

Oth

er li

quid

bio

fuel

s

LHV a)

range

15-3

5

38-4

2

32-4

2

6-16

7.3-

19.5

8.0-

12.0

15-4

2

25.6

36.6

35-3

8

Biogas (WDF) 25.6 ◊ ◊

Biodiesel (WDF) 36.6 ◊ ◊


13.0-18.0 ▲ ○▲

◙ ◙ ◙ ◙


27.0-34.2 ○ ○ ○ ○

Edible oil and fat (WDF) 12.0-31.8 ○ ○ ◊

Waste Solvents 23.0-32.0 ○ ○

Wood waste 7.3-19.5 ◙ ◙ ◙ ◙

Waste tyres, Waste rubber

27.2-31.5 ○ ◙ ◙ ◙

Waste plastics 13.6-41.0 ▲ ▲ ◙ ◙ ◙

Waste paper 9.4-23.9 ◙ ◙ ◙

Waste textiles 13.0-21.8 ◙ ◙ ◙

Biowaste a) 6.7-7.3 ◙


17.0-39.0

○ ◙ ◙ ◙

Dried/dewatered sludges

3.7-15.7 ◙ ◙ ◙ ◙ ◙

a) Lower Heating Value (LHV) in MJ/kg or in MJ/Nm3 for gases, respectively 739 Large combustion plant (with the exception of fluidized bed plants) 740 ◙ Fluidized bed & rotary kiln systems 741 ○ Rotary kiln 742



▲ Blast furnace 743 ◊ Combustion engine 744

1.4.2 Trade 745

Table 10 presents an overview on quantities of waste streams suitable for use 746 as a fuel and intentionally produced bio-fuels (partly derived from waste) traded 747 among Member States and in and out of the European Union in 2008. 748

In general, information on the share of traded volumes which are used as a fuel 749 (i.e. which are WDFs) and on shares which are traded with different designa-750 tions (e.g. reuse, recycling) is not available from trade statistics. 751

Large amounts were traded of: 752 Waste paper 753 Wood waste 754 Waste plastics 755 Animal by-products and derived products 756 Waste textiles 757

Waste paper was traded in by far the largest quantities, trade among European 758 MS being in the same order of magnitude as exports to third countries (ap-759 proximately 11 million tonnes each). Net exports to third countries account for 760 17% of the European generation. Waste paper is used primarily for recycling. 761

Wood waste is also traded in large quantities among EU Member States (5.7 762 million tonnes in 2008). EU was a net importer of wood waste (almost 2 million 763 tonnes). However, imports are low compared to European generation of wood 764 waste (less than 3%). 765

Exports of waste plastics to third countries are considerably higher (more than 2 766 million tonnes) than quantities traded among Member States (1.5 million ton-767 nes). Net exports to third countries account for 13% of the European generation 768 of waste plastics. 769

Animal by-products and derived products are mostly traded within the European 770 Union (nearly 3 million tonnes in 2008). Animal fat is partly incinerated and 771 partly used as a raw material in the animal food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic 772 industries. 773

Waste textiles are predominantly exported to third countries (1 million in 2008). 774 27% of waste textiles were shipped to third countries in 2008. Waste textiles are 775 traded predominantly for the purpose of reuse, and to some extent for recycling 776 purposes. As no market exists for textiles incineration (i.e. gate fees have to be 777 paid for incineration), the WDF share of traded textiles can be supposed to be 778 close to zero. 779

For the remaining waste streams/WDFs (edible oil and fat, waste solvents, 780 waste oil, industrial liquid waste concentrates, waste tyres/rubber, 781 dried/dewatered industrial sewage sludge), net flows in and out of the EU are 782 low (less than 5 % compared to the European generation; cf. Table 10). 783

Synthesis gas is often used as a fuel on the site of its origin or incinerated in 784 neighbouring plants, based on long-term contracts. Its transport depends on 785

WDFs traded in large amounts

WDFs traded in small amounts



pipelines. The carbon contents and heating values of ash or slag from gasifica-786 tion are close to zero. 787

On industrial liquid waste concentrates, there is very few information available. 788 Being aqueous solutions in most cases, they are of minor energy content and, 789 their incineration has to be seen in the first instance as a way of disposing of 790 them on-site. 791

Industrial sewage sludge is generated in several industrial sectors and often 792 used on-site for energy recovery, e.g. in the pulp and paper industry. 793

Other WDFs within the scope of this study are traded, but are only partly or 794 to a negligible extent derived from waste substrates. E.g., the waste-derived 795 share in Biodiesel is only 5 %, and next to zero for Bioethanol. 796

797

Table 10: Quantities of wastes suitable to be used as fuel and intentionally produced 798 biofuels partly being waste-derived traded among EU Member States and with third 799 countries in 2008, in tonnes. Traded amounts of more than 1 million tonnes are 800 highlighted in bold letters (Source: Eurostat, COMEXT database) 801

Waste flows between MS and third countries

(Tonnes)

Waste flows within the EU*

(Tonnes)

Waste


Biodiesel 27,382 35,188 540,811 372,711

Edible oil and fat 7,040 8,169 149,285 102,684

Waste oil 46,258 3,555 228,902 46,258

Waste solvents 7,005 242 5,909 13,363

Industrial liquid waste concentrates

42,745 6,744 26,959 5,476

Wood waste 2,017,307 174,347 5,746,650 4,701,660

Waste tyres, waste rubber 105,844 272,827 286,880 295,987

Waste plastics 242,958 2,240,060 1,528,411 1,367,848

Waste paper 1,021,321 11,175,080 11,206,368 10,789,449

Waste textiles 298,048 1,027,156 955,456 926,128

Animal by-product and derived products

303,388 476,535 2,887,908 2,066,611

Dried or dewatered industrial sewage sludge

2,858 9,819 11,750 5,395

Total 4,122,154 15,429,722 23,575,289 20,693,570

*) The reasons for non-balance of reported flows for imports and exports between Member States 802 are given in the description. 803

804

For the following WDFs, there are no trade data available in COMEXT: 805 Biogas 806 Pyrolysis gas and syngas 807 Municipal sewage sludge 808 Biowaste 809

WDFs produced to low or negligible extent from waste



RDFs 810 Gaseous WDFs (biogas, pyrolysis gas and syngas) are usually combusted at 811 the site of generation. Practically, they are not traded among MS or with third 812 countries. 813

Municipal sewage sludge and biowaste used as a fuel are usually not trans-814 ported over far distances because of the comparably low calorific value and 815 high water content. Thus trade is expected to be low. 816

For RDF, there are no trade statistics available. Interviews and own investiga-817 tion, however, indicate that RDF are traded among Member States to a certain 818 degree. Examples are: the Netherlands, Estonia, Latvia, Austria, Sweden and 819 Slovakia. 820

The following Member States trade relevant amounts of waste streams suitable 821 to be used as a WDF: Germany 822

United Kingdom 823 Belgium 824 Netherlands 825 France 826 Sweden 827 Denmark 828 Austria 829 Spain 830

The diagrams below present an overview on total traded amounts of waste 831 streams suitable to be used as a fuel. Amounts traded by MS responsible for 832 more than 10% of the total volumes are displayed individually. 833 Main exporters of waste paper to third countries are Belgium, Germany, the 834 United Kingdom and the Netherlands. These countries also trade substantial 835 quantities with other European countries. Furthermore, Austria and Spain import 836 relevant amounts from other Member States. 837

The Netherlands and Sweden are the most important importers of wood waste 838 from third countries. Germany and in particular Belgium import the largest quan-839 tities from other EU countries. Austria, and in particular Germany, export rele-840 vant amounts to other Member States. 841

Main exporters of waste plastics to third countries are Germany, the United 842 Kingdom, Belgium and the Netherlands. The most active importer from third 843 countries is Sweden. Member States most importing large quantities from other 844 Member States are Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. Germany, Den-845 mark and France most actively export to other Member States. 846

The most important exporter of waste textiles out of the EU is the United King-847 dom. 848

Animal by-products and derived products are traded predominantly within the 849 EU. In 2008 the largest quantities of animal by-products and derived products 850 were imported by Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. Main exporters 851 were Belgium, Denmark, Spain, France and the Netherlands. 852

853

MS trading relevant amounts of waste streams suitable for WDF



854

855 Figure 3: Traded volumes of 12* waste streams suitable for being used as a fuel, Trade 856 EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in million tons, reference years 2004, 2006 and 2008. Traded 857 volumes of Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a particular category are 858 merged (“others”) (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011). (* biodiesel, waste oil, waste edible oil and 859 fat, waste tyres and rubber, wood wastes, waste plastics, waste paper, waste textiles, industrial 860 liquid concentrates, industrial sewage sludges, waste solvents, animal by-products and derived 861 products.) 862 863 The traded quantities of all waste streams being suitable to be used as a 864 fuel, both among EU-27 and between EU27 and third countries, increased 865 from 2004 to 2008. 866

Table 11 sketches trends of traded amounts of individual waste streams in the 867 time period 2004 to 2008. With the exception of biodiesel, waste solvents, 868 waste textiles and industrial sewage sludges trade of all waste streams among 869 EU Member States increased. 870

Table 11: Overview on the development over time (2004 to 2008) of trade quantities of 871 waste streams suitable to be used as a fuel 872

Import from third countries

Export to third countries

Trade among EU States

Biodiesel ↑ ↓ → Edible oil and fat → → ↑ Waste oil → ↓ ↑ Waste solvents ↑ → → Industrial liquid concentrates → ↑ ↑ Wood waste ↑ → ↑ Waste tyres, waste rubbers ↑ ↑ ↑

2004 to 2008: WDF trade increasing



Import from third countries

Export to third countries

Trade among EU States

Waste plastics ↑ → ↑ Waste paper ↑ → ↑ Waste textiles → ↑ → Animal by-products and de-rived products

↑ ↑ ↑

Dried or dewatered indus-trial sewage sludge

↓ ↑ ↓

↑ Traded quantities increased from 2004 to 2008 873 ↓ Traded quantities decreased from 2004 to 2008 874 → Traded quantities stayed at the same level from 2004 to 2008 875 1.5 Market and Demand 876

The main sectors for WDF energy recovery are the heat/power sector (public or 877 autoproducer heat/power/CHP plants) and the non-metallic mineral industry 878 (cement and lime producing plants). 879

The use of WDF in co-incineration plants is often only possible after mechanical 880 or mechanical-biological pre-treatment steps. Furthermore, there are costs aris-881 ing from waste/WDF transport between the place of origin to the pre-treatment 882 plant as well as from there to the place of energy recovery. 883

There are usually two points in the process chain, where money is paid, i.e. be-884 tween the original waste owner and the collector/pre-treatment facility, and be-885 tween the latter and the operator of the (co-)incineration facility. 886

Depending on their qualities, the respective waste/WDF streams either 887

have a (positive) market price, i.e. the current owner can sell the 888 waste/WDF, or 889

a gate fee (negative market price) has to be paid when delivering the 890 waste/WDF to the next owner. 891

If the waste/WDF can be sold on the market or not depends mainly on the fol-892 lowing properties: 893

calorific value (LHV) and 894 content of contaminants which adversely affect either the incineration proc-895 ess (e.g. corrosion, slagging of boiler heat exchangers) or its gase-896 ous/aqueous effluents and solid residues (e.g. higher emission concentra-897 tions, worse residue quality that raises landfill costs). 898

In general, the market for WDF incineration is influenced by the following pa-899 rameters: 900

quality and availability of the waste/WDF, 901 existing pre-treatment capacities, 902 existing (co-)incineration capacities, 903 current energy prices for electricity and heat, 904 input specifications for WDFs (if relevant), 905

Cost factors

Market prices and gate fees

Market price

Gate fee

Crucial WDF properties

Key factors influencing the market



price of (substituted) fuel, e.g. coal, oil, (bio-)gas, diesel, 906 economy of the pre-treatment process (if applicable): 907

Capital expenditures (CAPEX), 908 Operational costs (OPEX) of waste for WDF production, 909 Market situation for other materials derived from the treatment process (e.g. 910 market price of separated metal or glass, gate fees for residues to be disposed 911 of), 912

economy of the co-incineration process: 913 Additional costs (CAPEX and OPEX) arising from waste/WDF co-incineration 914 compared to the process without waste/WDF input, 915 Market prices for input material (e.g. raw material for the cement industry), 916 Market prices for products of the co-incineration process, 917 (e.g. cement clinker prices), 918 Market price for CO2 emission allowances under the EU-ETS 919 (if applicable), 920

situation on competing markets (reuse, material recovery, MSWI…), e.g.: 921 If gate fees have to be paid, excess incineration capacities at low gate fees ren-922 der SRF production for co-incineration economically not feasible. 923

legally binding requirements to be met, e.g. landfill ban, landfill tax, recy-924 cling targets, end-of-waste criteria…, 925

legally non-binding requirements, e.g. WDF input specifications restricted 926 locally or to selected sectors. 927

928

For the waste streams and WDFs that are within the scope of the study at hand, 929 the following situation on the European market could be identified: 930

Table 12: Market situation for the waste streams and WDFs that are within the scope of 931 the study at hand 932

WDF COMEXT Data

Market information & Quoted prices

Biogas No Market prices are paid (2010/2011): Car fuel (upgraded to Biomethane): 0.9 €/kg. Electricity from biogas: 0.08 to 0.31 €/kWhel. Long-term delivery contracts for AD plants.

Biodiesel Yes Market prices are paid (2010): Car fuel: 0.92 to 1.17 €/litre. Spot market, volatile prices, depending on crude oil and on substrate (primarily virgin vegetable oil) market.

Bioethanol No Market prices are paid: Car fuel E5 (2010): 0.85 to 1.08 €/litre. Car fuel E10 (2011): 0.95 to 1.32 €/litre. Spot market, prices linked to crude oil and substrate (maize, wheat, sugar beet…) prices. Waste as substrate not relevant.

Pyrolysis products No -

Gasification products: No -

Waste Oil Yes Low qualities: Gate fees ~ -100 €/t. High qualities: Market price 50 to 200 €/t. Spot market, prices linked to crude oil.



WDF COMEXT Data

Market information & Quoted prices

Edible Oil and Fat Yes Market price: 600 to 850 €/t (2010). Spot market, linked to crude oil and virgin vegetable oil market prices.

Waste Solvents Yes Gate fee: 0 to -446 €/t (2003). Market prices in cement industry: 0 to 60 €/t


Yes -

Wood Waste Yes Market (2010/2011): Market prices for high-grade: 9 to 20 €/t (predominantly recycling). Gate fees for low-grade: -10 to -25 €/t. (predominantly energy recovery) Short-term contracts as well as spot market.

Waste Tyres, Waste Rubber

Yes Gate fee cement kilns: ~ 20 €/t (2008).

Waste Plastics Yes Market prices (2002-2011), for high-grade material that is predominantly used for recycling: Min. prices: 250 to 450 €/t Max. prices: 450 to 650 €/t Gate fee for “thermal fraction” (plastic fraction recov-ered in MT and MBT plants): - 80 €/t. Market linked to crude oil prices.

Waste Paper Yes Market for “Mixed bales”: Between gate fee –15 €/t and price +20 €/t (2009; prices most of the time positive since 2001). Market prices 70 to 100 €/t (2011). (The data sources do not distinguish between prices for energy recovery and recycling. Prices can be assumed to be paid for recycling.) Gate fees for energy recovery of rejects and fibre sludges of about -80 €/t.

Waste Textiles Yes Market price for unsorted waste textiles at sorting plant 100 €/t. (After sorting, ~90% are reused or recycled). Gate fee has to be paid for incineration of sorting resi-dues. Market depends on the markets for primary fibres and new clothes.

Biowaste No - (not incinerated)

RDF No Gate fees have to be paid (2009): LHV < 18 MJ/kg: -20 to -80 €/t. LHV > 18 MJ/kg: 0 to -35 €/t. Singular examples for positive market prices for SRF (Germany, Poland, Northern Europe) for use in the cement and steel industries. SRF production costs (2010/2011): 40-70 €/t. SRF transport costs (2010/2011): 20-40 €/t. Market is linked to gate fees for waste incineration plants (MSWI) and landfill sites.

Animal By-products & derived products: Animal Fat (Tallow) Meat and Bone Meal

Yes Market price for category 1 Animal Fat (incineration in approved plant): 150 to 189 €/t. Gate fee (2003): -74 to -124 €/t (during BSE crisis). Market price (2008): +4 to +20 €/t.

Dried/dewatered mu-nicipal sewage sludge

No Gate fee (2008): -25 to -60 €/t.

Dried/dewatered in-dustrial sewage sludge

Yes Gate fee (2008): -25 to -60 €/t.



933

934

1.6 Specifications and Standards 935

General specifications / standards for WDFs 936

There are several specifications and standards existing on the European 937 level as well as on national levels which define WDF qualities or product 938 qualities for fuels derived from waste sources, such as European Standard 939 CEN/TS 15359:2006 , under development. 940

Their purpose is in the first place to describe and appoint different qualities of 941 WDFs, so that market players who deal with WDFs - e.g. buyers, sellers, opera-942 tors of (co-)incineration facilities, plant engineering enterprises - may refer to 943 them and have a common understanding of the waste qualities in question. 944

They are 945

a) not legally binding, unless made so by being referred to in legal regula-946 tions such as a law, ordinance, decree etc. 947

b) usually do not have any context to the end-of-waste status. 948

949

For example, CEN/TS 15359:2006 provides a classification system for Solid 950 Recovered Fuel (SRF). It is based on 3 key properties (lower heating value, 951 chlorine and mercury) and allows a classification of SRF into 5 classes. 952

953

Table 13: Classification system for SRF according to CEN/TS 15359:2006 954

Class Classification property

Statistical measure

Unit

1 2 3 4 5

Lower heating value (LHV)

Mean MJ/kg (ar) ≥ 25 ≥ 20 ≥ 15 ≥ 10 ≥ 3

Chlorine (Cl) Mean % (d) ≤ 0.2 ≤ 0.6 ≤ 1.0 ≤ 1.5 ≤ 3.0

Median mg/MJ (ar) ≤ 0.02 ≤ 0.03 ≤ 0.08 ≤ 0.15 ≤ 0.50 Mercury (Hg)

80th percen-tile

mg/MJ (ar) ≤ 0.04 ≤ 0.06 ≤ 0.16 ≤ 0.30 ≤ 1.00

(d) dry 955 (ar) as received 956

957

Furthermore, Annex 1 of CEN/TS 15359:2006 defines in its data sheets the 958 following compulsory as well as optional classification properties that have to 959 be evaluated in order to specify SRF: 960

Table 14: Compulsory classification properties for the specification of SRF according to 961 CEN/TS 15359:2006 962

Compulsory classification properties

Class code:

Origin:

Facilitate common understanding of WDF qualities

CEN/TS 15359:2006:Classification system for SRF

CEN/TS 15359:2006:Parameters for SRF specification



Compulsory classification properties

Particle form:

Particle size:

Values Parameters Unit

Typical* Limit value**

Test method

Ash % (d) prCEN/TS xx

Water % (d)

LHV MJ/kg (ar)

LHV MJ/kg (d)

Chlorine (Cl) % (d)

Antimony (Sb) mg/kg (d)

Arsenic (As) mg/kg (d)

Cadmium (Cd) mg/kg (d)

Chromium (Cr) mg/kg (d)

Cobalt (Co) mg/kg (d)

Copper (Cu) mg/kg (d)

Lead (Pb) mg/kg (d)

Manganese (Mn) mg/kg (d)

Mercury (Hg) mg/kg (d)

Nickel (Ni) mg/kg (d)

Thallium (Tl) mg/kg (d)

Vanadium (V) mg/kg (d)

Σ Sb + As + Cr + Co + Cu + Pb + Mn + Ni + V

mg/kg (d)

(d) dry *) Typical value = arithmetic average 963 (ar) as received **) Limit value = minimum, maximum or 80th percentile value 964 965 966

Table 15: Optional classification properties for the specification of SRF according to 967 CEN/TS 15359:2006 968

Optional classification properties

SRF production process:

Biomass fraction ….. % GCV (MJ/kg)

Biomass fraction ….. % NCV (MJ/kg)

Composition (ar) or (d): ….. % Wood

….. % Paper

….. % Plastics

….. % Rubber

….. % Textiles

….. % Others Specify:

Bulk density kg/m3

Volatile compounds % (d)

Ash fusibility ° C

Values Parameters Unit

Typical* Limit value**

Test method



Optional classification properties

Aluminium (Al), metallic

Carbon (C)

Hydrogen (H)

Nitrogen (N)

Sulphur (S)

Bromine (Br)

Fluorine (F)

PCB

Aluminium (Al)

Iron (Fe)

Potassium (K)

Sodium (Na)

Silicium (Si)

Phosphor (P)

Titan (Ti)

Magnesium (Mg)

Calcium (Ca)

Molybdenum (Mo)

Zinc (Zn)

Barium (Ba)

Beryllium (Be)

Selenium (Se)

Others

(d) dry *) Typical value = arithmetic average 969 (ar) as received **) Limit value = minimum, maximum or 80th percentile value 970 971

972

Legally binding WDF specifications (without context to end-of-waste) are the 973 input specifications for co-incinerated WDFs defined by the Austrian Waste 974 Incineration Ordinance. 975

976

977

There are only very few WDFs for which specifications for the end-of-waste 978 status or product standards respectively exist: 979

Biogas, national standards in several Member States, 980 Biodiesel: EN 14213, EN 14214, 981 Bioethanol: EN 15376, 982 WDFs in general and explicitly for wood waste: 983

o Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance 984 Waste oil: 985

o Slovakia: Standards STN 65 6690 and STN 65 6691, 986 o UK: DEFRA Quality protocol on processed fuel oil, 987

Legally binding WDF specifications for co-incineration

Specifications with regard to EOW or product status



o Belgium (Flanders): OVAM Study “End-of-waste criteria voor 988 afgewerkte olie”. 989

990

It has to be pointed out that a standard or specification becomes legally binding 991 only when it is referred to in a legal regulation, e.g. a law or an ordinance. This 992 is the case only for two of the regulations described above, namely: 993

The Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance (BGBl. II Nr. 389/2002 idF 994 BGBl. II Nr. 476/2010 of December 27th 2010) for wood waste and WDF. 995

Slovakian Decree 362/2010 of August 12th 2010, based upon the Law on 996 Air Emissions (Zákon 137/2010 Z. z. o ovzduší), which refers to the Slova-997 kian national standards STN 65 6690 and STN 65 6691 with regard to the 998 end-of waste for waste oil. 999

1000

1.7 Legal Situation 1001

In 2008, the new Waste Framework Directive introduced in its Article 6 the new 1002 legal framework for end-of-waste status of waste within the meaning of this Di-1003 rective. Contrary to the also introduced by-product rule in Article 5 of the Direc-1004 tive, the end-of-waste rule is not based on several decisions of the European 1005 Jurisdiction and, therefore, can be regarded more or less as a new aspect in 1006 European waste law. 1007

With respect to the criteria that must be met in order to reach the end-of-waste 1008 status for certain materials, for waste-derived fuels there are - apart from the cri-1009 teria of Article 6 of the WFD – until June 2011 no direct indicators in European 1010 Jurisdiction. These are to be developed via comitology. 1011

Nevertheless, one can identify such indicators when analyzing the leading 1012 cases of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) on the definition of waste in the 1013 meaning of the WFD and on criteria to be met for by-products even before in-1014 troducing a by-product rule by the WFD. Aspects that are relevant for the end-1015 of-waste status are e.g. that a decision on end-of-waste must be based on all 1016 circumstances, or that the likelihood of the reuse without further processing can 1017 be regarded as an indicator for the existence of a market or at least demand. 1018 These aspects correspond to the requirements of Article 6 WFD and the first 1019 European end-of-waste regulation on scrap metals. 1020

A summary of the main findings of the relevant ECJ court cases is given in 1021 Table 16. 1022

Table 16: Summary of main findings of the ECJ relevant for end-of-waste 1023

ECJ Case No. ECJ Main Statement

ARCO Chemie C-418/97, C-419/97 (joint cases)

The mere fact that a substance undergoes an operation which may lead to recovery does not lead to classifica-tion as waste. Whether a substance is waste or not has to be deter-mined in the light of all circumstances with special regard to the meaning and effectiveness of the WFD.

Palin Granit Oy C-9/00 Leftover stone resulting from stone quarrying which is stored for an indefinite length of time to await possible use must be classified as waste, if the holder discards or intends to discard that leftover stone.

Only two legally binding EOW criteria for WDFs in the EU

EOW introduced in Art. 6 WFD

European Law: No direct indicators for EOW for WDFs

ECJ cases: Definition of “waste” as indicators for EOW

ECJ cases: Overview on main findings



ECJ Case No. ECJ Main Statement The fact that the substance is being reused without fur-ther processing matters for the determination as “waste”. Another relevant factor for the likelihood of the reuse is the financial advantage of this practice. If there is a fi-nancial advantage in doing so the likelihood of reuse is high.

Mayer Parry C-444/00 “Recycling” does not include the reprocessing of metal packing waste into secondary raw material (so-called “Grade 3B material”5) which cannot be used directly for new material packaging, as it still contains impurities which remain to be removed when the material is used to produce steel. “Recycling” refers to the reprocessing of such waste if it is used to produce ingots, sheets, or coils of steel.

Lahti Energia Oy I C-317/07 Gaseous substances are not waste6.

Lahti Energia Oy II C-209/09 If the gas which is obtained by thermal treatment of waste is not being purified within the gas plant, then gas plant and thermal waste treatment plant are jointly a co-incineration plant.

Niselli C-457/02 The ECJ answered by repeating the findings of the lead-ing cases ARCO Chemie, Palin Granit Oy and Mayer Perry and continues its jurisdiction of the former years.

1024

As transposition of the Directive into national law has to take place, the way 1025 in which the Member States adopt these end-of-waste rules in their national 1026 waste laws will be decisive in the future. Some Member States are still in the 1027 procedure of transposition. Some other Member States used to have legally 1028 binding end-of-waste rules even before they were introduced into the WFD 1029 and only needed to amend their national laws accordingly. 1030

Based on an Austrian leading court case on the issue of end-of-waste for 1031 tungsten scrap dating back more than 10 years, first criteria for end-of-waste 1032 status were developed and laid down in Article 5 of the Austrian Waste 1033 Act 2002. The criteria comply largely with the European end-of-waste rule in Ar-1034 ticle 6 of the WFD except for one specialty that is now also laid down in the 1035 Austrian Waste Act 2002: In addition to the above mentioned criteria based on 1036 the European waste law, the end-of-waste status in Austria occurs at the point 1037 of time of the immediate use of the waste. Previous steps of recovery cannot ef-1038 fectuate the end-of-waste status. 1039

For waste-derived fuels, the end-of-waste regulation was introduced into the 1040 Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance7 (AVV) in December 2010, giving legally 1041 binding detailed specifications for waste-derived fuel in general as well as for 1042 fuel derived from wood-waste explicitly. Hazardous waste and medical waste 1043 are excluded from end-of-waste status. The incineration of WDFs that have 1044 reached end-of-waste is restricted to incineration plants with ≥ 50 kW rated 1045 thermal input and a dust emission limit value of max. 20 mg/m3, as well as to 1046 plants within the scope of the WID. 1047

5 Grade 3B material is a mixture which, apart from ferrous elements, contains impurities (ranging

from 3% to 7% according to the various parties), such as paint and oil, non-metallic materials and some chemical elements.

6 Under WID 7 BGBl. II Nr. 389/2002 idF BGBl. II Nr. 476/2010

Some MS had EOW before the WFD’s entry into force

Austria



Also in Estonia, Slovakia and Luxembourg, legally binding regulations on the 1048 end-of-waste status existed on the national level. 1049

In the UK, waste protocols defining criteria for the end-of-waste status were de-1050 veloped by the Environment Agency (DEFRA). 1051

1052

Relevant national court cases on waste status and end-of-waste can be found 1053 in a few European Member States: Austria, Germany, the Czech Republic, the 1054 Netherlands and the United Kingdom. 1055

1056

When WDFs are incinerated or co-incinerated as waste, the (co-)incineration 1057 plants concerned are falling under the scope of the Waste Incineration Direc-1058 tive (WID, Directive 2000/76/EC), which contains emission limit values for a 1059 number of air and water pollutants as well as regulations concerning operation 1060 conditions and emission monitoring. 1061

When WDFs cease to be waste, and the plants burning (or co-incinerating) 1062 these WDFs do not burn other wastes, they are no longer within the scope of 1063 the WID (or Chapter IV of the IED). In case the rated thermal input of a combus-1064 tion plant burning such WDF exceeds 50 MW, these fall under the scope of the 1065 Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCP Directive 2001/80/EC), which defines 1066 (less strict) air emission limit values only for three pollutants, and does not regu-1067 late water emissions or operational conditions such as the WID defines. Also 1068 other industrial plants (e.g. cement kilns) incinerating only WDFs that have 1069 ceased to be waste, would no longer fall under the scope of the Waste Incinera-1070 tion Directive although they may remain covered by the IPPC Directive (or IED) 1071 when they are included in its Annex 1. 1072

1073

Furthermore, the WDFs have to fulfil the requirements of the REACH Regula-1074 tion (No. 1907/2006 of 18 December 2006). REACH is the European Union’s 1075 system that deals with the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restric-1076 tion of Chemical Substances and entered into force on June 1st, 2007. 1077

REACH regulates the treatment of substances, mixtures and specific articles. 1078 All obligations correspond to single substances only but not to finished (or half-1079 finished) products. REACH includes each and any chemical substance regard-1080 less of being classified as dangerous or not dangerous. 1081

If a substance is waste, it is by law excluded from the scope of REACH. But 1082 REACH can be nevertheless relevant for wastes, especially with regard to the 1083 end-of-waste status. The recycling of waste can lead to the origination of a sub-1084 stance to which REACH applies. If listed in Annex XVII of the REACH Regula-1085 tion, this substance might be totally prohibited, i.e. excluded from being brought 1086 back into the product cycle. If not totally prohibited, specific obligations have to 1087 be fulfilled. 1088

As soon as a material ceases to be waste, REACH requirements apply in prin-1089 ciple in the same way as to other material. For companies manufacturing sub-1090 stances and mixtures by treating waste in order to reach end-of-waste, it is es-1091 sential to identify their products accordingly, in order to assess the duties and 1092 tasks under REACH. In practise this basic task demanding technical knowledge 1093

Estonia, Slovakia, Luxembourg,

UK

MS Court Cases on “waste” and EOW

WDF incineration as waste: WID 2000/76/EC

WDF incineration as non-waste: LCP Dir. 2001/80/EC, IPPC Dir. 2008/01/EC

REACH Regulation (No. 1907/2006)



as well as understanding of the legal requirements is a serious challenge for re-1094 covery operators. 1095

REACH foresees a number of exemptions granted conditionally. E.g. if the re-1096 covered substance has been registered by any company before under REACH, 1097 there is no need to register the recovered substance, if the identity of the recov-1098 ered substance is the same as the identity of the registered substance and if the 1099 information contained in the safety data sheet is available to the company un-1100 dertaking the recovery. It is important to note that this exemption relies on the 1101 condition that the same substance has been registered before. As many of the 1102 recovered substances are not registered till now, it has been necessary for re-1103 covery operators to pre-register the recovered substances. There is still a pos-1104 sibility for late pre-registration for companies recovering substances for the first 1105 time. 1106

Most of the recovered substances will not be subject for registration. In case 1107 they are, a number of duties under REACH (and also CLP) have to be fulfilled 1108 by companies undertaking the recovery, such as: 1109

providing a safety data sheet, 1110 applying for an authorisation, 1111 considering restrictions or 1112 classifying and labelling of substances and mixtures. 1113

1114

1115

1.8 Environment and Health Considerations 1116

When the WDFs are incinerated, the pollutants contained in the WDFs are 1117 set free and leave the incinerating installation with the flue gas, waste water 1118 and solid residues streams, mainly in their oxidized forms or in the form of 1119 newly formed substances. Waste water and flue gas are subjected to clean-1120 ing in order to fulfil the requirements and emission limit values defined by the 1121 applying legal framework. Pollutants still contained within these streams (after 1122 treatment) are released into water and air and deposited to soil and plants, 1123 where they can accumulate. 1124

Health impact arises from intake of these substances e.g. by inhalation, skin 1125 contact or via the food chain, especially when pollutants accumulate within 1126 the human organism. 1127

Air pollutants arising from incineration are e.g. SO2, NOx, HCl or HF. They 1128 contribute to acid rain formation, acidification and eutrophication. When in-1129 haled, they can cause human respiratory symptoms and diseases. 1130

One group of pollutants, that are contained in waste-derived fuels and can 1131 affect human health, are (heavy) metals. From a toxicological point of view, 1132 some (heavy) metals are classified as toxic, such as Pb, Cd, Cr(VI) and Hg. 1133 Others are proved to be carcinogenic, e.g. Cd, Cr(VI), or possibly carcinogenic, 1134 e.g. Hg and Ni. Some of them accumulate in the human being, as e.g. Pb and 1135 Cd do, and cause chronic diseases. Others show strong irritating effects (e.g. 1136 Cr(VI)), some are mutagenic and/or teratogenic. 1137

Release, Deposition, Accumulation

Health Impact

Acidification, Eutrophication

(Heavy) Metals



During incineration of WDFs, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), e.g. poly-1138 chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F), are formed by re-1139 action of carbonaceous compounds and halogens contained in the incinerated 1140 waste. When getting into contact with human beings, POPs affect the endo-1141 crine, reproduction and immune system. 1142

Low heating values (of some WDFs) will result in decreased energy efficiency 1143 and will in extreme situations increase the total amount of fuels needed. 1144

Incineration as waste / non-waste 1145

As long as WDFs are incinerated as waste, the European legal framework on 1146 waste such as the Waste Incineration Directive is applied, regulating emission 1147 limit values for a number of pollutants that are released into air and water, op-1148 eration conditions etc. If a WDF ceases to be waste, this regulation does not 1149 apply any more, but its place is taken by other legal regulations on European 1150 level, (i.e. LCP Directive, IPPC Directive, IED) that provide a much lower protec-1151 tion level than the WID. 1152

Emissions from large combustion plants (≥ 50 MW) are regulated in the LCP Di-1153 rective concerning particulate matter (dust) and acid substances (SOx, NOx) 1154 only. 1155

For smaller combustion plants (< 50 MW) and other installations, legal require-1156 ments are in most cases defined on MS level, with no harmonized minimum re-1157 quirements existing for all EU Member States. 1158

Development of standards 1159

With increase of especially the co-incineration of certain waste streams, investi-1160 gations on the content of metals, chlorine, phosphor and other substances in 1161 addition to the heating value started. The available data set from several Mem-1162 bers States in 2011 shows, that element composition (e.g. metal content) can 1163 vary widely for the same type of waste. Apart from some technical restrictions 1164 (heating value, chlorine and phosphor content), environmental and health con-1165 siderations, also for public participation in permitting processes, were the main 1166 reason for specifications and standards developed by several Member States, 1167 Companies, (European) Industry Associations and in European Standard 1168 Committees during the last twenty years. When the landfill directive promoted 1169 incineration in much higher amounts, incineration capacities were increased, 1170 both for waste incineration and for waste co-incineration, the latter being a 1171 driver for WDF standardization (considering emissions and residues/products 1172 from the process) and for end-of-waste considerations. 1173

The situation in 2011 is that many Member States have specifications for WDF 1174 containing a much longer list of parameters (most of them metals) than the 1175 European standard under development CEN/TS 15359:2006 providing specifi-1176 cations for heating value, chlorine and mercury only. CEN/TS 15359:2006 does 1177 contain a list of pollutants that should be analysed when describing a WDF, but 1178 most of them are optional and none of them is connected with a limit value. 1179

Contrary to that, legally binding end-of-waste (EOW) criteria could be found only 1180 in single cases. They usually define quality criteria that are based on and com-1181 parable to the compositions of standard fuels such as wood, coal or oil. 1182


Lower heating value

Large combustion plants (LCP) ≥50 MW

Other installations: No EU-wide minimum requirements

Development of Standards

Standard parameters



Relevant Requirements of Waste Legislation 1183

For assessing the environmental and health impact of WDF incineration as non-1184 waste, potentially relevant or contradicting requirements in the European Waste 1185 Legislation have been taken into consideration: 1186

Traceability of Hazardous Waste according to Art. 17 WFD8, 1187 Waste Hierarchy according to the WFD, 1188 Existing recycling targets for some WDFs. 1189

1190 1191

1.9 Considerations for Suitability for End-of-Waste 1192

The data and information collected on 1193

Technical Characterisation of WDFs, 1194 Generation, Trade and Use of WDFs, 1195 Market and Demand for WDFs, 1196 Specifications and Standards for WDFs, 1197 Legal Situation (legislation as well as relevant court cases, and 1198 Environmental and Health Impact 1199

are the bases for considerations on the suitability of the WDFs within the scope 1200 of the study for end-of-waste status according to lit. a) to d) of Article 6 (1) 1201 Waste Framework Directive. According to the criteria defined by the WFD, a 1202 step-by-step screening is effected for each WDF that is based on the data gath-1203 ered previously. The results of this screening are given in Figure 4. 1204

Art. 6 (1) a) WFD: Common Use of WDFs 1205

For reaching the end-of-waste status, Article 6 (1) a) WFD sets out the con-1206 dition that “the substance or object is commonly used for specific purposes”, 1207 i.e. energy recovery from WDF incineration. 1208

As WDFs’ chemical and physical properties vary within broad ranges, it is im-1209 portant to stress that some WDF fractions are exclusively incinerated in waste 1210 incineration plants. 1211

The condition of Art. 6 (1) a) WFD is fulfilled by most WDFs within the scope of 1212 the study with the exception of the following ones: 1213

The term “industrial liquid waste concentrates” comprises predominantly 1214 aqueous solutions originating as “process water” from various industrial 1215 processes, e.g. mother liquors, washing water from purification of products, 1216 vapour condensates, quench water, waste water from exhaust air/flue gas 1217 clean-up, equipment cleaning or vacuum generation9. These process water 1218

8 “Member States shall take the necessary action to ensure that the production, collection and

transportation of hazardous waste, as well as its storage and treatment, are carried out in condi-tions providing protection for the environment and human health in order to meet the provisions of Article 13, including action to ensure traceability from production to final destination and con-trol of hazardous waste in order to meet the requirements of Articles 35 and 36.”

9 Black liquor is one industrial liquid waste concentrate that arises in big amounts, but it is gener-ally being regarded as a biomass fuel. Besides, black liquor is usually incinerated on-site in special liquor boilers in order to cover the energy demand of the pulp & paper processes, at the

Evaluation of gathered WDF data with regard to Art. 6 (1) a)-d) WFD

Specific purpose: Energy recovery from WDF incineration




streams usually have not significant heating values and are, also if incinerated, 1219 subjected to disposal processes. 1220

The only fraction of biowaste (according to the WFD) being available as a solid 1221 WDF is the screening overflow from composting plants and pre-treatment be-1222 fore anaerobic digestion plants. They have too low energy contents to live up to 1223 common quality standards for WDF (cf. FRICKE ET AL., 2009). 1224

Solid gasification output (i.e. ash or slag, depending on gasification tempera-1225 ture) has a carbon content close to zero and practically no heating value. It 1226 cannot be used as a fuel. 1227

1228

Art. 6 (1) b) WFD: Existing Market or Demand 1229

Article 6 (1) b) WFD requires that “a market or demand exists for such a sub-1230 stance or object.” Indicators applied to assess the remaining WDFs according to 1231 this criterion are e.g. the existence of COMEXT10 data for the WDF, and the fact 1232 that a market price for the WDF is paid by (co-)incineration operators. 1233

Depending on their chemical and physical properties (with regard to technical 1234 requirements) as well as on other factors influencing the market, the following 1235 (remaining) WDFs of the list do not fulfil the criterion of an existing market or 1236 demand: 1237

There are neither COMEXT data available for pyrolysis products nor is there an 1238 indication of positive market prices for any of them. Pyrolysis being an exother-1239 mic reaction, the pyrolysis gas is usually incinerated on-site in order to cover the 1240 energy demand of the process. Pyrolysis oil/tar has to be considered as haz-1241 ardous waste, as it contains various toxic (e.g. carcinogenic) substances. Pyro-1242 lysis char/coke has usually traces of pyrolysis oil/tar adhering to it, thus also 1243 showing hazardous properties. 1244

No COMEXT data are available. Synthesis gas is usually incinerated either on-1245 site or in neighbouring plants. As its transport depends on pipelines (i.e. causes 1246 considerable investments), it is usually sold on the basis long-term contracts 1247 and not sold on a free market. 1248

Waste paper is traded in high quantities. COMEXT data are available. Market 1249 prices and gate fees can be found. Considerable shares of waste paper are re-1250 cycled (market prices are paid). Only poor qualities are incinerated (no evidence 1251 for market prices). 1252

COMEXT data are available. After sorting, about 90% of the sorting output is 1253 sold for reuse or recycling. The sorting residues are landfilled or incinerated, 1254 gate fees being paid for incineration. 1255

There are COMEXT data available for waste tyres/rubber. Positive market 1256 prices are only reported for pre-treated rubber (e.g. granulate) for recycling. For 1257 tyres incinerated in cement kilns, a gate fee of about 20 €/t is reported. 1258

No COMEXT data are available, but there is indication that trade takes place, 1259 also between Member States. Although there are singular examples for positive 1260

same time recovering the inorganic compounds for recycling in the process, and usually not sold on the market (cf. condition of Art. 6 (1) b).

10 European Foreign Trade Statistics (COMEXT database)

Biowaste (according to WFD)

Solid gasification output (ash/slag)

Pyrolysis products (gas, oil/tar, char/coke)

Gaseous gasification output (syngas)

Waste Paper

Waste Textiles

Waste Tyres / Rubber

RDF



market prices being reported for Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF), predominantly 1261 gate fees are reported that range from 0-35 €/t for LHVs > 18 MJ/kg to 40-70 €/t 1262 for LHVs < 18 MJ/kg. 1263

Municipal sewage sludge is traded only locally and only in limited amounts. 1264 No COMEXT data are available. For incineration, gate fees of 25-60 €/t are 1265 reported. 1266

COMEXT data are available. For incineration, gate fees of 25-60 €/t are re-1267 ported. 1268

Waste oil, edible oil and fat, Waste Solvents, Wood Waste, Waste Plastics 1269 and Meat and Bone Meal (MBM) fulfil the criterion of Art. 6 (1) b) WFD only 1270 partly, because there are positive market prices as well as gate fees reported 1271 for their incineration. In Figure 4, these WDFs are highlighted in hatchures. 1272

Art. 6 (1) c) WFD: Fulfilment of Technical Requirements, Legislation, Stan-1273 dards 1274

Article 6 (1) c) WFD defines as a criterion for end-of-waste that “the substance 1275 or object fulfils the technical requirements for the specific purposes and meets 1276 the existing legislation and standards applicable to products.” Indicators used 1277 for assessment are e.g. the existence of technical requirements and WDFs’ 1278 compatibility with them, the existence of relevant specifications / standards and 1279 WDFs’ compatibility with them, the existence of relevant legislation / jurisdiction 1280 with regard to end-of-waste. 1281

All the WDFs still remaining on the list after two screening steps fulfil or at 1282 least partly fulfil this requirement: 1283

Biogas, biodiesel and bioethanol - if produced and upgraded/cleaned in or-1284 der to fulfil existing product standards - fulfil the criterion of Art. 6 (1) c) WFD. 1285 These WDFs are only partly waste-derived. The waste shares in the sub-1286 strates being around only 5% for biodiesel and close to zero for bioethanol. Bio-1287 gas is about 55% waste-derived (including landfill gas and sewage gas), but 1288 only a small amount of it is upgraded according to standards which allow its use 1289 as a car fuel or its being fed into the natural gas grid. 1290

Animal fat partly fulfils the criterion of Art. 6 (1) c) WFD, as the incineration of 1291 category 1 animal fat is restricted to dedicated plants, i.e. to the energy boil-1292 ers of the rendering industry (either at the place of origin or in another ren-1293 dering plant that buys it). There is indication that individual end-of-waste notifi-1294 cations are granted to the operators for the purpose of incineration within the 1295 rendering industry, so that incineration does not take place within the scope of 1296 the WID. 1297

Meat and bone meal is co-incinerated as a WDF e.g. in cement kilns or in 1298 large combustion plants of the thermal power sector. As the co-incineration 1299 is limited to only small percentages due to the chemical properties of the 1300 MBM and to technical requirements of the co-incineration facility, the criterion is 1301 regarded to be only partly fulfilled. 1302

Municipal Sewage Sludge

Industrial Sewage Sludge

Biogas, Biodiesel, Bioethanol

Animal Fat (partly)

Meat and Bone Meal(partly)



For these WDFs, the criterion is regarded to be only partly fulfilled, as these 1303 WDFs come in broad varieties of their chemical and physical properties. 1304

Art. 6 (1) d) WFD: No Adverse Environmental or Human Health Impacts 1305

According to Article 6 (1) d) WFD, suitability for end-of-waste as a fuel is given, 1306 if “the use of the substance or object will not lead to overall adverse environ-1307 mental or human health impacts”. 1308

A special risk for “end-of-waste” declaration is, that “end-of-waste” WDFs may 1309 go to small plants with comparable low standards for dust emissions and almost 1310 no standards for metal emissions and other air pollutants, while for larger plants 1311 it can be stated that LCP standards are for the next twelve years weaker than 1312 WID standards and some IPPC plants may by means of “end-of-waste” fall out 1313 of the scope of WID. Additionally, pollution of soil via waste has to be consid-1314 ered. 1315

1316 The following WDFs do not fulfil the criterion: 1317

Waste oil and waste solvents are hazardous wastes according to the List of 1318 Waste, e.g. due to endangerment of water, flammability, carcinogenic properties 1319 (PCB, PAH content), chlorine and metal content. The traceability of hazardous 1320 waste that is stipulated by Article 17 of the Waste Framework Directive would 1321 not be given any more after reaching the end-of-waste status. 1322

Meat and bone meal contains high amounts of halogens that would be released 1323 to the environment if incineration took place in a plant outside WID scope, as 1324 HCl is an air pollutant that is regulated under the WID, but not under legal regu-1325 lations applying to incineration as a non-waste, as e.g. the LCP Directive. Fur-1326 thermore, the phosphorus content in MBM can lead to the formation of highly 1327 toxic phosphine (PH3), if the solid incineration residues get in contact with water. 1328 Furthermore, category 1 MBM can represent a risk to workers when being han-1329 dled. 1330

Results: WDFs that may be suited for EOW 1331

The output of this study, based on the data gathered and on the methodological 1332 approach applied, is the following: 1333

According to available data on waste stream composition and existing stan-1334 dards for WDFs, the waste type is not sufficient to make a decision on its suit-1335 ability for WDF or even more for end-of-waste. Considering the release of emis-1336 sion to the environment via air, water and residues (land) from pre-treatment 1337 and co-incineration processes, a wide number of parameters has to be consid-1338 ered for each waste type when judging on suitability for WDF and further on 1339 end-of-waste. 1340

For the following WDFs, product and end-of-waste standards/specification al-1341 ready exist and will likely be developed further in the future: 1342

Biogas, 1343 Biodiesel (only about 5% waste-derived share), 1344 Bioethanol (waste-derived share close to zero). 1345

Waste oil, Edible oil and fat, Waste solvents, Wood waste, Waste Plastics (partly)

Emission parameters

Waste Oil, Waste Solvents

Meat and bone meal (MBM)

Suitability for EOW depends on strict quality criteria

Standard for bio-fuels already exist



For the following WDFs investigated in this study, the development of criteria 1346 for end-of-waste status could be possible: 1347

Wood waste, 1348 Waste plastics, 1349 Animal fat, 1350 Edible oil and fat. 1351

Figure 4 gives an overview on the screening process for suitability for end-of-1352 waste in accordance with the criteria defined by Article 6 (1) lit. a) to d) of the 1353 Waste Framework Directive. 1354

1355

1356

Development of EOW criteria seems possible



1357

Figure 4: Considerations for the suitability for end-of-waste of the WDFs within the pro-1358 ject scope according to Article 6 WFD 1359



2 INTRODUCTION 1360

In Article 6, the new Waste Framework Directive (WFD, Directive 2008/98/EC) 1361 establishes the legal framework under which a waste that has undergone a re-1362 covery can reach end-of-waste (EOW) status, i.e. cease to be waste. In particu-1363 lar, it creates the possibility to establish EU-wide end-of-waste criteria for cer-1364 tain specified waste types. In the current absence of EU-wide end-of-waste cri-1365 teria, Member States may decide case by case whether certain waste has 1366 ceased to be waste taking into account the applicable case law. 1367

The WFD requires that the end-of-waste criteria for a specific waste must be 1368 developed in accordance with the following four conditions: 1369

a) the substance or object is commonly used for specific purposes; 1370 b) a market or demand exists for such a substance or object; 1371 c) the substance or object fulfils the technical requirements for the specific 1372

purposes and meets the existing legislation and standards applicable to 1373 products; 1374

d) the use of the substance or object will not lead to overall adverse envi-1375 ronmental or human health impacts. 1376

In a previous study commissioned by the Institute for Prospective Techno-1377 logical Studies (JRC-IPTS 2010), waste-derived fuels have been identified 1378 as potential candidates for end-of-waste status. Some wastes of organic ori-1379 gin can be used directly in a combustion process to generate energy, or they 1380 can be processed into a material that can serve as a fuel. When a specific fuel 1381 is obtained from waste, the question arises if this fuel is suitable for end-of-1382 waste status. 1383

The Commission needs to decide whether to propose EU-level end-of-waste 1384 criteria for the different types of fuel that can be obtained from waste and that 1385 are suitable for end-of-waste status, or to leave the question to case by case 1386 decisions by the Member States. 1387

The Commission needs to be in a position to assess if the four conditions of Ar-1388 ticle 6(1) of the WFD are met when receiving notifications from the Member 1389 States about case by case decisions on the end-of-waste status of fuels derived 1390 from waste. 1391

1392

1393

Waste can cease to be waste

Conditions for end-of-waste status

Waste-derived fuels as EOW candidates



3 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE 1394

The purpose of this study is to provide detailed information and analyses on all 1395 the relevant aspects to the Commission for proposing the end-of-waste status of 1396 fuels derived from waste. It analyses the suitability of the different types of 1397 waste-derived fuels (WDFs) for obtaining the end-of-waste status in accordance 1398 with Article 6 of the Waste Framework Directive. 1399

For this purpose, the study 1400 analyses and describes the different types of fuels derived from waste that 1401 are currently generated in the EU; 1402

estimates the amounts of these WDFs that are generated, traded and used 1403 in the EU; 1404

describes the uses with regard to energy generation that are currently made 1405 of these fuels (e.g. heat/power/CHP generation, use in relevant industrial 1406 sectors/transport/household sector); 1407

describes, if relevant, for which other complementary purpose (e.g. use of 1408 the ashes in cement clinkers) the WDFs are used; 1409

investigates if a market or demand exists for these WDFs; 1410 describes if there are technical requirements, legislation and standards for 1411 the use of these WDFs; 1412

investigates if the use of the fuel will not lead to overall adverse environ-1413 mental or health impacts; 1414

describes other considerations that influence the WDFs’ suitability for end-1415 of-waste status, in particular how setting EU-level end-of-waste criteria could 1416 support, work against or in any way affect existing EU policies (e.g. the prin-1417 ciples of the waste hierarchy, the achievement of recycling targets and re-1418 newable energy use targets, or the protection of health and environment from 1419 the impacts of waste incineration); 1420

assesses for each type of waste-derived fuel if it is currently considered 1421 waste by the relevant industrial operators, by the competent authorities and 1422 by case law. 1423

1424 In this study, the term “waste-derived fuels” is understood in a wide and com-1425 prehensive sense, so as to include any type of fuel, be it solid, liquid or gas, that 1426 is obtained from waste. The definition and scope of waste is as provided in Arti-1427 cle 2 of the Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC. Waste which is excluded 1428 from the scope of the Directive is not considered for the purpose of this study. It 1429 shall be noted that some of the fuels mentioned are always waste-derived (e.g. 1430 wood waste, waste oil), while others are not necessarily waste-derived (e.g. 1431 biodiesel, bioethanol, animal by-products). The scope of this study is only the 1432 fuels that are waste-derived. 1433

1434

The following gaseous, liquid and solid waste-derived fuels (except those ex-1435 cluded from the scope of the WFD 2008/98/EC) are investigated in this study: 1436

Biogas, 1437 Gaseous output from gasification, 1438

Objectives

Scope



Gaseous output from pyrolysis, 1439 Biodiesel, 1440 Bioethanol, 1441 Waste oil (mineral and synthetic), 1442 Waste oil (vegetable oils, cooking oils), 1443 Waste solvents (halogenated and non-halogenated), 1444 Industrial liquid waste concentrates, 1445 Liquid pyrolysis output, 1446 Wood waste, 1447 Waste tyres and waste rubber, 1448 Waste plastics, 1449 Waste paper, 1450 Waste textiles, 1451 Biowaste (as defined in Directive 2008/98/EC), 1452 RDF (WDF derived from non-hazardous waste), 1453 Animal by-products and derived products, 1454 Dried/dewatered municipal sewage sludge, 1455 Dried/dewatered industrial sewage sludge, 1456 Solid pyrolysis output. 1457

1458

The study covers the European Union and its 27 Member States. 1459



4 TECHNICAL CHARACTERISATION OF WDF 1460

Following the generic description of data sources used (Chapter 4.1), in Chap-1461 ter 4.2 data availability and quality of information available is presented and 1462 summarized. With respect to readability and for simplicity purposes, detailed 1463 technical descriptions and data for the WDFs within the scope are compiled in 1464 Annex 1 to this study. These data sheets comprise: 1465

General characterization (Waste sources, types of processes for genera-1466 tion, types of processes for use, etc.); 1467

Compilation of data on elemental contents of pollutants; 1468 Compilation of data on air emissions when incinerated; 1469 Compilation of data on solid combustion residues. 1470

1471

1472

4.1 Data Sources 1473

General characteristics of the analysed WDF have been summarized based on 1474 information available from: 1475

Waste Management Plans of the Member States11 1476 BREF-Documents12 1477 National and international studies on WDFs and fuels and related waste 1478 management (including such published by the European Commission) 1479

Sector specific industry information related to the use of WDFs 1480 For information on elemental contents of pollutants of WDFs two studies inves-1481 tigating a wide range of WDFs were used as key data sources. 1482

The Austrian study “Positivlisten für Reststoffe in der Zementindustrie. 1483 Methoden und Ansätze (PRIZMA)” (TU WIEN, 1999) has been published by 1484 the Technical University of Vienna (on behalf of the Austrian cement industry) 1485 and deals with the thorough characterisation and the use of WDF in the ce-1486 ment industry. The aim of the study was to find methods with which to evalu-1487 ate the use of waste in the cement industry. The results should help to create 1488 so called “positive lists” for the use of waste in cement plants. 1489

The German study „Leitfaden zur energetischen Verwertung von Abfällen in 1490 Zement-, Kalk- und Kraftwerken in Nordrhein-Westfalen“ (NRW, 2005) has 1491 been elaborated by the Ministry of Nordrhein-Westfalen with the help of au-1492 thorities and industries. A standardised frame for the co-incineration of waste 1493 in industrial installations has been set up. 1494

Additional data was taken from 1495 National and international studies on WDFs and fuels and related waste 1496 management (including such published by the European Commission) 1497

Sector specific industry information related to the use of WDFs 1498

11 Austria, Belgium (Brussels region), Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,

France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Luxemburg, Malta, Netherlands, Po-land, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom (England).

12 BREF CWW (2003), BREF IRON AND STEEL (2010), BREF NME (2009), BREF WI (2006), BREF WTI (2006), BREF CEMENT (2010).

Annex 1

Physical and chemical WDF properties



1499

Air emission data for waste streams/WDFs are only available for very few 1500 selected waste streams/WDFs, i.e. if these are subjected to mono-1501 incineration. In Chapter “Considerations on Environmental and Health Impact” 1502 of the study at hand (cf. Chapter 9), air emission limit values for waste/WDF in-1503 cineration (co-incineration) as waste or as non-waste, respectively, are ana-1504 lyzed. 1505

For data on qualities of solid residues of processes, where WDFs were com-1506 busted, the following studies were screened: 1507

The Austrian study “Aschen aus Biomassefeuerungen - Zusammensetzung 1508 und Verwertung“ has been published by the Technical University of Graz and 1509 deals with the recycling of ashes derived from combustion of biomass (such 1510 as wood waste). The aim of the study was to find general conditions and lim-1511 iting factors for ecologically compatible recycling of the mentioned ashes. 1512

The study “Abfallverbrennung in Österreich – Statusbericht 2006“ has been 1513 elaborated by the Austrian Umweltbundesamt (on behalf of the Austrian Min-1514 istry for the Environment). It provides information on Austrian grate firing 1515 plants, fluidised bed combustion plants and rotary kiln incineration plants 1516 concerning the combustion of waste. Focus was centred on both issues of 1517 process engineering and aspects of waste management. Amongst others in-1518 cineration-derived waste materials and residues produced by the plants are 1519 described. 1520

The study “Erarbeitung eines Beprobungskonzepts für Ersatzbrennstoffe – 1521 Projekt ERSA“ has been published by the Austrian Umweltbundesamt (on 1522 behalf of the Austrian Ministry for the Environment). The aim of the study was 1523 to provide support for regulating the sampling, processing and analysis of 1524 substitute fuels. Therefore one heterogeneous high-calorific fraction was se-1525 lected from residual waste in order to carry out the project, so that any poten-1526 tial problem fields arising demonstrated in a comprehensive manner. 1527

1528

1529

4.2 Availability and Aggregation of Data 1530

Data on elemental contents of pollutants in WDFs in NRW 2005 is given as 1531 mean values, medians, 80% and 90% percentiles and minimum and maxi-1532 mum values. In this study the mean value, median and 80 % percentile 1533 value have been given. 1534

The arithmetic mean – although deriving the central tendency of a population - 1535 is heavily influenced by outliers. A comparison with the median value allows 1536 some conclusions about the distribution of the values of a population. 1537

For defining limit values for properties that are for some reason difficult to con-1538 trol (e.g. quality properties of waste that is not produced by a defined process) 1539 the 80% percentile is often used. 1540

By defining an 80% percentile limit value, the regulatory authority accepts that 1541 the requested limit value cannot be adhered to at 100% with reasonable expen-1542 diture. Still it is guaranteed that the large majority of values are below the re-1543

Air emissions

Solid combustion residues

Physical and chemical WDF properties



quested limits. Precondition for the evaluation of the adherence of 80% percen-1544 tile limits is a sufficient number of values to do statistical analysis. 1545

NRW (2005) provides these detailed data for the following WDFs: 1546 Wood waste 1547 Waste paper 1548 Waste plastics 1549 Waste textiles 1550 WDF from mixed non-hazardous wastes (incl. MSW and C&D waste) 1551 Industrial sludges 1552

For those WDFs mean, median and 80% percentile values are compiled in 1553 separate data tables. 1554

Any other data on pollutant contents, where no statistical details are available, 1555 are contained in the data table of mean values. 1556

Date on air emissions from mono-incineration are given for municipal sewage 1557 sludge, pyrolysis gas and biogas. 1558

In order to get information on the impact of using WDFs on solid residues of 1559 combustion processes, the chosen approach was to collect data on solid com-1560 bustion residues of processes where solely WDFs were incinerated. This infor-1561 mation is available for the following WDFs: 1562

Wood waste: Data descended from the combustion of treated and untreated 1563 wood and wood waste in Austrian and Swiss combustion plants. 1564

WDF from MSW: Data derived from a pilot test in an Austrian grate firing 1565 plant. 1566

Municipal Sewage Sludge: Data are available from combustion of Municipal 1567 Sewage Sludge in fluidised bed combustion plants in Austria 1568

1569

Air emissions

Solid combustion residues



5 GENERATION, TRADE AND USE 1570

5.1 Data Sources 1571

In order to obtain information on the generation, trade and use of WDFs and 1572 wastes suitable as sources for WDFs respectively, the following key data 1573 sources were consulted: 1574

Waste Statistics provided by Member States in accordance with the Waste 1575 Statistics Regulation (EC No. 2150/2002), 1576

Energy Statistics provided by Member States in accordance with the Energy 1577 Statistics Regulation (EC No. 1099/2010), 1578

Foreign Trade Statistics (Eurostat COMEXT database). 1579 Further information was gathered from: 1580

Waste Management Plans of the Member States11, 1581 Further European and international databases: 1582

Eurostat statistics related to recycling and recovery targets of end-of-life 1583 vehicles and electrical and electronic waste, 1584

Eurostat water statistics, 1585 UN database on consumption of lubricants. 1586

IEA Energy Statistics, 1587 BREF-Documents12, 1588 Information gathered from Member States websites related to waste statis-1589 tics and waste treatment, 1590

National and international studies on WDFs and related waste manage-1591 ment, 1592

Information of individual industrial sectors (umbrella organisations). 1593 1594 A detailed description how generated and used amounts of WDFs were deter-1595 mined is provided in the respective sub-chapters for the individual WDFs. 1596 An overview on data sources used to determine generation, use for energy and 1597 traded amounts per WDF is given in Table 17 below. 1598

Key data sources

Additional data sources



Table 17: Overview on data sources used for determination of generation, energy use 1599 and trade of the individual WDFs 1600

WDF Generation Energy Use Trade

Biogas*,** Eurostat Energy Sta-tistics,

IEA Energy Statistics

Eurostat Energy Statistics, IEA Energy Statistics

n.d.*

Biodiesel** Eurostat Energy Sta-tistics, Assumption of

5% waste-derived biodiesel

Eurostat Energy Statistics, Assumption of 5% waste-

derived biodiesel

Foreign Trade Statistics

Bioethanol** Eurostat Energy Sta-tistics, Assumption: waste-derived con-tent = 0 (c.f. Gaup-

mann, 2009)

Eurostat Energy Statistics, Assumption: waste-derived content = 0

(c.f. Gaupmann, 2009)

n.d.

Pyrolysis products n.d. n.d. n.d.

Gasification products n.d. n.d. n.d.


Waste Statistics (Use for R1 of “Sort-

ing residues”)

Waste Statistics (Use for R1 of “Sorting residues”)

n.d.

Waste Oil (mineral and syn-thetic)

UN database on consumption of lubri-cants (Assumption: Collection = 50% of

consumption, c.f. EC, 2006 )

UN database on con-sumption of lubricants

(Assumption: use for en-ergy in Western MS =

45% of collection, in new MS = 95%, c.f. EC, 2006 )



ETRMA 2010 (Arisings)

ETRMA 2010 (Energy recovery)


Edible oil and fat Several national ref-erences, Assumption

of collection of1 kg/inhabitant

Assumption: use for en-ergy = 25% of collected

amount


Waste solvents Waste Statistics (Generation)

Waste Statistics (Assump-tion: use for energy = 35%

of generated amount (c.f. JRC 2010)


Wood waste Waste Statistics (Generation)

Waste Statistics (Assump-tion: use for energy = 35%

of generation, c.f. JRC 2010)


Waste plastics (pure) Waste Statistics (Generation)

Waste Statistics, Foreign Trade Statistics (Differ-

ence between Generation, Use for R2-R11 and net exports; Assumption: dis-posal of plastics declining)


Waste paper Waste Statistics (Generation)


ence between Generation, Use for recovery (R2-

R11) and net exports; As-sumption: disposal of plas-

tics low and declining)




WDF Generation Energy Use Trade

Waste textiles Waste Statistics (Generation)


ence between Generation, Use for recovery (R2-R11) and net exports)


Biowaste (as in WFD)

Orbit/ECN , 2008 (Amounts of bio- and

green waste col-lected separately)

Assumption: use for en-ergy = max. 5% of

amounts separately col-lected

(c.f. BMLFUW 2010)

n.d.


Waste Statistics (Generation)

Waste Statistics, (Differ-ence between Generation,

Use for recovery (R2-R11) and disposal other

than incineration)



n.d. n.d. Foreign Trade Statistics


Eurostat Water Sta-tistics (Generation)

Water Statistics (Incinera-tion)

n.d.

Dried/dewatered in-dustrial sewage sludge

n.d. n.d. Foreign Trade Statistics

*) n.d.: no comprehensive data available 1601 1602

5.1.1 Waste Statistics 1603

According to EU Waste Statistics Regulation (WStatR; EC 2150/2002), Member 1604 States are required to provide the Commission with information on the genera-1605 tion, recovery and disposal of waste. Data are reported every two years, the first 1606 reference year being 2004. 1607

The WStatR consists of a general part and three Annexes. Annex I deals with 1608 the generation of waste which should be reported as the total amount of waste 1609 generated by all economic sectors and households. Annex II deals with the re-1610 covery and disposal of waste which should be reported as the total amount of 1611 waste entering recovery and disposal facilities for final treatment13. Annex III 1612 provides the table of equivalence, establishing a relation between EWC-Stat 1613 (substance oriented waste statistical nomenclature) and the European List of 1614 Waste (LoW) established by Commission Decision 2000/532/EC. 1615

5.1.1.1 Data extraction 1616

In order to identify and characterise all possible types of WDFs generated in 1617 significant amounts in the EU, the following steps were made: 1618 1. Allocation of LoW codes to the different types of waste-derived fuels: 1619

Screening of the LoW codes regarding all waste types which are suitable as 1620 sources of WDFs and allocation to the different WDFs-categories. A detailed 1621

13 Data collection on waste treatment as laid down in Annex II of the WStatR is closely linked to the

definitions of Directive 2008/98/EC.

Data extraction from Waste Statistics



list of allocation is attached in Annex 2 to the report (“Allocation of CN8 1622 Codes”). 1623

2. Data on generation and use of waste types suitable as sources of WDF were 1624 collected by using the LoW codes selected under point 1 1625 a) by screening the Waste Management Plans of Member States11 1626 b) by evaluating - on a higher aggregated level – the waste statistics pro-1627

vided by Member States in accordance with the WStatR (EC No. 1628 2150/2002) 1629

Data extraction from waste statistics of MS according to WStatR was accom-1630 plished by allocating the respective EWC-Stat-category to the list “Allocation of 1631 LoW codes to WDFs” by means of Annex III14 of WStatR (compare Annex 2). 1632 Data were extracted from the Eurostat dissemination database (EUROBASE)15, 1633 tables “Generation of waste (tonnes) (env_wasgen)” and “Treatment of waste 1634 (tonnes) (env_wastrt)”. 1635

Basically, the Regulation requires Member States to compile statistics on the 1636 generation, recovery and disposal of waste respectively waste categories (see 1637 Table 18). 1638

Table 18: Required data according to WStatR (for 2004, 2006, and 2008) 1639

WStatR GENERATION TREATMENT

EWC-Stat

GENERATION INCINERATION RECOVERY DISPOSAL OTHER THAN INCINERATION

Generation Energy recovery (R1)

Incinera-tion on land (D10)

(R2 - R11) Deposit onto or into land (D1, D3, D4, D5, D12)

Land treat-ment and re-lease into water bodies (D2, D6, D7)

EWC-Cate-gory 1

EWC-Cate-gory 2

EWC-Cate-gory xx

1640

Until amendment of WStatR in 2009 by Regulation (EC) No 221/2009, statistics 1641 on waste generation had to be produced for each waste category, statistics on 1642 waste recovery or waste disposal often only for aggregates of waste categories. 1643 An example is given in Table 19, for paper and cardboard waste. 1644

1645

1646

14 Table of equivalence for EWC-Stat and the European List of Waste (LoW) established by

Commission Decision 2000/532/EC 15 EUROBASE contains the full range of public data available at Eurostat. They are presented in

multi-dimensional tables with multiple selection features and export formats. Environmental Data Centre on Waste: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/waste/data/database

Annex 2



Table 19: Data aggregation – Example: Paper and cardboard waste 1647

Statistics provided according to WStatR

EWC-Stat waste category/aggregate of waste categories

Waste generation by economic sector 07.2 Paper and cardboard wastes

Waste incineration 06, 07, 08, 09, 12, 13 Other wastes

Operations which may lead to recovery 07.2 Paper and cardboard wastes

Disposal other than incineration 05, 06, 07, 08, 13 Other wastes

1648

Because of this aggregation of data for waste disposal or waste recovery on a 1649 higher level in the WStatR, it is not always possible to get detailed data for all 1650 WDFs regarding incineration (“Energy Recovery (R1)” and “Incineration on land 1651 (D10)). 1652

Consistent data on generation and treatment (including R1) for a particular 1653 waste category has to be reported for the first time in 2012 for the reference 1654 year 2010. 1655

Where no detailed statistics on incineration and energy recovery of waste cate-1656 gories were available, estimations for generation were made based on subtrac-1657 tion of quantified uses from generated amounts. In order to narrow and validate 1658 the thus obtained ranges additional information, such as national waste man-1659 agement plans, further European Statistics (Water Statistics), industry data or 1660 studies e.g. JRC (2010) was consulted. 1661

WStatR requests for „Generation“ the amounts generated within a particular 1662 Member State (imports and exports are not considered). Figures for “treat-1663 ments” refer to those amounts being treated in a particular MS (including also 1664 imported waste). 1665

In the reported waste statistics of some Member States the amount for “Recov-1666 ery” of some waste categories is higher than for “Generation”. It is assumed that 1667 the difference is caused by imports of waste for recovery or disposal within the 1668 importing country. In all these cases where a difference occurs the amount of 1669 incineration of WDFs was set out with zero. 1670

For wastes/WDFs, where considerable net imports/exports into or out of the EU 1671 occur (mainly waste paper, waste plastics), the trade with third countries was 1672 taken into account when estimating the total European quantity of WDFs. 1673

1674

5.1.1.2 Data availability 1675

Biogas, Biodiesel, Bioethanol and gaseous output from gasification and pyroly-1676 sis are usually not considered to be waste. There is no suitable code in the LoW 1677 for allocation to these WDF. No data extraction from waste statistics in accor-1678 dance with WStatR is possible. 1679

Furthermore, there are several waste streams where determining quantities 1680 (solely) using data extraction from waste statistics is not possible, because the 1681 corresponding EWC-Stat waste categories contain also LoW-Codes, which are 1682 not suitable in the context of describing WDF because they are not suitable for 1683 incineration and/or contain the relevant combustible material in low quantities 1684 only (e.g. tank bottom sludges). These are: Waste oil, Edible oil and fat, liquid 1685 pyrolysis output, dried or dewatered municipal sewage sludge, liquid and solid 1686



output from pyrolysis and gasification, dried/dewatered municipal and industrial 1687 sewage sludges and biowaste. For industrial waste concentrates there is no 1688 suitable LoW-code available. 1689

1690

5.1.2 Foreign Trade Statistics (FTS) 1691

Trading of certain WDFs between EU Member States and in and out of the EU 1692 was assessed by analysing the Foreign Trade Statistics (FTS), as far as de-1693 tailed data were available. As key data source the Eurostat database 1694 “COMEXT” was used. 1695

COMEXT16 is the statistical database for external trade and trade among the 1696 Member States of the European Union. It includes detailed statistics on the in-1697 tra- and extra-trading in goods of all 27 EU member states. Trade goods are 1698 classified by the 8-digit European Harmonized System (CN8, Combined No-1699 menclature) as well as NACE (up to 4 digits) and SITC Rev. 3 (up to 5 digits). 1700

COMEXT prepares the trade data for dissemination. It provides support for wide 1701 range of user queries allowing users to define custom hierarchies that may in-1702 clude formulas. The query results are stored as a multi-dimensional data cube 1703 that can be consulted online or stored for later consultation. 1704

5.1.2.1 Data extraction 1705

The compilation of data from the FTS was made in three steps: 1706

1. Identification of all relevant CN8-Codes (CN8, Combined Nomenclature) of 1707 the FTS which refer to waste 1708

2. Allocation of the corresponding CN8-Codes to the list of WDFs (see An-1709 nex 2). The allocation was mainly based on information provided by 1710 EUROSTAT (“Evaluation of the pilot studies on import and export of waste – 1711 preliminary results and recommendations”, Meeting of the Working Group “Sta-1712 tistics of the Environment”, Sub-Group Waste; 27 and 28 October 2005) and on 1713 expert judgement. 1714

3. Data extraction on the basis of the selected CN8-Codes from the database 1715 COMEXT 1716

For each Member State the traded quantities (imports and exports) of certain 1717 WDFs were determined, separately for EU_EXTRA- and EU_INTRA-trade. This 1718 step allows to identify WDFs which are traded in significant quantities and the 1719 Member States which trade them. 1720

In a second step, WDFs traded in higher amounts could be assessed in detail in 1721 order to determine the traded quantities separated by origin and destination and 1722 to identify the main trade partners. 1723


COMEXT was used for data extraction regarding the following WDFs: 1725 Biodiesel 1726 Edible oil and fat 1727

16 Direct Link to COMEXT: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/newxtweb/mainxtnet.do



Waste oil 1728 Waste solvents (halogenated and non-halogenated) 1729 Industrial liquid concentrates 1730 Wood waste 1731 Waste tyres, waste rubbers 1732 Waste plastics (production residues) 1733 Waste paper 1734 Waste textiles 1735 Animal by-products and derived products 1736 Dried or dewatered industrial sewage sludge 1737

Annex 2 presents the allocation of CN8-Codes to WDFs. For certain WDFs in 1738 the meaning of this study, such as biogas or bioethanol, no suitable CN8-Code 1739 could be allocated. 1740

1741

5.1.3 Eurostat Energy Statistics 1742

A key data source for energy data is the Eurostat17 Energy Statistics database. 1743 Eurostat has developed a coherent and harmonised system of energy statistics. 1744 Its legal basis is Regulation (EC) No 844/2010 amended by Regulation (EC) No 1745 1099/2008 on energy statistics, which establishes a common framework for the 1746 production, transmission, evaluation and dissemination of comparable energy 1747 statistics in the Community. 1748

In the Eurostat Energy Statistics database, the following definitions of renew-1749 able energy and waste sources apply for the energy flows relevant for this pro-1750 ject: 1751

Industrial Waste is defined as solid or liquid waste of industrial non-1752 renewable origin combusted directly for the production of electricity and/or 1753 heat. Renewable industrial waste is reported in the Solid Biomass, Biogas 1754 and/or Liquid Biofuels categories. 1755

Municipal Waste comprises: 1756 Municipal Waste, renewable: That portion of waste produced by house-1757 holds, industry, hospitals and the tertiary sector which is biodegradable 1758 material collected by local authorities and incinerated at specific installations. 1759

Municipal Waste, non-Renewable: That portion of waste produced by 1760 households, industry, hospitals and the tertiary sector which is non-1761 biodegradable material collected by local authorities and incinerated at spe-1762 cific installations. 1763

1764 Solid Biomass comprises organic, non-fossil material of biological origin 1765 which may be used as fuel for heat production or electricity generation. It 1766 comprises: 1767

Charcoal: The solid residue of the destructive distillation and pyrolysis of 1768 wood and other vegetal material. 1769

17 (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/energy/data/database).

Industrial Waste (non-renewable)

Municipal Waste, (renewable and non-renewable)

Solid Biomass



Wood, Wood Waste, Other Solid Waste: Purpose-grown energy crops (pop-1770 lar, willow etc.), a multitude of woody materials generated by an industrial 1771 process (wood/paper industry in particular) or provided directly by forestry 1772 and agriculture (firewood, wood chips, bark, sawdust, shavings, chips, black 1773 liquor etc.) as well as waste such as bagasse, straw, rice husks, nut shells, 1774 poultry litter, crushed grape dregs etc. Combustion is the preferred technol-1775 ogy for this solid waste. 1776

Biogas is defined as a gas composed principally of methane and carbon dioxide 1777 produced by anaerobic digestion of biomass. It comprises: 1778

Landfill Gas: Formed by the digestion of landfilled waste. 1779 Sewage Sludge Gas: Produced from the anaerobic fermentation of sewage 1780 sludge. 1781

Other Biogas: Such as biogas produced from the anaerobic fermentation of 1782 animal slurries and of waste in abattoirs, breweries and other agro-food in-1783 dustries. 1784

The quantities of liquid biofuels reported in this category relates to the quantities 1785 of biofuel and not to the total volume of liquids into which the biofuels may be 1786 blended. Under this category the following biofuels are reported: 1787

Biogasoline: This category includes bioethanol (ethanol produced from bio-1788 mass and/or the biodegradable fraction of waste), biomethanol (methanol 1789 produced from biomass and/or the biodegradable fraction of waste), bioETBE 1790 (ethyl-tertiary-butyl-ether produced on the basis of bioethanol; the percentage 1791 by volume of bioETBE that is calculated as biofuel is 47%) and bioMTBE 1792 (methyl-tertiary-butyl-ether produced on the basis of biomethanol: the per-1793 centage by volume of bioMTBE that is calculated as biofuel is 36%). 1794

Biodiesels: This category includes biodiesel (a methyl-ester produced from 1795 vegetable or animal oil, of diesel quality), biodimethylether (dimethylether 1796 produced from biomass), Fischer Tropsch (Fischer Tropsch produced from 1797 biomass), cold pressed biooil (oil produced from oil seed through mechanical 1798 processing only) and all other liquid biofuels which are added to, blended with 1799 or used straight as transport diesel. 1800

Other Liquid Biofuels: Liquid biofuels, used directly as fuel, not included in 1801 biogasoline or biodiesels. 1802

1803


The Eurostat Energy Statistics database comprises energy data for all member 1805 states except for Malta dating back to 1990. 1806

The energy flows relevant for this project are disaggregated as follows: indus-1807 trial waste, municipal solid waste, wood & wood waste, biogas, biodiesel, bio-1808 gasoline, other liquid biofuels. 1809

For the three categories of liquid biofuels time series are not available for Malta 1810 and Estonia and only run back to 2005. Furthermore no data is available for the 1811 final energy consumption of the iron and steel industry and of the non-ferrous 1812 metal industry. 1813

For some fuel categories, individual indicators have not been reported for all 1814 member states. It is assumed that in most of these cases no use occurs. In the 1815 tables describing the use of WDFs (chapter 1.4) a colon “:” stands for “data not 1816

Biogas

Liquid Biofuels



available”, while zero “0” means that no fuel or less than half of the unit used is 1817 applied in the respective sector. 1818

5.1.3.2 Data aggregation 1819

An overview on data availability and aggregation in Eurostat Energy Statistics is 1820 given in Table 20. 1821

Table 20: Availability and aggregation of data from Eurostat Energy Statistics 1822

EUROSTAT CATEGORY

RENEWABLE energy source

NON-RENEWABLE en-ergy source

WDFs corresponding to Eurostat Data

NON-WASTE contained in this Eu-rostat Data set1)

Wood Waste

Animal By-products and derived prod-ucts

Municipal Sewage Sludge

Waste Paper

WOOD, WOOD WASTE & OTHER SOLID WASTE

Wood & wood waste, other liquid and solid waste (renewable); renewable amounts in waste from indus-trial sources (e.g. in sludges, waste plas-tics)

--

Waste Textiles

Fuel wood, wood chips, wood pel-lets, black liquor, bark, sawdust ...

MSW Waste produced by households, indus-try, hospitals and the tertiary sector2) which is biodegrad-able material col-lected by local au-thorities and inciner-ated at specific in-stallations (biode-gradable fraction)

Waste produced by households, indus-try, hospitals and the tertiary sector2) which is biode-gradable material collected by local authorities and in-cinerated at spe-cific installations (not biodegradable fraction)

Municipal Solid Waste (as waste source for non-hazardous WDF production)3)

–

Waste Oil (mineral & synthetic)

Waste Solvents (halogenated. & non-halogenated)

Industrial liquid waste concen-trates

RDF (WDF from MSW and oth-ers)3)

Waste plastics

Waste Tyres, Waste Rubber3)

INDUSTRIAL WASTE

-- Liquid and solid in-dustrial waste (not biodegradable fraction, only not-renewable waste fractions); non-renewable amounts in waste from category "Wood, Wood waste & other solid waste" (e.g. plas-tics)

Others4)

–

BIOGAS Biogas from plants, manure, biowaste, food waste, residues from the food indus-try, edible oil and fat, municipal solid

-- Biogas, waste-derived

Biogas from plants, e.g. energy crops, agri-cultural resi-dues used



EUROSTAT CATEGORY

RENEWABLE energy source

NON-RENEWABLE en-ergy source

WDFs corresponding to Eurostat Data

NON-WASTE contained in this Eu-rostat Data set1)

waste..., Sewage sludge gasLandfill gas

on farm-site...

BIO-GASOLINE

Biogasoline -- Bioethanol, waste-derived

Bioethanol from non-waste (e.g. corn, sugar beet, crop…)

BIODIESEL Biodiesel -- Biodiesel, waste-derived (e.g. from vege-table oil, cooking oil…)

Biodiesel from non-waste (e.g. rape-seed, sun-flower, palm oil…)

OTHER LIQUID BIOFUELS

Other liquid biofuels

-- Edible oil and fat waste

Rapeseed oil, sun-flower oil…

1) The fuels in this column are not relevant for this project, as they are neither waste nor waste-1823 derived, but (originating from) virgin biomass. 1824

2) The tertiary sector of the economy (also known as the service sector or the service industry) is 1825 one of the three economic sectors, the others being the secondary sector (approximately the 1826 same as manufacturing) and the primary sector (agriculture, fishing, and extraction such as 1827 mining). 1828

3) RDF and Waste tyres/Waste rubber may be partly reported under Wood, Wood Waste and 1829 Other Solid Waste 1830

4) Syngas, Pyrolysis gas, Pyrolysis oil, Pyrolysis char/coke would, if reported, most probably be 1831 reported within this category (Bittermann 2011) 1832

1833

5.1.4 IEA Energy Statistics 1834

Additional energy data were taken from Electricity Information 2009 (IEA Statis-1835 tics 2009), i.e. the respective shares of biogas produced as landfill gas, sewage 1836 gas or biogas from Anaerobic Digestion. The data in this report are taken from 1837 the IEA/OECD database of energy statistics which are based on annual sub-1838 missions from all OECD member countries. 1839

1840

5.1.5 Compliance of Waste Statistics and Energy Statistics Data 1841

Data derived from Eurostat Waste Statistics and from Eurostat Energy Statistics 1842 were collected and evaluated separately from each other, the latter in some de-1843 tails being completed by data from IEA/OECD energy statistics. 1844

When evaluating Waste Statistics data on WDF use, general expertise of waste 1845 management practices and selected information from additional literature 1846 sources were applied, yielding minimum and maximum amounts of WDFs used 1847 for energy recovery. The estimates on Energy Statistics data were based on 1848 expert knowledge on the energy sector and on relevant industrial branches. 1849



Both separately evaluated data sets were compared to each other and 1850 showed good compliance: The used amounts of WDFs within the scope of 1851 the study that were derived from energy statistics data by means of expert 1852 estimates, generally could be found quite in the middle of the minimum and 1853 maximum estimates on the use of WDFs derived from Waste Statistics and 1854 other data sources. 1855

Combining these two different approaches, the waste-derived share of the 1856 highly aggregated Eurostat Energy Statistics category “Wood, Wood Waste & 1857 Other Solid Waste” was finally estimated to be in the range of 25%. 1858

1859

1860

5.2 WDF Data 1861

Taking into account the different types of WDFs to be investigated in this study, 1862 a categorisation is helpful in clarifying the contents of this chapter. The WDFs to 1863 be investigated can be classified into three categories, which are described in 1864 Table 4 in the Summary. 1865

An overview on generated, traded and used amounts of WDFs is given in Table 1866 5 in the Summary of the study at hand. 1867

Detailed information on generation and use of WDFs and trade of correspond-1868 ing waste streams is provided in the following sub-chapters 5.2.1-5.2.19. 1869

Primary data sets are given in the Annexes to the study at hand: 1870

Generation: Annex 3, 1871 Trade: Annex 4, 1872 Use: Annex 5 1873

1874

5.2.1 Biogas 1875

5.2.1.1 Generation and Use 1876

Data sources 1877

The energy indicator “biogas” according to Energy Statistics comprises land-1878 fill gas, sewage sludge gas and other biogas, such as biogas from the an-1879 aerobic fermentation of energy crops, animal slurries and of waste. 1880

Additional information on amounts of landfill gas, sludge gas and other biogas is 1881 available from OECD/IEA (2009). 1882

Table 21: Primary production of Biogas in 2008 (Sources: EUROSTAT Energy Statistics 1883 2011; OECD/IEA 2009 ) 1884

Member State Total Biogas

(1,000 Nm3)

Landfill gas(1,000 Nm3)

Sewage gas

(1,000 Nm3)

Other biogas

(1,000 Nm3)

Belgium 140,125 83,919 2,732 52,693

Bulgaria :

Czech Republic 147,151 50,742 52,693 46,838

Good compliance of data sets

Annex 3 Annex 4 Annex 5

Energy Statistics and OECD/IEA



Member State Total Biogas

(1,000 Nm3)

Landfill gas(1,000 Nm3)

Sewage gas

(1,000 Nm3)

Other biogas

(1,000 Nm3)

Denmark 153,318 17,603 35,714 108,665

Germany 6,038,290 451,913 702,186 3,056,011

Estonia 4,645

Ireland 57,884 42,350 13,076 2,810

Greece 56,245 46,253 9,875 390

Spain 332,123 190,437 58,119 48,517

France 738,681 320,726 84,973 50,937

Italy 669,984 554,254 1,952 124,902

Cyprus 546

Latvia 14,403

Lithuania 4,879

Luxembourg 19,555 0 0 15,652

Hungary 35,636 3,357 12,881 19,126

Malta n.d.* n.d. n.d. n.d.

Netherlands 368,891 67,057 77,986 195,667

Austria 405,504 7,611 9,133 56,362

Poland 215,301 41,179 74,668 4,294

Portugal 37,549 0 0 33,138

Romania 976

Slovenia 22,951

Slovakia 15,808 585 11,710 781

Finland 73,536 51,522 17,174 0

Sweden 167,369 19,828 26,581 1,874

United Kingdom 2,675,332 2,419,672 345,355 0

EU-27 12,396,682 4,369,009 1,536,807 3,818,657 *) n.d.: No data available 1885

1886

As biogas is not traded on the market, the figures for use are the same as for 1887 primary production. Biogas use in the EU-27 has significantly gained ground in 1888 the last decade, more than tripling between 2000 and 2008. Especially between 1889 2006 and 2007, the use of biogas increased from approx. 8,000,000 Nm3/a to 1890 almost 12,000,000 Nm3/a; in 2008 it stood at 12.4 million Nm3/a. Since 1990, 1891 there has not been a single year in which biogas exploitation has declined. Over 1892 the whole time series, Germany and the UK were the most import countries with 1893 a combined share of about two-thirds. 1894

1895



1896 Figure 5: Use of Biogas in the period 1990-2008 (Data source: Eurostat Energy 1897 Statistics) 1898

1899

From ENERGIE-CONTROL GMBH (2009) data on the share of different waste 1900 and non waste substrates in Austrian biogas production are available. Ac-1901 cording to a survey among about 60% of the Austrian biogas producers, 1902 waste substrates accounted for 28.3 % by weight and 11 % by energy of the 1903 feedstock material in 2007. In a survey for the year 2009 the share of waste 1904 substrates by energy content was reported to be 18% (ENERGIE-CONTROL 1905 GMBH, 2010). 1906

In Germany, according to UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2010), 840,000 tonnes of biode-1907 gradable municipal waste (bio- and green waste and food waste from house-1908 holds and commerce) were anaerobically digested in 2008. 1909

In Luxembourg, according to MINISTERE DU DEVELOPPEMENT DURABLE ET DES 1910 INFRASTRUCTURES (2010), 5,826 tonnes of biodegradable waste were subjected 1911 to anaerobic digestion in 2005. 1912

According to AVFALL SVERIGE (2008) in 2007 561,300 tonnes of household 1913 waste were biologically treated in Sweden (composting and anaerobic diges-1914 tion). Per person, 61.1 kg of waste – garden waste and food waste – were bio-1915 logically treated in 2007. 32,151,000 Nm3MWh were produced in 2007. The 1916 market is undergoing strong development. 1917

In Italy, according to INSTITUTO SUPERIORE PER LA PROTEZIONE E LA RICERA 1918 AMBIENTALE (2010), the total production of biogas from waste amounted to 1919 1,612,201 Nm3 in 2008. 1920

1921

Use of waste-derived biogas 1922

The generated and used amounts of waste-derived biogas were estimated us-1923 ing the sum of generated “sewage gas”, “landfill gas” according to OECD/IEA 1924 (2009) and “other biogas” (calculated as total biogas according to Eurostat, En-1925

Additional information related to WDF biogas Eurostat Energy Statistics



ergy Statistics, minus landfill gas and sewage gas. The waste-derived share of 1926 “other biogas” was assumed to be 15%). 1927

By far the largest producer of biogas is Germany. 1928

Table 22: Estimated generation of waste-derived biogas in 2008 (Sources: EUROSTAT, 1929 Energy Statistics, 2011; OECD/IEA, 2009; own assumptions) 1930

Member State WDF Biogas (TJ)

Member State WDF Biogas (TJ)

Belgium 94,672 Luxembourg 2,933

Bulgaria 0 Hungary 19,147

Czech Republic 109,992 Malta 0

Denmark 68,318 Netherlands 178,620

Germany 1,886,727 Austria 75,059

Estonia 0 Poland 130,765

Ireland 55,794 Portugal 5,632

Greece 56,146 Romania 0

Spain 261,091 Slovenia 0

France 455,646 Slovakia 12,822

Italy 573,273 Finland 69,422

Cyprus 0 Sweden 64,553

Latvia 0 United Kingdom 2,751,573

Lithuania 0 EU-27 6,872,186 1931

5.2.1.2 Trade 1932

COMEXT database does not provide data on the trade of waste-derived biogas 1933 as no suitable CN8-Code could be allocated to the WDF “Biogas”. 1934

The Eurostat database on energy statistics shows that trade occurs neither 1935 among Member States nor between Member States and Non-EU states. 1936

1937

1938

5.2.2 Biodiesel 1939


Data sources 1941

Data on biodiesel generation for the reference year 2008 were extracted from 1942 the Eurostat Database on Energy Statistics. 1943

Table 23: Primary production of Biodiesel in 2008 (Source: EUROSTAT Energy 1944 Statistics 2011) 1945

Member State Biodiesel (Tonnes)



Bulgaria 10,000 Hungary 83,000

Czech Republic 75,000 Malta n.d.

Eurostat Energy Statistics







Estonia 21,000 Poland 169,000


Greece 221,000 Romania 8,000

Spain 1,763,000 Slovenia 105,000



Cyprus 28,000 Sweden 282,000

Latvia 65,000 United Kingdom 277,000

Lithuania 0 EU-27 7,992,000 1946

For the use of liquid bio-fuels, data in the Eurostat database are only available 1947 from the year 2005 onwards. Since that year the use of biodiesel increased 1948 sharply, surging from about 3,000,000 tons in 2005 to 9,365,000 tons in 2008. 1949 The country using the most biodiesel in that period is Germany trailed by 1950 France. In recent years more and more countries started to use liquid biofuels 1951 as alternative fuel. 1952

1953

1954 Figure 6: Use of biodiesel in the period 2005-2008 (Data source: Eurostat Energy 1955 Statistics) 1956

1957

Use of waste-derived biodiesel 1958

No systematic information on the share of waste-derived biodiesel is available. 1959 The biodiesel production varies considerably over time related to strongly fluc-1960 tuating market prices of feedstock materials. Another currently discussed issue 1961



are different classifications as waste or non waste of the input materials by dif-1962 ferent Member States. 1963

Assuming a share of waste-derived biodiesel of 5% compared to the total pro-1964 duction an overall quantity of approximately 400,000 tonnes of WDF biodiesel 1965 would have been generated and used in 2008. 1966

1967

5.2.2.2 Trade 1968

Figure 7 gives an overview on total amounts of biodiesel traded by the EU-27 in 1969 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given separately for the categories: Extra-EU 1970 trade, import and export, Trade among EU-27, import and export. The quantities 1971 traded by those Member States responsible for more than 10% of the overall 1972 trade volume per category are displayed separately. In addition to the absolute 1973 figures, in the right part of the figure the shares of the total traded volume by in-1974 dividual MS are displayed. 1975

The volumes imported from other EU Member States are much higher (540,811 1976 tons in 2008) than those imported from third countries (27,382 tons in 2008). 1977 Member States importing more than 10% of biodiesel in the years 2004, 2006 1978 or 2008 were Germany, Italy, Denmark and France. (cf. Figure 7). 1979

Export to third countries is at the same order of magnitude (35,188 tons in 1980 2008) than import from third countries. Countries exporting more than 10% of 1981 biodiesel in the years 2004, 2006 or 2008 to other Member States were Ger-1982 many, Denmark and the Netherlands. (cf. Figure 7). 1983

1984

1985

Figure 7: Biodiesel, Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, reference years 1986 2004, 2006 and 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a 1987 particular category are merged (“others”) (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 1988

1989

As evident from Figure 7 and Table 24, the export of Biodiesel to third countries 1990 decreased from 112,424 tons in 2004 to 36,188 tons in 2008 while imports from 1991 third countries increased slightly. 1992

1993

1994




Table 24: Biodiesel - Trade EU27_total: Development over time (2004, 2006, 2008), in 1995 tons, (Eurostat, COMEXT Database 2011) 1996

BIODIESEL EXTRA-EU Trade (Tonnes)

TRADE AMONG EU-27 (Tonnes)

Trade Import Export Import Export

2004 14,628 112,424 465,352 469,170

2006 16,620 39,007 541,686 428,832

2008 27,382 35,188 540,811 372,711

1997

1998

5.2.3 Bioethanol 1999


Data sources 2001

Data on bioethanol production for the reference year 2008 were extracted 2002 from the Eurostat Database on Energy Statistics. 2003

Table 25: Primary production of Bioethanol in 2008 (Source: EUROSTAT Energy 2004 Statistics 2011) 2005

Member State Bioethanol (Tonnes)

Member State Bioethanol (Tonnes)


Bulgaria n.d.* Hungary 7,000

Czech Republic 60,000 Malta 70,000

Denmark n.d Netherlands 0

Germany 628,000 Austria 92,000

Estonia 0 Poland n.d.

Ireland n.d Portugal n.d

Greece 272,000 Romania n.d

Spain 589,000 Slovenia 74,000

France 90,000 Slovakia n.d

Italy n.d Finland 333,000



Lithuania n.d EU-27 2,393,000

*) n.d.: no data available 2006

2007

For bioethanol use the same is true as for the use of biodiesel but on a lower 2008 level. As for biodiesel the exploitation of biogasoline has more than tripled from 2009 2005 to 2008 driven by the leading countries Germany and France. In 2008, 2010 2,377,000 tons of biogasoline were used. 2011

2012




2013 Figure 8: Use of biogasoline in the period 2005-2008 (Data source: Eurostat Energy 2014 Statistics) 2015

Use of waste-derived bioethanol 2016

According to GAUPMANN (2009), the share of wastes in feedstock materials for 2017 the production of bioethanol is negligible. 2018

2019

5.2.3.2 Trade 2020

COMEXT database does not provide data on the trade of "bioethanol" as no 2021 suitable CN8-Code could be allocated. 2022

In the year 2008 the biggest net importers of bio-gasoline were the Netherlands, 2023 Poland, the United Kingdom and Finland which imported more than 100,000 2024 tons per year each. While most other countries using bio-gasoline were also 2025 dependant on imports, some also exported considerable quantities on a net ba-2026 sis. The most prominent net exporter in 2008 was Spain. 2027

Table 26: Net imports of bio-gasoline in the year 2008, in thousands of tons (Data 2028 source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 2029

Member State Bio-gasoline (1,000 Tonnes)


Belgium 3 Luxembourg 1

Bulgaria : Hungary 12

Czech Republic -4 Netherlands 153

Denmark 8 Austria 21

Germany -4 Poland 113

Ireland 27 Portugal :

Greece : Romania :

Spain -90 Slovenia 0

France 53 Slovakia -24

Italy 0 Finland 100






Cyprus : Sweden :

Latvia -12 United Kingdom 108

Lithuania 7 EU-27 472 2030

2031

5.2.4 Pyrolysis Products 2032

Pyrolysis is the thermal cracking of carbonaceous material such as coal, bio-2033 mass or carbon containing waste, without any oxygen present. Depending on 2034 the temperature and pressure of the process, a broad variety of gaseous and 2035 liquid hydrocarbons and coke are produced. Depending on the input characteri-2036 sation, also small amounts of H2, H2O, CO, CO2 as well as organic substances 2037 containing sulphur, nitrogen or oxygen in their chemical structure are generated. 2038 Also PAH and, if halides are present, PCDD/F are generated during pyrolysis. 2039

At low pyrolysis temperatures (typically 400-500°C), the cracking products are 2040 predominantly pyrolysis oil (long chained hydrocarbons, BTX, PAH etc.) and 2041 coke. At the medium temperature range (typically 750-950°C), the production of 2042 predominantly gases (C1-C4 olefins, diolefins, alkanes etc.) rises. At high tem-2043 peratures above 1000°C, the gas yield can be maximised. Usually, a consider-2044 able amount of the generated pyrolysis products is needed as energy supply to 2045 the endothermic pyrolysis process. A comprehensive survey of technologies 2046 that have been developed for waste pyrolysis since the early 1970s is given in 2047 STOIBER (1998). 2048

Since the late 1960s, pyrolysis of waste has been investigated. Closely related 2049 to the 1973 Oil Crisis, research and development of waste pyrolysis processes 2050 was intensified. The main focus was on optimising the yield of the BTX rich liq-2051 uid fraction, in order to use it as an input to petrochemical processes that were 2052 strongly C6-chemistry dominated processes at that time. When the environ-2053 mental and health impact of BTX became evident, and at the same time petro-2054 chemical processes were more and more using ethylene as substrate, pyrolysis 2055 processes lost substantially in relevance. 2056

There were several waste pyrolysis demonstration plants operating in Europe 2057 during the 1980s and 1990s, such as Siemens-KWU, ConTherm or Thermose-2058 lect, but nearly all of these plants have been shut down after only several years 2059 of operation, due to environmental as well as to economic reasons. 2060

Today, pyrolysis is used only within small market niches and in context with cer-2061 tain recovery operations, such as tyre pyrolysis or pyrolysis of waste cables, 2062 where it is necessary to remove the carbon containing fraction without doing as 2063 less harm to the remaining metal fraction as possible. Furthermore, there are 2064 still a number of small pyrolysis ovens in operation for hospital waste treatment, 2065 usually in batch operation. 2066

Pyrolysis plants are operated, also with waste input, but pyrolysis products have 2067 negligible relevance as waste-derived fuels. 2068

2069



5.2.4.1 Pyrolysis Gas 2070

Pyrolysis gas is usually incinerated directly on-site in order to cover the high 2071 energy demand of the endothermic pyrolysis process. It is not traded as a fuel. 2072

2073

5.2.4.2 Pyrolysis Oil 2074

Pyrolysis oil consists of a broad variety of liquid organic substances. A typical 2075 analysis of pyrolysis oil derived from wood waste pyrolysis is given in Annex 1 2076 (GERDES 2001). Pyrolysis oil is hazardous waste. 2077

2078

5.2.4.3 Pyrolysis Solid Residue (Char, Coke) 2079

The solid pyrolysis residue is a mixture of coke, inert ash material (composition 2080 depending on the input characterisation) and amounts of pyrolysis oil adhering 2081 to it, and thus is hazardous waste. 2082

2083

2084

5.2.5 Gasification Products 2085

Fossil fuels, biomass, black liquor, also refinery residues and offgas, petroleum 2086 coke, sewage sludge, municipal solid waste and other carbonaceous waste 2087 fractions can be gasified. Contrary to the oxygen excess present during incin-2088 eration, gasification takes place with only understoichiometric amounts of oxy-2089 gen present. 2090

Gasification technology has been used worldwide for a long time in more than 2091 100 plants and it provides a well used option for the re-use of waste oil as well 2092 as other types of wastes. This option is typically used when gas fuel has a use 2093 on site (BREF WTI 2006). 2094

A comprehensive survey of technologies that have been developed for waste 2095 gasification since the early 1970s is given in STOIBER (1998). Only very few 2096 waste gasification processes are still in operation today, the most commonly 2097 applied being fluidised bed gasification, e.g. gasification of wood waste together 2098 with biomass. 2099

2100

5.2.5.1 Synthesis Gas (Syngas) 2101

Various chemical gas and gas-solid equilibria determine the composition of the 2102 product gas, which consists mainly of CO and H2, but contains also CO2, H2O 2103 and, depending on the kind of feedstock used, also H2S, COS, NH3 and other 2104 gases as well as tar and ashes. The syngas composition is highly dependable 2105 on the process parameters chosen, i.e. reaction temperature, pressure, pres-2106 ence of catalytically active substances (certain metals, e.g. nickel), oxygen-2107 feedstock rate and the kind of oxygen source (air, oxygen, steam) used. Proc-2108 ess parameters are generally chosen in a way to achieve high gas yield and a 2109 maximum content of synthesis gas (syngas), i.e. CO and H2. 2110

Coal, petroleum and gas are the dominating feedstock to gasification plants. 2111 Biomass and especially waste represent only a small share of gasification ca-2112



pacities in the EU. Data extraction from the NETL/DOE 2010 World Gasification 2113 Database (NETL/DOE 2010) yielded syngas capacities18 derived from biomass 2114 and/or waste in the EU of 402 MWth, corresponding to 2.8 % of total syngas 2115 production in the EU. Regarding the fact that more plants use rather biomass 2116 than waste as feedstock, the share of waste-derived syngas production in the 2117 EU can be roughly estimated to be below 1.5 % in terms of MWth produced. 2118

Syngas is usually used on-site or in neighbouring plants, be it as feedstock to 2119 refineries and production plants of the petrochemical industry, be it as gaseous 2120 fuel in a combustion plant. Usually the use of syngas takes place within one en-2121 terprise or is based on long-term contracts, so that there is no real market for 2122 syngas. 2123

Due to the relatively small amounts of waste-derived syngas produced in the 2124 EU, due to hazardous properties resulting from high CO content and because it 2125 is not a market trade item, syngas can be regarded as not relevant with respect 2126 to this project. 2127

2128

5.2.5.2 Gasification Solid Residues 2129

As gasification aims at high gas yields and quantitative use of the input’s carbon 2130 content, the solid residue from gasification consists predominantly of inert 2131 ashes, containing only traces of tar or coke. At high gasification temperatures of 2132 above 1,000°C, the solid residues form slag rather than ash. Apart from not 2133 having a heating value (i.e. they cannot be used as WDF), ashes from waste 2134 gasification can contain considerable amounts of non-volatile hazardous sub-2135 stances such as heavy metals. 2136

2137

5.2.6 Waste Oil 2138

Figure 9 gives an overview on generation, trade and use of waste oil in the 2139 European Union. The amounts subjected to energy recovery operations are 2140 considered being the generation of the WDF waste oil. 2141

2142

Figure 9: Indicative overview on generation, trade and use of waste oil; = use as 2143 WDF; in 2008 or the latest year where data are available (different sums for input and 2144

18 Plants in operation or under construction in 2010, or being planned for 2011-2016



output are due to different data sources; data sources: Umweltbundesamt based on 2145 UNITED NATIONS STATISTICS DIVISION 2011, EUROSTAT COMEXT Database 2011) 2146

2147


Data sources 2149

Data on generation, energy recovery and incineration on land of “01.3 Used 2150 oils” was extracted from Eurostat Waste Statistics. 2151

The LoW-codes allocated to the WDF “Waste Oil” are largely part of EWC-Stat-2152 category “01.3 Used oils”. EWC-Stat-category 01.3 is divided into the sub-2153 groups “01.31 Used motor oils” and “01.32 Other used oils”, which are however 2154 not reported separately. Some of the waste-types under 01.32, typically gener-2155 ated in large amounts, are not suitable as waste source for WDF “Waste Oil” 2156 (e.g. “05 01 02 desalter sludges”, “05 01 03 tank bottom sludges” etc.). 2157

Table 27 shows generation and use of the EWC-Stat-group “01.3 Used oils” per 2158 Member State in 2008. Comparing the figures regarding generation and use, it 2159 is evident that only a small part of the generated amount is incinerated (Genera-2160 tion: 5.6 million tonnes; incineration with and without energy recovery: 620,000 2161 t). The remainder is subjected to other material recovery (regenera-2162 tion/recycling) and disposal options including land-filling. 2163

In 2008 approximately 5.6 million tonnes of “Used Oils” were generated by EU-2164 27. 2165

Table 27: Generation and Use of “Used Oils” per MS, for the reference year 2008, in 2166 tonnes (Source: EUROSTAT, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2167

Generation Use Member State

Generation(Tonnes)

Energy recovery (R1)(Tonnes)

Incineration on land (D10)

(Tonnes)

Belgium 188,353 1,843 953

Bulgaria 5,653 0 23

Czech Republic 66,873 1,042 2,030

Denmark 87,581 18,681 0

Germany 1,146,455 81,309 9,863

Estonia 9,808 1,057 0

Ireland 2,983 0 0

Greece 54,000 3,485 0

Spain 363,721 2,015 464

France 604,870 125,509 45,992

Italy 658,345 60,867 2,960

Cyprus 5,117 19 0

Latvia 10,295 6,670 0

Lithuania 6,055 243 0

Luxembourg 8,859 0 0

Hungary 61,305 1,643 1,777

Malta n.d.* 0 0

Waste Statistics



Generation Use Member State

Generation (Tonnes)

Energy recovery (R1)(Tonnes)

Incineration on land (D10)

(Tonnes)

Netherlands 82,980 43,417 4,328

Austria 71,457 26,605 n.d.

Poland 105,065 28 4,281

Portugal 1,202,563 12,745 405

Romania 43,875 5,453 160

Slovenia 14,519 n.d. n.d.

Slovakia 28,967 5,156 430

Finland 29,563 8,664 7,431

Sweden 161,576 5,811 485

United Kingdom 588,460 0 120,581

EU-27 5,610,000 420,000 200,000


2169

According to Table 27, about one third of “Used oils” incinerated in the Euro-2170 pean Union in the reference year 2008 was incinerated without energy recov-2171 ery. 2172

Figure 10 shows that generation of the waste category "used oil" increased 2173 from 2004 to 2006 about more than 2 million tonnes and decreased slightly 2174 from 2006 onwards. 2175

2176 Figure 10: Development over time - Generation and Incineration of waste category 2177 "Used Oil", EU27_total, for the reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes 2178

An analysis of MS statistics shows that data for Portugal are the reason for the 2179 large changes in the reported amount of generated "used oil" (increase by 2180 2.2 million tonnes from 2004 to 2006, then a decline of about 50% from 2006 to 2181 2008 occurred 2182

Development over time



2183

2184 Figure 11: Development over time - Generation of waste category "used oil" per MS, for 2185 the reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes 2186

To use the figures for generation of “Used Oil” from EU Waste Statistics 2187 (5,610,000 tonnes in 2008) would cause an over-estimation of the actually gen-2188 erated amounts of WDF waste oil, because the waste category "Used Oil" also 2189 contains waste types not suitable to be used as WDF (e.g. desalter sludges). 2190 On the other hand, the quantities of "Used Oil" subjected to energy recovery 2191 and even the total amount of energy recovery and incineration (620,000 tonnes) 2192 might underestimate the actual amount of incinerated WDF waste oil. 2193

Waste oil is not always collected as a waste stream and thus not registered as a 2194 waste. However, most likely generated waste oils are used as fuel by indus-2195 try/commerce or households. 2196

Thus, instead of using data from EU waste statistics, information on lubricants 2197 consumption and information on collection and treatment of waste oil (EC 2198 (2006) was used to estimate the generation of the WDF waste oil in Europe. 2199

Data on the consumption of lubricants for non-energy use per Member State is 2200 available from UNITED NATIONS STATISTICS DIVISION (2011), latest available for 2201 the year 2007 (cf. Table 28). 2202

Table 28: Lubricant consumption in 2007 (Source: UNITED NATIONS STATISTICS DIVISION, 2203 2011) 2204

Member State Consumption (Tonnes)




Czech Republic 211,000 Malta n.d.*



Lubricant consumption













Lithuania 24,000 EU-27 5,698,006


2206

According to EC (2006), in 2003 45% of oils/lubricants marketed/sold in the EU-2207 15 were collected as waste oil, corresponding to a collection rate of approxi-2208 mately 80%. 46% thereof were combusted. 2209

In Austria, according to REISINGER ET AL. (2010), 60% of waste oil was incin-2210 erated in 2009. 2211

According to the Estonian National Waste Management Plan (MINISTRY OF 2212 THE ENVIRONMENT, 2002) the main handling method of waste oil at that time was 2213 incineration with prior handling (separation, etc.). About half of the total amount 2214 is incinerated on-site – in local boiler houses or other furnaces. According to the 2215 current procedure, an operator of an incineration plant holding a waste permit 2216 and hazardous waste handling license can offer the service of waste oil incin-2217 eration. Licensed companies handle only half of the amount generated. 2218

In Latvia, a system of collecting and recycling of oil products has been partially 2219 developed according to the Latvian National Waste Management Plan for 2220 2006 – 2012 (MINISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENT – MINISTRY FOR AGRICULTURE, 2005). 2221 Many companies collect waste oil products to further use them as fuel. Most 2222 waste oil is used in a cement plant. 2223

According to the Maltese Waste Management Plan (MINISTRY FOR RESOURCES 2224 AND RURAL AFFAIRS, 2009) in Malta waste oil is not re-refined, but incinerated or 2225 exported. 2226

2227

Use of WDF waste oil 2228

For estimating the quantity of used WDF waste oil the following assumptions 2229 were set: 2230

50% of the lubricant consumption is collected. In Western European countries 2231 the share being combusted was assumed being 45 % of the collected amount 2232 (cf. EC, 2006). Information available from selected Waste Management Plans, 2233 reviewed within this study, indicates that waste re-refining has a minor signifi-2234 cance in several of the new Member States. The predominant route is incinera-2235 tion either in licensed incineration and/or co-incineration plants or illegally by 2236 operators of any boilers (small businesses, household heating). For new Mem-2237

Additional information related to WDF waste oil



ber States, thus, it was assumed that 95% of the collection is used as a waste-2238 derived fuel. 2239

Table 29: Use of the WDF waste oil (own assumptions based on UN (2011)) 2240

MS WDF waste oil (Tonnes)

MS WDF waste oil (Tonnes)














Lithuania 11,400 EU-27 1,544,851 2241

2242

5.2.6.2 Trade 2243

Figure 12 gives an overview on total amounts of waste oil traded by the EU-27 2244 in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given separately for the categories: Extra-EU 2245 trade, import and export; Trade among EU-27, import and export. The quantities 2246 traded by those Member States responsible for more than 10% of the overall 2247 trade volume per category are displayed separately. In addition to the absolute 2248 figures, in the right part of the figure the shares of the total traded volumes by 2249 individual MS are displayed. 2250

The volumes imported from other EU Member States are much higher (228,902 2251 tons in 2008) than those imported from third countries (46,258 tons in 2008). 2252 Member States importing more than 10% of biodiesel in the years 2004, 2006 2253 or 2008 were Germany (> 50% of total imports), Italy, Greece, Netherland and 2254 Ireland. 2255

Member States very active in extra-EU trade were Belgium, UK and France and 2256 Greece. 2257

2258



2259

Figure 12: Waste Oil, Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, reference years 2004, 2006 and 2008. 2260 Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a particular category are merged (“others”) (Eurostat, 2261 COMEXT database, 2011) 2262

2263

Figure 12 and Table 30 demonstrate that the export of waste oil to third 2264 countries decreased from 99,180 tonnes in 2004 to 3,555 tonnes in 2008. 2265 The import from non EU countries is fluctuating over the years. Trade be-2266 tween Member States increased significantly from 2004 to 2008. 2267

2268

Table 30: Waste Oil - Trade EU27_total: Development between 2004 and 2008 in tonnes 2269 (Eurostat, COMEXT Database 2011) 2270

EXTRA-EU Trade (Tonnes)


WASTE OIL


2004 41.195 99.180 73.267 26.484

2006 17.181 21.814 169.591 73.901

2008 46.258 3.555 228.902 69.945

2271

2272

5.2.7 Edible Oil and Fat 2273


Data Sources 2275

Specific data on generation and use of edible oil and fat are not available from 2276 Waste Statistics database. The reason is that the LoW codes allocated to WDF 2277 “Edible oil and fat” are part of EWC-Stat-category “09.13 Mixed waste of food 2278 preparation and products” which is part of the reported EWC-Stat-group “09 2279 (excl. 09.11, 09.3) Animal and vegetal waste” in the WStatR. 2280

Thus information on the generation of edible fats and oils was taken from sev-2281 eral studies and is compiled in Table 31. EC (2007) calculated an average col-2282 lection of 0.997 kg of edible oil and fat per capita. 2283

Trade Development over time

Waste Statistics

Diverse information related to WDF edible oil and fat



Table 31: Collection of edible oil and fat in several European countries 2284

MS Collection(tonnes)

Reference year Reference

Belgium1) 18,500 2005 EC (2007)

30,000 n.d.3) EC (2003)

Germany 110,000 2000 EC (2007)

Estonia 591 2008 EEIC (2010)

Ireland 5,000 2000 EC (2007)

Spain 28,000 2000 EC (2007)

France2) 20,000 2000 EC (2007)

Italy 25,000 2000 EC (2007)

Portugal 2,000 2000 EC (2007)

UK 80,000 2004 EC (2007) 1) excl. used fats and oils from the food processing industry 2285 2) large catering establishments 2286 3) n.d.: no data available 2287 2288

Collection rates per capita range from 0.44 kg in Germany (STATISTISCHES 2289 BUNDESAMT 2009) and 1 kg per capita in Slovenia (EPA SLOVENIA 2010) to 3.3 2290 kg per capita in the Austrian province of Burgenland (AMT DER 2291 BURGENLÄNDISCHEN LANDESREGIERUNG 2006). 2292

According to EC (2007), the collected fats and oils are pre-treated before being 2293 valorized. There were no stand-alone pre-treatment installations in the UK and 2294 Ireland, used oils and fats were also exported for treatment. For example, Neth-2295 erlands treated relevant quantities of used edible oils and fats imported from its 2296 neighbouring countries (Belgium, Germany). 2297

In the Flemish Region, according to EC (2003) 30,000 tonnes of used edible 2298 oils and fat were collected and recycled. None was available for energy recov-2299 ery then. 2300 According to EC (2007), in Belgium the used edible oils and fats are processed 2301 in a biofuel power plant. 2302

In 2008, 2,166 tonnes of waste edible oil and fat generated in Ireland in 2008 2303 were used as a fuel according to the Irish National Waste Report 2008 (Irish 2304 EPA, 2009). 2305

According to EC (2007), in UK bio heating oils are produced from vegetable oils 2306 and partly from used vegetable oils. 2307

2308

Use of WDF Edible Oil and Fat 2309

The amount of edible oil and fat generated in 2008 is estimated using an as-2310 sumption for the overall European collection of waste edible oil and fat of 1 2311 kg/capita. Based on a total population of 497,683,272 inhabitants approximately 2312 500,000 tonnes were collected in 2008. 2313

According to EC (2007), only a small part of waste fats and edible oils collected 2314 in Europe was processed by the oleo-chemistry. The largest part used to go to 2315 feed manufacturers. Recently, biodiesel production and other means of ener-2316 getic valorisation started to use the largest part of available waste fats and oils. 2317



Assuming that 25 % of edible oil and fat are used directly as WDF, the total 2318 amount of used edible oil and fat can be estimated to be in the range of 2319 125,000 tonnes per year. 2320

2321 5.2.7.2 Trade 2322

2323

Figure 13 gives an overview on total amounts of edible oil and fat traded by the 2324 EU-27 in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given separately for the categories: Ex-2325 tra-EU trade, import and export, Trade among EU-27, import and export. The 2326 quantities traded by those Member States responsible for more than 10% of the 2327 overall trade volume per category are displayed separately. In addition to the 2328 absolute figures, in the right part of the figure the shares of the total traded vol-2329 ume by individual MS are displayed. 2330

The volumes among EU Member States are much higher (import: 149,285 tons 2331 in 2008) than those imported (7,040 tons in 2008) from and exported to (8,169 2332 tons in 2008) third countries. Member States importing more than 10% of edible 2333 oil and fat in the years 2004, 2006 or 2008 were Austria, Germany, Hungary, 2334 Portugal and France. Member States exporting more than 10% of edible oil and 2335 fat in the years 2004, 2006 or 2008 were Netherlands, Germany, Belgium and 2336 Portugal. 2337

Export to third countries is in the dimension as import from third countries, both 2338 in the range of approximately 10,000 tons. 2339

2340

2341

Figure 13: Waste edible oil and fat, Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, 2342 reference years 2004, 2006 and 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade 2343 volume of a particular category are merged (“others”) (Eurostat COMEXT Data-2344 base 2011) 2345

2346

2347

Figure 13 and Table 32 demonstrate that the import of edible oil to third 2348




countries fluctuated over the years, while exports remained at the same level. 2349 Trade among Member States increased in 2008 compared to the previous 2350 years. 2351

The import from non EU countries is fluctuating over the years. Trade between 2352 Member States increased significantly from 2004 to 2008. 2353

Table 32: Waste Edible oil and fat - Trade EU27_total: Development over time (2004, 2354 2006, 2008), in tonnes per year 2355



WASTE EDIBLE OIL AND FAT


2004 2.927 6.570 115.314 65.409

2006 11.505 6.956 114.161 64.401

2008 7.040 8.169 149.285 102.684

2356

2357

5.2.8 Waste Solvents 2358


Data source 2360

The LoW-codes allocated to the WDF “waste solvents (halogenated/non-2361 halogenated)” are consistent with the EWC-Stat-category “01.1 Spent solvents” 2362 of Annex III of WStatR. 2363

In Annex III of WStatR the EWC-Stat-category “01.1 Spent solvents” is divided 2364 into the subgroups “01.11 Halogenated spent solvents” and "01.12 Non-2365 halogenated spent solvents”. Data for generation according to WStatR have to 2366 be reported for “01.1 Spent solvents”, thus a differentiation between halo-2367 genated and non-halogenated solvents was not possible. 2368

Thus, data on generation of waste category “01.1 Spent solvents” was extracted 2369 from Eurostat Waste Statistics. Eurostat Waste Statistics do not provide infor-2370 mation on disposal and recovery for the waste category “Spent solvents” be-2371 cause of a higher level of aggregation together with other waste categories. 2372

In 2008, approximately 2.7 million tonnes of waste solvents were generated by 2373 EU-27 Member States (see Table 33). The EU countries with the largest quanti-2374 ties generated were Germany with more than 740,000, tonnes and Portugal and 2375 UK with each more than 300,000 tonnes. 2376

Table 33: Generation of waste category “Spent Solvents” per MS, for the reference year 2377 2008, in tonnes (Source: EUROSTAT, WASTE STATISTICS, 2011) 2378

Member State Generation (Tonnes)







Waste Statistics







Greece 404 Romania 1,677





Latvia 453 United Kingdom 308,024

Lithuania 80 EU-27 2,730,000 2379

Use of WDF waste solvents 2380

According to JRC 2010, approximately 35% of generated waste solvents are 2381 used in energy recovery operations. Assuming that factor, the quantity of the 2382 WDF waste solvents is estimated being 955,500 tonnes per year. 2383

Generated amounts of Waste solvents (halogenated and non-halogenated) 2384 on EU27-level have been decreasing slightly from 2004 onwards as shown 2385 in Figure 14. This trend can be seen also in UK, the Netherlands, France, 2386 Germany and Belgium. 2387

2388

2389 Figure 14: Development over time - Generation of waste category spent solvents 2390 (halogenated and non-halogenated), EU27_total, for the reference years 2008, 2006 and 2391 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2392

2393




2394 Figure 15: Development over time - Generation of Spent Solvents (halogenated and non-2395 halogenated) per MS, for the reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat, 2396 Waste Statistics, 2011) 2397

2398

5.2.8.2 Trade 2399

Figure 16 gives an overview on total amounts of waste solvents traded by the 2400 EU-27 in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given separately for the categories: Ex-2401 tra-EU trade, import and export; Trade among EU-27, import and export. The 2402 quantities traded by those Member States responsible for more than 10% of the 2403 overall trade volume per category are displayed separately. In addition to the 2404 absolute figures, in the right part of the figure the shares of the total traded vol-2405 ume by individual MS are displayed. 2406

The volumes imported from other EU Member States were much higher in 2004 2407 and 2006 than those imported from third countries. In 2008 however, amounts 2408 were at the same level (6,000 to 7,000 tonnes). Member States importing more 2409 than 10% of waste solvents in the years 2004, 2006 or 2008 were Denmark, UK 2410 Germany and Austria. The Member States exporting more than 10% of waste 2411 solvents in the years 2004, 2006 or 2008 were Italy, Slovenia, Germany, Austria 2412 and Sweden. 2413

2414



2415

Figure 16: Waste solvents, Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, reference years 2004, 2006 and 2416 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a particular category are merged (“others”) 2417 (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 2418

2419

Figure 16 and Table 34 demonstrate that there are major statistical uncer-2420 tainties in trade figures among MS. Imports from third countries increased in 2421 2006 compared to 2004. Exports to third countries are comparably lowest 2422 and fluctuate over time. 2423

2424

Table 34: Waste Solvents - Trade EU27_total: Development over time (2004, 2006, 2425 2008), in tonnes (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 2426

WDF EXTRA-EU Trade (Tonnes)


WASTE SOLVENTS Import Export Import Export

2004 3,266 564 40,395 3,238

2006 7,200 1,782 18,655 5,491

2008 7,005 242 5,909 13,363

2427

2428

5.2.9 Industrial Liquid Waste Concentrates 2429


Depending on the respective industrial activity, a variety of industrial liquid 2431 waste is produced in different branches and in different compositions. 2432

One industrial liquid waste concentrate is black liquor, a production residue 2433 that is generated in big amounts in the Pulp and Paper Industry, and inciner-2434 ated in specially designed boilers in order to provide steam and electricity for 2435 the production process. Black liquor is not a WDF within the scope of this study, 2436 as it is usually accounted for as a biomass fuel. 2437

Spent solvents, also if they contain residues from production or filtration 2438 processes, are treated separately in chapter 5.2.8 of this study. 2439

2440


Black liquor

Waste solvents



Waste oils that are generated in the course of industrial activities are treated 2441 separately in chapter 5.2.6 of this study. 2442

The BREF CWW (2003) names a number of aqueous liquid waste concentrates 2443 from the chemical industry, of which the majority does not usually originate di-2444 rectly from chemical reaction steps. Though waste water can arise directly from 2445 reactions, e.g. as condensate or re-action water, the aqueous discharges from 2446 subsequent physico-chemical work-up of synthesis mixtures are generally lar-2447 ger. Products and/or intermediates from each synthesis or each synthesis stage 2448 are isolated and purified by operations such as filtration and centrifugation from 2449 aqueous reaction solutions, or by work-up of reaction mixtures via, e.g., extrac-2450 tion or distillation. Such waste water streams arising in direct association with 2451 chemical syntheses – ‘process water’ – are, for example: 2452

mother liquors 2453 washing water from purification of products 2454 vapour condensates 2455 quench water 2456 waste water from exhaust air/flue gas clean-up 2457 waste water from equipment cleaning 2458 waste water from vacuum generation. 2459

2460

These liquid waste concentrates vary considerably in terms of their properties. 2461 What they do have in common is that they consist overwhelmingly of water and 2462 contain rather small amounts of much diluted non-hazardous or hazardous sub-2463 stances. If incinerated at all, incineration usually takes place on-site and very of-2464 ten with the intention to dispose of them rather than have them recovered, and 2465 not with the expectation to generate energy. Due to their high water content 2466 which can amount to over 90%, these concentrates cannot be considered WDF 2467 within the scope of this study. 2468

No comprehensive data source for generation and use of liquid waste concen-2469 trates was identified. Waste Statistics do not provide specific data on that waste 2470 stream. 2471

2472

5.2.9.2 Trade 2473

Figure 17 gives an overview of total amounts of industrial liquid waste concen-2474 trates traded by the EU-27 in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given separately for 2475 the categories: extra-EU trade, import and export; and trade among EU-27, im-2476 port and export. The quantities traded by those Member States responsible for 2477 more than 10% of the overall trade volume per category are displayed sepa-2478 rately. In addition to the absolute figures, in the right part of the figure the 2479 shares of the total traded amounts by individual MS are displayed. 2480

Imports and exports between EU Member States are at the same level as those 2481 traded with third countries. Member States most actively trading industrial liquid 2482 waste concentrates were Sweden, Germany and France. 2483

2484

Waste oils

Others



2485

Figure 17: Industrial liquid concentrates, Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, reference years 2004, 2486 2006 and 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a particular category are merged 2487 (“others”) (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 2488

2489

Table 23 demonstrates that both imports from other MS and imports from 2490 third countries increased from 2004 to 2008. 2491

2492

Table 35: Industrial Liquid Waste Concentrates - Trade EU27_total: Development over 2493 time (2004, 2006, 2008), in tonnes (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 2494



INDUSTRIAL LIQUID WASTE CONCENTRATES Import Export Import Export

2004 1.780 6.490 5.138 8.102

2006 17.664 8.742 3.089 10.015

2008 42.745 6.744 26.959 5.476

2495




2496 5.2.10 Wood Waste 2497

Figure 20 gives an overview on generation, trade and use of wood waste in the 2498 European Union. The amounts subjected to energy recovery operations are 2499 considered being the generation of the WDF wood waste. 2500

2501

2502

Figure 18: Indicative overview of generation, trade and use of wood waste; = 2503 WDF use; in 2008 or the latest year where data is available (different input and output 2504 sums are due to using different data sources; data source: Umweltbundesamt based on 2505 EUROSTAT Waste Statistics 2011 and EUROSTAT COMEXT database 2011) 2506

2507


Data Sources 2509

Data on generation and recovery of “07.5 Wood wastes” was extracted from 2510 Waste Statistics. 2511

Data for generation according to WStatR have to be reported for the EWC-Stat-2512 category “07.5 Wood wastes” separately for hazardous and non-hazardous 2513 waste. The LoW-codes allocated to the WDF “Wood waste” are consistent with 2514 the EWC-Stat-category “07.5 Wood wastes”. In the figures also quantities of 2515 wastes from forestry, bark, cork and sawdust are included in the figures. 2516

The Waste Statistics do not provide data on all different treatment categories for 2517 “07.5 Wood wastes”. The sole information on treatment available for “07.5 2518 Wood wastes” are amounts undergoing recovery operations (R2 - R11), how-2519 ever, only for non-hazardous wastes. 2520

In 2008, approximately 68 million tonnes of “Wood waste” were generated by 2521 EU-27 (cf. Table 36).The EU countries with the largest quantities generated 2522 were Germany and Finland with each more than 10 million tonnes, followed by 2523 France and Austria. 2524

Table 36: Generation and Use of “Wood wastes” per MS, for the reference year 2008, in 2525 tonnes (Source: Eurostat Waste Statistics 2011) 2526


Recovery (R2 – R11)(Tonnes)

Waste Statistics



Total Non-hazardous

Hazardous Non-hazardous

Belgium 1,572,775 1,530,924 41,851 564,543

Bulgaria 327,050 324,749 2,301 19,159

Czech Republic 248,256 234,157 14,099 n.d.*

Denmark 892,056 891,401 655 891,401

Germany 10,270,534 9,473,035 797,499 2,641,725

Estonia 1,288,169 1,288,145 24 318,817

Ireland 147,184 147,184 0 158,545

Greece 830,006 829,982 24 87,827

Spain 1,932,320 1,922,535 9,785 1,736,776

France 8,681,750 8,609,520 72,230 4,583,175

Italy 3,448,043 3,424,526 23,517 1,789,866

Cyprus 17,201 17,181 20 2,303

Latvia 87,267 86,987 280 450

Lithuania 231,373 231,363 10 59,996

Luxembourg 74,450 42,803 31,647 n.d.

Hungary 335,905 335,700 205 134,855

Malta 433 154 279 0

Netherlands 2,141,949 2,113,299 28,650 1,421,531

Austria 6,231,841 6,203,358 28,483 3,564,508

Poland 3,366,749 3,364,628 2,121 2,194,249

Portugal 2,010,148 1,930,806 79,342 981,368

Romania 1,805,150 1,801,250 3,900 761,296

Slovenia 470,248 469,706 542 165,393

Slovakia 629,430 628,989 441 150,580

Finland 12,477,463 12,403,828 73,635 114,647

Sweden 4,507,626 4,473,610 34,016 177,745

United Kingdom 4,398,220 4,374,462 23,758 2,271,850

EU-27 68,420,000 67,150,000 1,270,000 24,970,000


2528

According to EC (2003), in the Flemish Region wood waste from mills, panel 2529 production and furniture production is usually re-used in-house into panel 2530 production or burned to generate process energy on site. Wood waste from 2531 households or industrial sectors (i.e. construction/demolition, railway, others) 2532 was potentially available for energy recovery. The total quantity of wood waste 2533 in the Flemish Region is estimated to amount to 500,000 tonnes per year (1999 2534 basis); of which about 100,000 tonnes are from households, 150-250,000 ton-2535 nes from construction and demolition companies, 200,000 tonnes from other in-2536 dustries and 10,000 tonnes from the railway company, It was estimated that in 2537 the Flemish Region, around 200,000 tonnes were recycled while 240,000 t were 2538 co-incinerated or re-used as material after some pre-treatment (i.e., chipping 2539 and surface cleaning). 60,000 t had to be burnt in facilities complying with the 2540 Hazardous Waste Incineration Directive. 2541

Additional information related to WDF wood waste



In Ireland, 59,382 tonnes of wood waste (of which 24,682 tonnes packaging 2542 waste) generated in 2008 were used as a fuel according to the Irish National 2543 Waste Report 2008 (Irish EPA, 2009). According to EC (2003) the wood and 2544 wood products industry used about 80,727 t wood waste as fuel which is 2545 thought to be an on-site activity. This tonnage accounts for most of the waste 2546 that is reported to be used as a secondary fuel in Ireland. Some wood waste 2547 may be used as secondary fuel by other small scale users. There was no large 2548 scale commercial unit producing RDF fuel from wood waste. 2549

In Malta, wood waste separately collected in 2004 included 521 tonnes of 2550 wooden pellets according to MINISTRY FOR RESOURCES AND RURAL AFFAIRS 2551 (2009). These are commonly used as a secondary fuel. 2552

According to the Swedish EPA (2010) wood waste is the largest single waste 2553 item burnt (3.3 million tonnes in 2008), which is an important fuel for the bark-2554 fired boilers of the forest industry. 2555

DEFRA (2007) estimates, that 7.5 million tonnes of wood waste per year are 2556 produced in the UK. The vast majority (6 million tonnes or 80%) was disposed 2557 of in landfills then, 1.2 million tonnes (16%) were re-used and recycled. Only 0.3 2558 million tonnes (4%) were incinerated with energy recovery. Most wood waste 2559 arises in commercial and industrial waste streams, as well as from the construc-2560 tion and demolition sectors – where a study carried out for WRAP19 suggested 2561 arising of between 2 and 8 million tonnes. Municipal waste contains an esti-2562 mated 1.1 million tonnes of wood waste (around 3% of UK municipal solid 2563 waste). 2564

2565

Use of WDF wood waste 2566

According to JRC 2010 in 2004 approximately 35% of generated wood wastes 2567 were used for energy recovery operations. 2568

Based on wood wastes generation according to Waste Statistics and assuming 2569 the mentioned factor, the quantity of the WDF waste wood in 2008 is estimated 2570 being approximately 24,000,000 tonnes. 2571

Taking into account Waste Statistics information on quantities being subjected 2572 to other recovery operations (R2-R11) reveals that about 19,450,000 tonnes of 2573 waste wood were disposed of (including landfill and incineration without energy 2574 recovery). 2575

2576

As shown in Figure 19, the generation of wood waste in the EU27 amounted to 2577 85 -90 million tonnes in 2004 and 2006 decreased under 70 million tonnes in 2578 2008. 2579

2580

19 Waste and Resources Action Programme (UK), http://www.wrap.org.uk




2581 Figure 19: Development over time - Generation of Wood waste, EU27_total, for the 2582 reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2583

2584

Trends concerning generated amounts differ between Member States (compare 2585 Figure 20). Sweden has a great break in time series because generation de-2586 clines from approx. 22 million tonnes in 2006 to 4.5 million tonnes in 2008. 2587

2588

2589

2590 Figure 20: Development over time - Generation of Wood waste per MS, for the reference 2591 years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2592

2593



5.2.10.2 Trade 2594

2595

Figure 21 gives an overview on total amounts of wood waste traded by the EU-2596 27 in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given separately for the categories: Extra-2597 EU trade, import and export; Trade among EU-27, import and export. The quan-2598 tities traded by those Member States responsible for more than 10% of the 2599 overall trade volume per category are displayed separately. In addition to the 2600 absolute figures, in the right part of the figure the shares of the total traded vol-2601 ume by individual MS are displayed. 2602

Trade among MS and imports from third countries are at the same level; ex-2603 ports to third countries are much lower. Member States most actively trading 2604 wood waste are Austria, Belgium, Italy, Netherland, Sweden, Germany and 2605 Finland. 2606

2607

2608

Figure 21: Wood wastes, Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, reference 2609 years 2004, 2006 and 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a 2610 particular category are merged (“others”) (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 2611

2612

Table 37 shows that generally traded quantities of waste wood are increasing 2613 over the years. (Low) exports to third countries remain at the same level. 2614

2615

Table 37: Wood waste - Trade EU27_total: Development over time (2004, 2006, 2008), 2616 in tonnes (Eurostat COMEXT Database 2011) 2617



WOOD WASTE


2004 1,363,235 168,902 3,189,343 2,945,741

2006 1,480,555 145,033 4,874,426 4,325,715

2008 2,017,307 174,347 5,746,650 4,701,660

2618

2619




5.2.11 Waste Tyres, Waste Rubber 2620

Figure 22 gives an overview on generation, trade and use of waste tyres, rubber 2621 in the European Union. The amounts subjected to energy recovery operations 2622 are considered being the generation of the WDF waste tyres, waste rubber. 2623

2624

Figure 22: Indicative overview of generation, trade and use of waste tyres, rubber; 2625 = WDF use in 2008 or the latest year where data is available (different sums for 2626 input and output are due to different data sources used; data sources: Umweltbunde-2627 samt based on ETRMA 2010 and EUROSTAT COMEXT Database 2011) 2628

2629


Data Sources 2631

Data on generation and recovery of “07.3 Rubber wastes” was extracted 2632 from Eurostat waste statistics. 2633

The LoW-codes allocated to the WDF “Waste Tyres, Waste Rubber” are consis-2634 tent with the EWC-Stat-category “07.3 Rubber Wastes” of Annex III of WStatR 2635 which comprises only the LoW-code for "end-of-life tyres". 2636

Waste statistics do not provide data on all different treatment categories for 2637 “07.3 Rubber wastes”. The only information available on treatment for “07.3 2638 Rubber wastes” is the amounts undergoing recovery operations (R2 - R11). 2639

Table 38 shows the generated amounts of “07.3 Rubber wastes”. In 2008 2640 around 3.8 million tonnes were generated by EU-27. 2641

Table 38: Generation and Use of “Rubber wastes” per MS, for the reference year 2008, 2642 in tonnes (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2643

GENERATION USE Member State

Generation (Tonnes)

Recovery (R2 –R11) (Tonnes)

Belgium 106,150 13,284

Bulgaria 15,978 50,122

Czech Republic 14,261 35,986

Denmark 51,266 51,266

Germany 470,192 234,189

Estonia 16,620 1,209

Waste Statistics




Generation (Tonnes)


Ireland 223 19,002

Greece 53,000 34,844

Spain 425,148 286,153

France 357,970 178,985

Italy 179,212 133,579

Cyprus 6,500 209

Latvia 989 40

Lithuania 25,275 12,293

Luxembourg 3,614 0

Hungary 45,000 18,182

Malta 2,052 2,052

Netherlands 153,769 117,654

Austria 57,555 30,000

Poland 67,153 107,570

Portugal 1,054,295 78,552

Romania 17,501 818

Slovenia 11,009 n.d.*

Slovakia 19,041 6,701

Finland 2,207 22,152

Sweden 48,824 3,838

United Kingdom 541,437 32,449

EU-27 3,750,000 1,480,000


2645

More detailed information on the treatment of end-of-life tyres is available from 2646 the European Tyre & Rubber Manufacturers´ Association (ETRMA). Data on 2647 arisings and quantities sent for energy recovery in 2009 are given in Table 39 2648 (data for 2008 is not available). 2649

Germany (266,000 tonnes per year) followed by Italy and France (each 180,000 2650 tonnes per year) use the largest amounts of their waste tyres for energy recov-2651 ery. 2652

Table 39: Generation* and energy recovery of end of life tyres in 2009 (Source: 2653 ETRMA 2010) 2654

MS Generation* (t/year)

Energy Recovery (t/year)

Belgium 78,000 22,000

Bulgaria 32,000 n.d.**


Denmark 40,000 n.d.

Germany 571,000 266,000

Additional information related to WDF waste tyres, waste rubber



MS Generation* (t/year)

Energy Recovery (t/year)

Estonia 6,000 2,000

Ireland 32,000 n.d.

Greece 61,000 15,000

Spain 280,000 115,000

France 364,000 180,000

Italy 416,000 180,000

Cyprus 8,000 n.d.

Latvia 6,000 2,000

Lithuania 7,000 2,000

Luxembourg n.d. n.d.

Hungary 40,000 19,000

Malta 1,000 n.d.


Austria 53,000 26,000

Poland 259,000 190,000

Portugal 89,000 22,000

Romania 49,000 28,000

Slovenia 13,000 n.d.

Slovakia 19,000 1,000

Finland 41,000 0

Sweden 70,000 41,000


EU-27 3,121,000 1,261,000

*) “Arising” 2655 **) n.d.: no data available 2656 2657

2658

Use of WDF waste tyres 2659

For estimating the quantities of the WDF waste tyres/waste rubber, the amounts 2660 of end-of-life tyres sent to energy recovery according to ETRMA (2010) (cf. 2661 Table 39) were used, because they provide information on amounts that are 2662 subjected to energy recovery. Besides, ETRMA figures for Portugal seem – tak-2663 ing into account the size of the country - more plausible than those of Waste 2664 Statistics. 2665

Figure 23 shows that generated amounts of the waste category rubber 2666 wastes of EU_27 are definitely increasing examining the time period from 2667 2004 to 2008. 2668

2669




2670 Figure 23: Development over time – Generation of rubber wastes, EU27_total, for the 2671 reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2672

2673

2674 Figure 24: Development over time – Generation of Rubber wastes per MS, for the 2675 reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2676

2677

5.2.11.2 Trade 2678

Figure 25 gives an overview on total amounts of waste tyres traded by the EU-2679 27 in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given separately for the categories: Extra-2680 EU trade, import and export; Trade among EU-27, import and export. The quan-2681 tities traded by those Member States responsible for more than 10% of the 2682 overall trade volume per category are displayed separately. In addition to abso-2683 lute data, in the right part of the figure the shares of the total traded volume by 2684 individual MS are displayed. 2685



Trade among MS and exports from third countries are at the same level; im-2686 ports to third countries are comparably lower. Member States most actively 2687 trading wood waste were Germany, Belgium, Italy, Netherland, France, Finland 2688 and Spain. 2689

2690

2691

Figure 26: Waste tyres, waste rubber, Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, reference years 2004, 2692 2006 and 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a particular category are merged 2693 (“others”) (EUROSTAT, COMEXT database, 2011) 2694

2695

Figure 26 and Table 40 demonstrate that traded quantities of waste tyres in-2696 creased over the years. 2697

2698

Table 40: Waste Tyres, Waste Rubber - Trade EU27_total: Development over time 2699 (2004, 2006, 2008), in tonnes (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 2700



WASTE TYRES, WASTE RUBBERS


2004 60,856 54,128 224,269 179,149

2006 99,069 212,999 310,009 262,995

2008 105,844 272,827 286,880 295,987

2701

2702

5.2.12 Waste Plastics 2703

Figure 27 provides an overview on generation, trade and use of waste plastics 2704 in the European Union. The amounts subjected to energy recovery operations 2705 are considered being the generation of the WDF waste plastics. 2706




2707

Figure 27: Indicative overview on generation, trade and use of waste plastics; 2708 = WDF use; in 2008 or the latest year where data is available (data differences 2709 between input sum and output sum are due to the fact that these data were taken from 2710 different sources; data sources: Umweltbundesamt based on EUROSTAT Waste Statis-2711 tics 2011 and EUROSTAT COMEXT Database 2011) 2712

2713

2714


Data Sources 2716

Data on generation and recovery of “07.4 Plastics wastes” was extracted from 2717 Eurostat waste statistics. 2718

In Annex III of WStatR the EWC-Stat-category “07.4 Plastic wastes” is divided 2719 into the subgroups “07.41 Plastic packaging wastes” and "07.42 Other plastic 2720 wastes”. Data on generation are available for “07.4 Plastic wastes”. 2721

The LoW-codes allocated to the WDF “Waste Plastics (production residues and 2722 separately collected packaging waste)” are consistent with the EWC-Stat-2723 category “07.4 Plastic wastes”. 2724

The waste statistics do not provide data on all different treatment categories for 2725 “07.4 Plastic wastes”. The sole information on treatment available for “07.4 2726 Plastic wastes” are amounts undergoing recovery operations (R2 - R11), how-2727 ever. 2728

In 2008, approximately 15 million tonnes of plastic wastes were generated in 2729 the European Union. The United Kingdom generates the largest amount with 2730 2.48 million tonnes, followed by Germany, Spain, Italy, France and Belgium with 2731 each more than 1 million tonnes. 2732

2733

2734

Table 41: Generation and Recovery of Plastic Waste, for the reference year 2008, in 2735 tonnes (Eurostat Waste Statistics 2011) 2736



Belgium 1,074,910 99,001





Bulgaria 72,972 22,377


Denmark 72,692 72,692

Germany 1,936,296 1,387,330

Estonia 93,713 7,459

Ireland 39,128 28,535

Greece 672,636 30,255

Spain 1,903,919 1,709,243

France 1,551,260 183,048

Italy 1,608,694 1,357,410

Cyprus 68,365 7,161

Latvia 8,556 12,761

Lithuania 30,555 35,890

Luxembourg 19,562 n.d.*

Hungary 150,309 57,505

Malta 2,370 1,015


Austria 640,521 66,777

Poland 407,164 1,090,557

Portugal 570,913 106,568

Romania 416,502 30,009

Slovenia 47,275 26,090

Slovakia 94,192 40,876

Finland 87,033 6,286

Sweden 223,251 51,090

United Kingdom 2,488,759 256,722

EU-27 14,920,000 7,150,000


2738

2739

Use of WDF waste plastics 2740

Based on data available from Waste Statistics and Foreign Trade Statistics a 2741 maximum quantity of waste plastics derived fuel was estimated. Quantities that 2742 are subjected to recovery (R2 - R11) were subtracted from the total generation 2743 of plastics waste (cf. Table 42). 2744

2745

2746

Table 42: Quantities of waste plastics not subjected to recovery 2747

Member State Quantity (Tonnes)






Belgium 975,909 Luxembourg n.d.* Bulgaria 50,595 Hungary 92,804


Denmark 0 Netherlands 82,451


Estonia 86,254 Poland 0




France 1,368,212 Slovakia 53,316




Lithuania 0 EU-27 8,474,776


2749

The calculated amounts include quantities of waste plastics being incinerated, 2750 being disposed of and exports. Net exports of waste plastics out of the EU 2751 (1,997,102 tonnes) amounted to approximately 13 % compared to total genera-2752 tion in 2008 (cf. chapter 5.2.12.2). Considering the net exports, which are fur-2753 thermore assumed consisting of plastics subjected to material recycling, the use 2754 of WDF waste plastics is estimated to be 6,477,674 tonnes. These are as-2755 sumed being predominantly post-consumer and mixed plastics fractions and 2756 also those plastics containing substances, which - according to environmental 2757 legislation – shall be discharged from products. Homogeneous production resi-2758 dues, separately collected types of plastics and such which are easily to sort 2759 into individual plastic types are usually subjected to material recycling. 2760

According to Eurostat Waste Statistics, the generation of waste plastics in-2761 creased from under 12 million tonnes in 2004 to nearly 15 million tonnes in 2762 2008 (cf. Figure 28). 2763

2764




2765 Figure 28: Development over time – Generation of Plastics waste, EU27_total, for the 2766 reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat Waste Statistics 2011) 2767

In Germany, Spain, France and Italy the amount of waste plastics has been in-2768 creasing since 2004. In UK and Portugal the generated amount decreased from 2769 2006 to 2008 (see Figure 29). 2770

2771

2772 Figure 29: Development over time - generation of waste plastics (production residues 2773 and separately collected packaging waste) per MS, for the reference years 2008, 2006 2774 and 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2775

2776

5.2.12.2 Trade 2777

Figure 30 gives an overview on total amounts of waste plastics traded by the 2778 EU-27 in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given separately for the categories: Ex-2779 tra-EU trade, import and export; Trade among EU-27, import and export. The 2780



quantities traded by those Member States responsible for more than 10% of the 2781 overall trade volume per category are displayed separately. In addition to the 2782 absolute figures, in the right part of the figure the shares of the total traded vol-2783 ume by individual MS are displayed. 2784

Trade among MS and exports from third countries are at the same level; im-2785 ports to third countries are comparably lower. Member States most actively 2786 trading wood waste were Germany, Belgium, Italy, Netherland, France, UK and 2787 Denmark. 2788

2789

2790

Figure 30: Waste plastics, Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, reference 2791 years 2004, 2006 and 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a 2792 particular category are merged (“others”) (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 2793

2794

Trade of waste plastics among EU-27 MS and with third countries increased 2795 from 2004 to 2008: Imports from third countries increased from 145,909 tonnes 2796 to 242,958 tonnes, exports to non EU Member States increased from 1,519,041 2797 tonnes to 2,240,060 tonnes. Trade among EU-27 MS nearly doubled. 2798

2799

Table 43: Waste Plastics (Production Residues) from - Trade EU27_total: Development 2800 over time (2004, 2006, 2008), in tonnes (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 2801



WASTE PLASTICS


2004 145,909 1,519,041 864,299 856,791

2006 255,789 2,102,308 1,285,188 1,039,396

2008 242,958 2,240,060 1,528,411 1,367,848

2802

2803

2804

2805

2806




5.2.13 Waste Paper 2807

Figure 31 provides an overview on generation, trade and use of waste paper in 2808 the European Union. The amounts subjected to energy recovery operations are 2809 considered being the generation of the WDF waste paper. 2810

2811

Figure 31: Indicative overview on generation, trade and use of waste paper; = 2812 WDF use; in 2008 or the latest year where data is available (differences between input 2813 sum and output sum are due to different data sources used; Source: Umweltbundesamt 2814 based on EUROSTAT Waste Statistics 2011 and EUROSTAT COMEXT database 2011) 2815

2816


Data sources 2818

Data on generation and recovery of “07.2 Waste Paper” was extracted from 2819 Waste Statistics. 2820

Data on generation has to be reported for the EWC-Stat-category “07.2 Paper 2821 and cardboard wastes”. The LoW-codes allocated to the WDF “Waste Paper” 2822 are consistent with the EWC-Stat-category “07.2 Paper and cardboard wastes”. 2823

Table 44 shows the generated amounts for the reference year 2008: 58.7 mil-2824 lion tonnes were generated by EU-27. 2825

United Kingdom is the largest producer of waste paper with more than 12 mil-2826 lion tonnes, followed by Germany, France, Italy and Spain. 2827

Table 44: Generation and Use of Paper and Cardboard wastes, for the reference year 2828 2008, in tonnes (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2829


Generation (Tonnes)


Belgium 3,542,574 573,666

Bulgaria 109,991 196,234


Denmark 782,386 782,386

Germany 9,981,698 5,908,394

Estonia 159,295 35,078

Waste Statistics




Generation (Tonnes)


Ireland 33,524 5,580

Greece 729,179 440,371

Spain 4,732,556 5,059,723

France 6,899,000 5,659,246

Italy 5,160,681 4,449,739

Cyprus 153,027 23,376

Latvia 9,670 19,473

Lithuania 109,029 146,065

Luxembourg 104,668 n.d.*

Hungary 590,524 353,612

Malta 4,169 2,834

Netherlands 2,919,366 2,267,551

Austria 1,524,865 1,400,971

Poland 1,158,495 1,326,397

Portugal 2,441,059 302,791

Romania 546,408 325,465

Slovenia 199,521 380,125

Slovakia 218,704 102,030

Finland 805,621 468,336

Sweden 2,292,088 2,339,399

United Kingdom 12,802,975 5,429,961

EU-27 58,710,000 38,260,000


2831

2832

Use of the WDF Waste Paper 2833

Based on data available from Waste Statistics and Foreign Trade Statistics a 2834 maximum quantity of fuel derived from waste paper was estimated. Quantities 2835 subjected to recovery (R2 - R11) were subtracted from the total generation of 2836 waste paper (cf. Table 45). 2837



2838 2839

Table 45: Quantity of waste paper not subjected to material recovery in 2008 (Sources: 2840 Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011; own assumptions) 2841



Belgium 2,968,908 Luxembourg :

Bulgaria 0* Hungary 236,912




Estonia 124,217 Poland 0

Ireland 27,944 Portugal 2,138,268


Spain 0 Slovenia 0



Cyprus 129,651 Sweden 0


Lithuania 0 EU-27 20,450,000 *) when reported amounts in the waste statistics for “Recovery (R2-R11)” are higher than for 2842

“Generation”; the figure is set out to be 0. 2843 2844

The calculated amounts not being subjected to recovery include the amounts of 2845 waste paper which are presently disposed and exports of waste paper to third 2846 countries. Net exports of waste paper out of EU (10,153,759 tonnes) amounted 2847 to approximately 17 % compared to total generation in 2008 (cf. chapter 2848 5.2.13.2). Considering these exports (which are not available for becoming a 2849 WDF within the EU), the generation of WDF waste paper presently accounted 2850 for 10,296,241 tonnes in 2008. 2851

2852

Figure 32 shows that generated amounts of waste paper in the EU slightly 2853 increased from 2004 to 2006 and decreased in 2008. 2854

2855




2856 Figure 32: Development over time - Generation of Paper and Cardboard waste, 2857 EU27_total, for the reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat Waste 2858 Statistics 2011) 2859

2860

Figure 33 shows the generation of paper and cardboard waste in EU-27 MS. 2861

2862

2863 Figure 33: Development over time - Generation of paper and cardboard waste per MS, 2864 for the reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (Source: Eurostat, Waste 2865 Statistics, 2011) 2866

2867

2868



5.2.13.2 Trade 2869

Figure 34 and Table 46 show the amounts of waste paper traded by the EU-27 2870 Member States in 2004, 2006 and 2008. In 2004 about 9 million tonnes, in 2006 2871 about 10 million tonnes and in 2008 about 11 million tonnes were traded among 2872 EU-27 MS. EU countries with the largest quantities of waste paper imported 2873 from other Member States were Germany (nearly 3 million tonnes), Netherlands 2874 (more than 2.4 million tonnes) as well as Belgium, Spain and Austria with more 2875 than 1 million tonnes each (cf. Figure 34). 2876

Comparably lower amounts (approximately 1 million tonnes in 2008) were im-2877 ported from outside the EU. Imports from third countries increased from 2878 848,880 tonnes in 2004 to 1,021,321 tonnes in 2008. 2879

11 million tonnes of Waste Paper were exported to third countries in 2008 com-2880 pared to 6.3 million in 2004. UK with approximately 3.8 million tonnes and the 2881 Netherlands with nearly 2.5 million tonnes were the most important importers to 2882 third countries. 2883

2884

2885

Figure 34: Waste paper, Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, reference years 2004, 2006 and 2886 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a particular category are merged (“others”) 2887 (Eurostat COMEXT Database 2011) 2888

2889

Trade of waste paper is in general increasing. Comparably lower imports from 2890 third countries remained at the same level. 2891

2892

Table 46: Waste Paper - Trade EU27_total: Development over time (2004, 2006, 2008), 2893 in tonnes (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 2894

WDF EXTRA-EU Trade (tonnes)

TRADE AMONG EU-27 (tonnes)

WASTE PAPER Import Export Import Export

2004 848,880 6,252,173 8,936,142 8,865,182

2006 902,018 8,251,132 10,417,130 10,034,559

2008 1,021,321 11,175,080 11,206,368 10,789,449

2895



5.2.14 Waste Textiles 2896

Figure 35 provides an overview on generation, trade and use of waste textiles in 2897 the European Union. The amounts subjected to energy recovery operations are 2898 considered being the generation of the WDF waste paper. 2899

2900

Figure 35: Indicative overview on generation, trade and use of waste textiles; = 2901 WDF use; in 2008 or the latest year where data is available (Source: Umweltbundesamt 2902 based on EUROSTAT Waste Statistics 2011 and EUROSTAT COMEXT database 2011) 2903

2904


Data sources 2906

Data on generation and recovery of “07.6 Textile wastes” were extracted from 2907 Waste Statistics. The LoW-codes allocated to the WDF “Waste Textiles” are 2908 largely consistent with the EWC-Stat-category “07.6 Textile wastes”. 2909

The total European generation accounts for more than 3 million tonnes. 2910

Table 47: Generation and Recovery (R2-R11) of Textile waste, for the reference year 2911 2008, in tonnes (Eurostat Waste Statistics 2011) 2912

Member States Generation (Tonnes)


Belgium 166,129 11,048

Bulgaria 10,926 883


Denmark 21 0

Germany 212,632 98,864

Estonia 4,882 71

Ireland 5,111 2,514

Greece 5,468 2,420

Spain 138,476 51,928

France 391,050 370,079

Italy 540,975 232,905

Cyprus 41,681 76

Latvia 319 0

Waste Statistics



Member States Generation (Tonnes)


Lithuania 5,461 1,093

Luxembourg 5,489 0

Hungary 12,582 674

Malta 0 0


Austria 141,973 35,460

Poland 83,579 33,941

Portugal 774,747 81,309

Romania 19,093 4,429

Slovenia 9,830 n.d.*

Slovakia 14,530 2,289

Finland 8,116 38,974

Sweden 19,958 0


EU-27 3,090,000 1,210,000


2914

According to EC (2003) in Belgium 90% of separately collected textile waste 2915 were re-used while 10 % were landfilled or burnt. Between 20,000 and 2916 25,000 tonnes per year of carpet waste were generated in Belgium at that 2917 time. Around 5,000 t were recycled. Carpet wastes have a high calorific 2918 value and were co-incinerated in (non-specialised) industrial plants (10,000 2919 t). However the parameters such as Sb, Cr and Zn must be controlled. About 2920 5,000 t had to be burnt in special waste incineration plants. 2921

According to DEFRA (2007), in UK approximately 300,000 tonnes of post-2922 consumer household textiles are recovered annually, of which 54% are ex-2923 ported for re-use overseas, 13% are re-used in the UK, 19% are recycled in the 2924 UK, 8% are recycled overseas and 6% are disposed of in landfill. 2925

For the German market, an amount of about 10% of the collected waste textiles 2926 going to either incineration or landfill is reported, while about 40% of the col-2927 lected material are resold and reused (cf. Chapter 6.15). 2928

2929

Use of WDF Waste Textiles 2930

Based on data available from Waste Statistics and Foreign Trade Statistics, the 2931 use of the WDF waste textiles was estimated. 2932

Quantities subjected to recovery (R2 - R11) were subtracted from the total gen-2933 eration of textiles waste (cf. Table 47). 2934

Table 48: Quantity of waste textiles not subjected to material recovery of waste textiles 2935 for incineration in 2008 (own assumptions based on Eurostat, Waste Statics, 2011) 2936



Additional information related to WDF Waste textiles













Spain 86,548 Slovenia :


Italy 308,070 Finland 0 (e)



Lithuania 4,368 EU-27 1,880,000

(e) when reported amounts in the waste statistics for “Recovery (R2-R11)” are higher than for 2937 “Generation”; the figure is set out to be 0. 2938

2939

These amounts include the amounts of waste textiles which are presently dis-2940 posed of and exports of waste textiles to third countries. Net exports of waste 2941 textiles out of the EU (729,108 tonnes) amounted to approximately 23 % of total 2942 generation in 2008 (cf. 5.2.14.2). Considering the net exports (which are not 2943 available for becoming a WDF), the maximum amount of waste textiles avail-2944 able for energy recovery would be 1,150,892 tonnes in 2008. 2945

As this sum contains also reused textiles, and considering the information on 2946 Member State level from additional sources given above, the amount of waste 2947 textiles that are incinerated is estimated to be in the range of 5% of collected 2948 waste textiles, i.e. 154,500 tonnes. 2949

2950

As shown in Figure 36 the generation of waste textiles in EU decreased from 2951 about 4.4 million tonnes in 2004 to about 3 million tonnes in 2008. 2952

2953




2954

Figure 36: Development over time - Generation of Textiles Waste, EU27_total, for the 2955 reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (EUROSTAT, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2956

France, Italy, Portugal and UK generated high amounts of textile waste from 2957 2004 to 2008. 2958

In some Member States (Belgium, Czech Republic, Portugal, Austria) the 2959 amount of generated waste textiles differs significantly from one reference year 2960 to the other. 2961

2962

2963 Figure 37: Development over time – Generation of Waste Textiles per MS, for the 2964 reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (EUROSTAT, Waste Statistics, 2011) 2965

2966



5.2.14.2 Trade 2967

Figure 38 gives an overview on total amounts of waste textiles traded by the 2968 EU-27 in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given separately for the categories: Ex-2969 tra-EU trade, import and export; Trade among EU-27, import and export. The 2970 quantities traded by those Member States responsible for more than 10% of the 2971 overall trade volume per category are displayed separately. In addition to the 2972 absolute figures, in the right part of the figure the shares of the total traded vol-2973 umes by individual MS are displayed. 2974

Trade among MS and exports from third countries are at the same level; im-2975 ports to third countries are comparably lower. Member States most actively 2976 trading wood waste were Germany, Belgium, Italy, Netherland, France, UK, 2977 Spain and Poland. 2978

2979

2980

Figure 38: Waste textiles, Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, reference 2981 years 2004, 2006 and 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a 2982 particular category are merged (“others”) (EUROSTAT, COMEXT database, 2011) 2983

It can be assumed that the traded amounts of waste textiles are predominantly 2984 subjected to reuse and recycling (cf. HANER & BARTL, 2010; WER-ENTSORGT-2985 WAS.DE, 2011). 2986

Export of waste textiles to third countries increased over the years 2004 to 2987 2008. Trade among Member States and imports from third countries remained 2988 at the same level. 2989

2990

Table 49: Waste Textiles - Trade EU27_total: Development over time (2004, 2006, 2991 2008), in tonnes (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 2992



WASTE TEXTILES Import Export Import Export

2004 325,299 781,461 907,271 914,625

2006 339,088 883,832 929,238 997,088

2008 298,048 1,027,156 955,456 926,128

2993




5.2.15 Biowaste (as defined by WFD) 2994


Data Sources 2996

Specific data on generation and use of biowaste as defined by the WFD are 2997 not available from Waste Statistics. LoW codes allocated to “biowaste” are 2998 part of “09.12 Vegetal waste of food preparation and products”, “09.13 Mixed 2999 waste of food preparation and products” and “09.2 Green wastes”, which are 3000 reported aggregated by the EWC-Stat-group “09 (excl. 09.11, 09.3) Animal and 3001 vegetal waste” in the WStatR (compare Annex 2). However, these categories 3002 comprise also not suitable wastes, such as “sludges from washing and clean-3003 ing” and “wastes from forestry. 3004

Data on the amounts of bio- and green waste collected separately in 2005 3005 are available from Orbit/ECN (2008) (cf. Table 50). These data, however, 3006 suffer from the fact, that a consistent data collection on national level does 3007 not exist and organic waste streams from garden and parks are collected and 3008 treated in manifold ways. 3009

Table 50: Amounts of bio- and green waste collected separately (without home 3010 composting) in 2005 (Source: Orbit/ECN 2008; based on estimations provided by 3011 national experts) 3012

MS Biowaste (Tonnes)

Greenwaste (Tonnes)

Total (Tonnes)

Belgium n.d.1) n.d. 885,000 Bulgaria 0 0 0

Czech Republic 10,000 123,000 133,000

Denmark 38,000 737,000 775,000

Germany 4,084,000 4,254,000 8,338,000

Estonia 0 0 0

Ireland 52,000 71,000 123,000

Greece 0 2,000 2,000

Spain n.d. n.d. 308,000

France 300,000 2,400,000 2,700,000

Italy 2,050,000 380,000 2,430,000

Cyprus 0 0 0

Latvia 0 0 0

Lithuania 0 0 0

Luxembourg n.d. n.d. 52,000

Hungary n.d. n.d. 127,000

Malta2) 0 0 0

Netherlands 1,656,000 1,700,000 3,356,000

Austria 546,000 950,000 1,496,000

Poland n.d. n.d. 70,000

Portugal 24,000 10,000 34,000

Romania 0 0 0

Slovenia 0 0 0

Waste Statistics

Information related to WDF biowaste



MS Biowaste (Tonnes)

Greenwaste (Tonnes)

Total (Tonnes)

Slovakia 5,000 68,000 73,000 Finland 350,000 100,000 450,000

Sweden 125,000 250,000 375,000

United Kingdom n.d. n.d. 1,872,000 EU-27 23,598,000

1) n.d.: no data available 3013 2) According to the Maltese Waste Management Plan (Maltese MINISTRY FOR RESOURCES AND 3014

RURAL AFFAIRS (2009) in 2004 1,535 tonnes of green waste were collected. 3015 3016

Use of WDF Biowaste 3017

According to the Waste Framework Directive, biowaste means biodegradable 3018 garden and park waste, food and kitchen waste from households, restaurants, 3019 caterers and retail premises and comparable waste from food processing 3020 plants. 3021

It is assumed that the only fraction of biowaste being available as a solid WDF 3022 is the screening overflow from composting plants and pre-treatment before an-3023 aerobic digestion. 3024

Thus, data on separate collection of biowaste and green waste in 2005 (Or-3025 bit/ECN, 2008; Maltese MINISTRY FOR RESOURCES AND RURAL AFFAIRS, 2009) 3026 and an assumption of 5% screening overflow of biowaste destined for biological 3027 treatment (BMLFUW 2010) were used to estimate the potential of WDF from 3028 biowaste. Taking into account the efforts in recent years to increase separate 3029 collection of biowaste, the actual figures might be even higher. 3030

Data on the actual use of biowaste fractions as a fuel, or on the generation of 3031 certified WDF are not available. However, recent investigations in Germany 3032 (Fricke et al, 2009) indicate, that those fractions might have too high contents of 3033 impurities and too low energy contents to live up to common quality standards 3034 for WDF. 3035

Table 51: Use of WDF biowaste (as defined by WFD) for incineration (own assumptions 3036 based on ORBIT/ECN, 2008) 3037

MS Quantity (Tonnes)









Greece 100 Romania 0

Spain 15,400 Slovenia 0









Lithuania 0 EU-27 1,180,026 3038

5.2.15.2 Trade 3039

Biowaste according to the definition of the Waste Framework Directive, respec-3040 tively fuel derived thereof, is usually not transported over far distances because 3041 of the comparably low calorific value and high water content. Thus trade is ex-3042 pected to be low. 20 3043

3044

5.2.16 WDF derived from mixed non-hazardous waste (RDF) 3045

Figure 39 provides an overview on generation and use of sorting residues (as 3046 available from Waste Statistics) considered being the direct waste source for 3047 RDF in the European Union. The amounts subjected to energy recovery opera-3048 tions are considered being the generation of RDF. Comprehensive trade-data 3049 was not identified. 3050

The R1 and D10 shares might change in future, when the R1-Formula accord-3051 ing to the Waste Framework Directive will be applied to incineration plants. 3052

3053

3054

Figure 39: Overview on generation and use of sorting residues considered being the 3055 waste source for RDF; 3056 = WDF use; in 2008 or the latest year where data is available; comprehensive 3057 trade-data are not available (Source: Umweltbundesamt based on EUROSTAT, Waste Sta-3058 tistics, 2011) 3059

3060

20 Biodegradable residues from food production are traded in significant quantities, and COMEXT-

database contains data on traded quantities. As these residues do not fall under the definition of biowaste in WFD, COMEXT-trade data may not be regarded as relevant data source.




Data source 3062

Data on generation, energy recovery (R1) and incineration (D10) of the broad 3063 EWC-Stat-category “10.3 Sorting residues” were extracted from Waste Statis-3064 tics (Table 52). 3065

The LoW-codes allocated to “WDF from Municipal Solid Waste” and “WDF from 3066 Shredder Residues” are part of the EWC-Stat-category “10.3 Sorting residues” 3067 (separated into hazardous and non hazardous waste), Data for generation ac-3068 cording to WStatR have to be reported only for “10.3 Sorting residues”, thus a 3069 differentiation between “sorting residues from municipal solid waste” and 3070 “shredder residues” is not possible. 3071

In total more than 45 million tonnes of sorting residues were generated, Ger-3072 many and Italy together generating more than 50% of this amount. 3073

3074

Table 52: Generation and Use of “Sorting Residues”, for the reference year 2008, in 3075 tonnes (Eurostat Waste Statistics 2011) 3076


Generation(Tonnes)

Energy Recovery (R1)(Tonnes)

Incineration on land (D10)(Tonnes)

Belgium 884,209 93,640 308,140

Bulgaria 105,064 8,714 0

Czech Republic 227,889 19,959 28

Denmark 0 0 0

Germany 12,902,080 4,716,844 2,321,936

Estonia 38,618 11,911 0

Ireland 7,873 63 0

Greece 21,347 0 0

Spain 1,100,816 336,394 3

France 4,150,670 133,248 705,382

Italy 10,607,686 352,381 1,693,425

Cyprus 65 0 0

Latvia 4,558 7,215 0

Lithuania 4,686 0 0

Luxembourg 11,912 7,429 7,833

Hungary 166,458 37,452 607

Malta 7,446 0 436

Netherlands 820,470 115,064 100,604

Austria 534,175 580,430 0

Poland 2,861,541 380,650 56,081

Portugal 510,040 3,785 12,548

Romania 43,985 0 1

Slovenia 49,140 2,746 0

Slovakia 166,107 35,963 297

Waste Statistics




Generation (Tonnes)

Energy Recovery (R1)(Tonnes)

Incineration on land (D10) (Tonnes)

Finland 529,165 83,520 7

Sweden 2,297,986 473,806 0

United Kingdom 7,621,277 0 27,834

EU-27 45,680,000 7,400,000 5,240,000 3077

3078

According to EC (2007) the annual production of waste-derived fuel from 3079 MSW was estimated to account for 3,960,000 tonnes at mechanical treat-3080 ment plants and 3,540,000 at MBT-plants. However, data used for the esti-3081 mation in EC (2007) are derived from older studies (e.g. EC 2003). 3082

In 2006, in Germany the production of WDF derived from commercial waste 3083 amounted to 4 million tonnes (HOFFMAN & SCHINGNITZ 2009). 3084

According to the Irish National Waste Report 2008 (EPA, 2009), 26,234 tonnes 3085 of refuse derived fuel (of which 5,665 tonnes were derived from packaging 3086 waste) were generated in Ireland, of which 0,4 % were used as a fuel in Ireland, 3087 the remaining quantity was exported (90% to Sweden, 10% to the UK). 3088

According to EC (2003) there was no production of RDF from MSW in Luxem-3089 bourg at that time. 3090

In the UK, according to EC (2003) there were 3 plants dedicated to the produc-3091 tion of RDF from municipal solid waste. In 2001 in total 86,500 tonnes of RDF 3092 from MSW, commercial waste, source segregated coated paper and cardboard 3093 and wood wastes were generated. 3094

3095

Information on the quantities of materials from shredding of end-of-life vehi-3096 cles used for energy recovery were extracted from Eurostat publications 3097 based on reporting obligations pursuant to Commission Decision 3098 2005/293/EC. Thermal recovery however is not distinguished between incin-3099 eration at waste incineration plants with energy recovery and other installa-3100 tions. 3101

Table 53: Generation and thermal recovery of shredder light fraction and “other” 3102 materials from shredding of end-of-life vehicles in 2008 (Source: EUROSTAT, 2011) 3103

MS Generation1) (Tonnes)

Energy Recovery2) (Tonnes)

Belgium 15,899 1,134

Bulgaria 1,074 n.d.3)

Czech Republic 15,506 n.d.

Denmark 15,830 0

Germany 81,370 11,254

Estonia 871 0

Ireland 24,269 7,488

Greece 9,646 0

Additional information related to WDF from mixed non-hazardous wastes

Additional information related to WDF from shredder residues



MS Generation1) (Tonnes)

Energy Recovery2) (Tonnes)

Spain 121,864 12,717

France 186,935 5,495

Italy 239,728 17,766

Cyprus 0 n.d.

Latvia 638 0

Lithuania 458 n.d.

Luxembourg 0 0

Hungary 3,354 n.d.

Malta4 0 n.d.

Netherlands 21,136 0

Austria 10,286 5,284

Poland 1,311 138

Portugal 17,415 5,454

Romania 1,625 0

Slovenia 0 n.d.

Slovakia 2,008 0

Finland 18,386 0

Sweden 0 n.d.

United Kingdom 29,571 n.d.

EU-27 819,180 66,731 1) Generation of shredder residues was assumed to be the sum of recycling, recovery and 3104

disposal of “shredder light fraction” and “others” 3105 2) “Thermal recovery” 3106 3) n.d.: no data available 3107 3108

3109

Data on residues from WEEE-treatment destined for recovery were extracted 3110 from Eurostat publications based on reporting obligations related to the WEEE-3111 Directive. In 2008, approximately 196,000 tonnes were subjected to recovery. 3112

According to information from Austrian plant operators (Umweltbundesamt, 3113 2010) at least 27,000 tonnes of WDF from shredder residues were produced in 3114 2009 to be used by steel and cement industry. 3115

3116

Use of WDF from mixed non-hazardous wastes 3117

The amounts of “Sorting residues” subjected to energy recovery operations ac-3118 cording to Eurostat Waste Statistics are in the same order of magnitude as 3119 waste-derived fuels from mechanical treatment in MT and MBT plants (7.5 mil-3120 lion tonnes) as reported by EC (2007). According to Waste Statistics, 7.4 million 3121 tonnes of "Sorting residues" were subjected to treatment operations with energy 3122 recovery in 2008. 3123

The by far largest amount of such mixed waste was used by Germany (4.7 mil-3124 lion tonnes). 3125



It is assumed that that the majority of shredder residues result from shredding of 3126 end-of-life vehicles and WEEE. Compared to the total amount of "Sorting resi-3127 dues", WDF from shredder residues are considered a minor percentage of this 3128 group of WDFs. 3129

3130

Figure 40 shows that generation of sorting residues which are a source for 3131 WDF from MSW and shredder residues increased significantly from about 33 3132 million tonnes in 2004 to 45 million tonnes in 2008. 3133

3134

3135 Figure 40: Development over time - Generation of Sorting Residues and quantities used 3136 for incineration, EU27_total, for the reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes 3137 (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 3138

Figure 41 shows that most of the sorting residues are generated in Germany, 3139 France, Italy and UK. 3140

3141




3142 Figure 41: Development over time - Generation of Sorting Residues per MS, for the 3143 reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 3144

3145

5.2.16.2 Trade 3146

COMEXT database does not provide data on the trade of sorting residues as no 3147 suitable CN8-Code could be allocated to this waste stream respectively WDF 3148 from Municipal Solid Waste. 3149

Interviews, however, indicate that RDFs are traded among Member States to a 3150 certain degree. Examples are: Netherlands, Estonia, Latvia, Austria and Slova-3151 kia. Furthermore indication is given that low quality RDF are predominantly im-3152 ported by MS, where no or lower quality standards for wastes to be used for 3153 energy recovery are in place. 3154

3155

5.2.17 Animal By-products and derived products 3156

Figure 42 provides an overview on generation, trade and use of animal by-3157 products and derived products in the European Union. The amounts subjected 3158 to energy recovery operations are considered being the generation of the WDF 3159 animal by-products and derived products. 3160



3161

Figure 42: Overview on generation, trade and use of animal by-products and derived 3162 products; = WDF use; in 2008 or the latest year where data is available (differ-3163 ences in input sum and output sum are due to different data sources; Source: Umwelt-3164 bundesamt based on EUROSTAT, Waste Statistics, 2011 and EUROSTAT, COMEXT Data-3165 base, 2011) 3166

3167


Data sources 3169

Data on generation, recovery and disposal other than incineration of “09.11 3170 Animal waste of food preparation and products" were extracted from Euro-3171 stat Waste Statistics. 3172

The LoW-codes allocated to WDF “Animal by-products and derived products” 3173 are largely consistent with the EWC-Stat-category “09.11 Animal waste of food 3174 preparation and products”. 3175

In 2008 10.7 million tonnes of “09.11 Animal waste of food prepara-3176 tion/production” were generated in the EU. UK produced the largest amount 3177 with more than 2.5 million tonnes, followed by Spain, France and Poland. 3178

Table 54: Generation and Use of Animal waste of food preparation and production, for 3179 the reference year 2008, in tonnes (EUROSTAT, Waste Statistics, 2011) 3180


Generation (Tonnes)

Recovery (R2 –R11)(Tonnes)

Disposal other than in-cineration

(D1, D3, D4, D5, D12, D2, D6, D7, D12)

(Tonnes)

Belgium 498,265 227,733 0

Bulgaria 9,624 0 560

Czech Republic 66,112 n.d.* n.d.

Denmark 165,966 165,966 0

Germany 333,343 316,106 0

Estonia 59,830 7,564 348

Ireland 228,122 13,134 0

Greece 40,414 12,064 6,524

Waste Statistics




Generation(Tonnes)

Recovery (R2 –R11)(Tonnes)

Disposal other than in-cineration

(D1, D3, D4, D5, D12, D2, D6, D7, D12)

(Tonnes)

Spain 1,626,994 789,466 13,098

France 1,593,570 26,713 15,566

Italy 93,455 8,848 27

Cyprus 20,583 6,095 2,222

Latvia 35,985 9,558 0

Lithuania 85,761 62,089 9,183

Luxembourg 2,263 0 0

Hungary 252,752 81,330 35

Malta 8,857 0 3,983

Netherlands 506,935 194,642 887

Austria 433,700 144,700 0

Poland 1,583,196 734,574 127,060

Portugal 139,034 65,182 8,419

Romania 48,916 2,702 113

Slovenia 33,292 : 0

Slovakia 43,136 7,054 0

Finland 152,460 142,344 1,656

Sweden 145,015 147,558 343

United Kingdom 2,526,278 78,967 160,755

EU-27 10,730,000 3,250,000 350,000 *) n.d: no data available 3181 3182

Use of WDF Animal by-products 3183

Based on data available from Waste Statistics, quantities of WDF derived from 3184 animal by-products and derived products were calculated. 3185

Quantities subjected to recovery (R2 - R11) and to disposal other than incinera-3186 tion (D1, D3, D4, D5, D12; D2, D6, D7, D12) were subtracted from the total 3187 generation of "animal waste of food preparation and products". The calculated 3188 figures have to be interpreted as maximum quantities of WDF from animal by-3189 products as minor amounts incinerated without energy recovery are included as 3190 well. 3191

The most important users of animal by-products as a fuel are UK (2.3 million 3192 tonnes) and France (1.5 million tonnes). 3193

3194

Table 55: Use of WDF animal by-products and derived products, in 2008 (own 3195 assumptions based on Eurostat, Waste Statics, 2011) 3196









Czech Republic n.d.* Malta 4,874

Denmark 0** Netherlands 311,406





Spain 824,430 Slovenia n.d.



Cyprus 12,266 Sweden 0 (e)

Latvia 26,427 United Kingdom 2,286,556

Lithuania 14,489 EU-27 7,130,000 *) n.d.: no data available 3197 **) When reported amounts in the waste statistics for “Recovery (R2-R11)” and Disposal other than 3198

incineration are higher than for “Generation”; the figure is set out to be 0. 3199 3200

Figure 43 shows the generated amounts of animal by-products and derived 3201 products from 2004 to 2006. 3202

3203

3204 Figure 43: Development over time - Generation of Animal by-products and derived 3205 products, EU27_total, for the reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes (Eurostat, 3206 Waste Statistics, 2011) 3207




3208 Spain, France, Poland and UK reported the highest amounts of generated ani-3209 mal by-products (see Figure 44). 3210

3211

3212 Figure 44: Development over time - Generation of WDF from Animal by-products and 3213 derived products per MS, for the reference years 2008, 2006 and 2004, in tonnes 3214 (Eurostat, Waste Statistics, 2011) 3215

3216

5.2.17.2 Trade 3217

Figure 45 gives an overview on total amounts of animal by-products and de-3218 rived products traded by the EU-27 in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given sepa-3219 rately for the categories: Extra-EU trade, import and export; Trade among EU-3220 27, import and export. The quantities traded by those Member States responsi-3221 ble for more than 10% of the overall trade volume per category are displayed 3222 separately. In addition to the absolute figures, in the right part of the figure the 3223 shares of the total traded volume by individual MS are displayed. 3224

Trade among MS is comparably higher than trade with third countries. Member 3225 States most actively trading wood waste were Germany, Belgium, Italy, Nether-3226 land, France and Spain. 3227

3228



3229

Figure 45: Animal by-products and derived products. Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tons, refer-3230 ence years 2004, 2006 and 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a particular category 3231 are merged (“others”) (EUROSTAT, COMEXT database, 2011) 3232

3233

Exports of animal by-products and derived products to third countries in-3234 creased from 141,933 tonnes in 2004 to 476,535 tonnes in 2008. Trade 3235 among EU MS more than doubled from 1,107,203 tonnes in 2004 to 3236 2,887,908 tonnes in 2008. 3237

3238

Table 56: Animal by-products and derived products - Trade EU27_total: Development 3239 over time (2004, 2006, 2008), in tonnes, (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 3240



ANIMAL BY-PRODUCTS AND DERIVED PRODUCTS Import Export Import Export

2004 171,123 141,933 1,107,203 1,047,886

2006 158,409 303,975 1,227,891 1,126,725

2008 303,388 476,535 2,887,908 2,066,611

3241

3242

5.2.18 Dried/dewatered Municipal Sewage Sludge 3243

Figure 46 provides an overview on generation and use of municipal sewage 3244 sludge in the European Union. Comprehensive trade data was not identified. 3245 The amounts subjected to incineration operations can partly be considered be-3246 ing the generation of the WDF municipal sewage sludge. 3247




3248

Figure 46: Overview on generation, trade and use of municipal sewage sludge; 3249 = WDF-generation; in 2008 or the latest year where data is available; compre-3250 hensive trade-data was not identified (Source: Umweltbundesamt based on EUROSTAT, 3251 Water Statistics, 2011) 3252

3253


Data sources 3255

Specific data on generation and use of municipal sewage sludge are not avail-3256 able from Waste Statistics. The allocated LoW-code to WDF “Dried or dewa-3257 tered Municipal Sewage Sludge” is part of EWC-Stat-category “11.11 Sludges 3258 from treatment of public sewerage water”, which is part of the reported EWC-3259 Stat-group “11 (excl. 11.3) Common sludges” in the WStatR. 3260

But information on quantities of sewage sludge from urban waste water treat-3261 ment is available from water statistics published by EUROSTAT. Table 57 com-3262 piles generated quantities and the amounts having been incinerated (calculated 3263 from information on the percentage of incineration). The figures presented are 3264 those for 2008, or for the latest year available. For Portugal and Denmark, 3265 where information about the percentage of incineration is not available, 10% in-3266 cineration (average value of the remaining countries) was assumed. 3267

Table 57: Generation and use of sewage sludge from urban waste water treatment 3268 (Source: EUROSTAT, WATER STATISTICS, 2011) 3269

MS Generation1) (tonnes DM)

Incineration1,2) (tonnes DM)

Belgium 140,000 44,940

Bulgaria 43,000 0

Czech Republic 220,000 0

Denmark 140,000 14,140

Germany 2,049,000 1,012,206

Estonia 22,000 0

Ireland 88,000 0

Greece 136,000 0

Spain 1,156,000 43,928

France 1,087,000 182,616

Waste Statistics

Water Statistics



MS Generation1) (tonnes DM)

Incineration1,2) (tonnes DM)

Italy 1,056,000 30,624

Cyprus 8,000 0

Latvia 23,000 0

Lithuania 76,000 0

Luxembourg 13,000 0

Hungary 260,000 0

Malta 0,000 0


Austria 254,000 97,536

Poland 567,000 2,268

Portugal 189,000 19,089

Romania 79,000 0,000

Slovenia 20,000 4,545

Slovakia 56,000 0

Finland 160,000 0

Sweden 214,000 0

United Kingdom 1,814,000 288,426

EU-27 10,243,000 2,003,283 1) EUROSTAT: Water Statistics available at: 3270

http://epp,eurostat,ec,europa,eu/tgm/refreshTableAction,do?tab=table&plugin=1&pcode=3271 ten00030&language=en (extracted on Feb 28 2011) (Reference year 2008 except: DK, IE, CY, 3272 LV, LT, HU, PT, 2007; DE, NL; 2006, IT, SK, 2005; FI, 2000) 3273

2) Eurostat: Water Statistics available at: 3274 http://epp,eurostat,ec,europa,eu/statistics_explained/index,php/Water_statistics#Wastew3275 ater_treatment (extracted on Feb 28 2011) (Reference year 2007 except: MT, 2008; GR, ES, 3276 NL, AT, 2006; IT, CY, UK, 2005; BE, FR, HU, 2004; LU, 2003; SE, 2002; FI, 2000; DK and PT, 3277 not available) 3278

3279

Use of WDF municipal sewage sludge 3280

The use of WDF from municipal sewage sludge was estimated, based on the 3281 calculated amounts of MSW being incinerated. As part MSW may be inciner-3282 ated at waste incineration plants - with or without energy recovery – the actual 3283 annual use of WDF from municipal sewage sludge was estimated to be 3284 2,003,283 tonnes dry material at the most. 3285

Approximately half of the Member States do not incinerate municipal sewage 3286 sludge. Germany as the most important MS accounts for ~50% of total Euro-3287 pean incineration quantities. 3288

3289

5.2.18.2 Trade 3290

COMEXT database does not provide data on the trade of “Dried or dewatered 3291 Municipal Sewage Sludge” as no suitable CN8-Code could be allocated to this 3292 waste stream respectively to WDF derived thereof. 3293

Municipal sewage sludge used as a fuel is usually not transported over far dis-3294 tances because of the comparably low calorific value and high water content. 3295



Thus trade is expected to be low. For example in Austria, according to Umwelt-3296 bundesamt (2009), shipments account for less than 4.5% compared to the gen-3297 erated amounts. 3298

3299

5.2.19 Dried/dewatered Industrial Sewage Sludges 3300


Data sources 3302

Industrial sewage sludge is generated in several industrial sectors and often 3303 used on-site for energy recovery, e.g. in the pulp and paper industry. 3304

No comprehensive data on generation and use of industrial sewage sludges 3305 were identified. 3306

Specific data on generation and use of industrial sewage sludge are not avail-3307 able from Waste Statistics The allocated LoW-codes to the WDF “Dried or de-3308 watered Industrial Sewage Sludge” are parts of EWC-Stat-category “11.12 Bio-3309 degradable sludges from treatment of other waste water” and “03.21 Sludges 3310 from industrial processes and effluent treatment” which are part of different re-3311 ported EWC-Stat-groups (“11.3 Common sludges” and 03.2 Industrial effluent 3312 sludges) in the WStatR. 3313

A further aspect, which has to be considered is, that specific types of industrial 3314 sewage sludges might not be considered being waste. 3315

3316

5.2.19.2 Trade 3317

Figure 47 gives an overview on total amounts of industrial sewage sludge 3318 traded by the EU-27 in 2004, 2006 and 2008. Data is given separately for the 3319 categories: Extra-EU trade, import and export; Trade among EU-27, import and 3320 export. The quantities traded by those Member States responsible for more 3321 than 10% of the overall trade volume per category are displayed separately. In 3322 addition to the absolute figures, in the right part of the figure the shares of the 3323 total traded volume by individual MS are displayed. 3324

In 2008, 11,750 tonnes of dried or dewatered industrial sewage sludge were 3325 traded among EU-27 Member States while only 2.858 tonnes were imported 3326 from third countries (source: import statistics). Germany and Belgium imported 3327 the largest quantities of dried or dewatered industrial sewage sludge from other 3328 Member States. About 10,000 tonnes of dried or dewatered industrial sewage 3329 sludge were exported to third countries. 3330

3331



3332

Figure 47: Industrial sewage sludge. Trade EU27_Extra/Intra: Import and Export, in tonnes, reference years 2004, 3333 2006 and 2008. Member States trading < 10% of the total trade volume of a particular category are merged 3334 (“others”) (Eurostat, COMEXT database, 2011) 3335

3336

Trade of dried or dewatered industrial sewage sludge among EU27 MS de-3337 creased since 2004 as well as imports from third countries. Exports to third 3338 countries increased since 2004, but on the whole only small amounts of 3339 dried or dewatered industrial sewage sludge are traded. 3340

3341

Table 58: Dried or dewatered Industrial Sewage Sludge - Trade EU27_total: Develop-3342 ment over time (2004, 2006, 2008), in tonnes (EUROSTAT, COMEXT database, 2011) 3343

EXTRA-EU Trade (tonnes)

TRADE AMONG EU-27 (tonnes)

DRIED OR DEWATERED INDUSTRIAL SEWAGE SLUDGE Import Export Import Export

2004 19,894 6 48,366 767

2006 4,604 4,231 18,860 5,545

2008 2,858 9,819 11,750 5,395

3344

3345

3346




5.3 Use of WDFs in Relevant Sectors 3347

3348

Data tables 3349

Detailed data tables for WDF use in relevant sectors are given in tonnes per 3350 year or Nm3 per year, respectively. As additional information, in Annex 5 to the 3351 study at hand, these detailed data tables are given in TJ per year. 3352

Overview tables in this chapter are given in TJ per year for reasons of compa-3353 rability of aggregated data. 3354

EC 2007 gives an indicative overview about sectors and number of plants which 3355 co-incinerate waste. The numbers have to be seen in connection with the data 3356 gathering methodology: Data collection was effected via MS questionnaire, 3357 which was (completely or partly) answered by twenty-three Member States. The 3358 questionnaire already listed three specific sectors of co-incineration (production 3359 of energy, ferrous metals, and non-ferrous metals) and gave the Member States 3360 the opportunity to add other sectors, such as Ceramics/Clay aggregates, 3361 Chemical/Polymers, Cement, Lime, Fertiliser, Food, Waste oil incineration 3362 plants, Pulp and Paper, Wood industry. 3363

In some cases, the allocation of plant types to waste incineration or co-3364 incineration respectively may vary from MS to MS. For example, the main pur-3365 pose of the ten waste oil incineration plants given in Table 59 is to produce en-3366 ergy, but since they only use waste oil for co-incineration they have been men-3367 tioned in an extra entry. Contrary to this allocation, in Austria, waste oil being 3368 hazardous waste, plants for incinerating waste oil exclusively are generally re-3369 garded as waste incineration plants, even when generating energy, as all Aus-3370 trian waste incineration plants do; i.e. the approximately 10 waste oil incinera-3371 tion plants that are operated in Austria at the moment would not appear in this 3372 list of co-incineration plants. 3373

Table 59: Number of plants co-incinerating waste per sector, type and permitting status 3374 (Source: EC 2007) 3375

Number of plants falling under the Waste Incineration Dir. Plant type

Sum of plants

Sum permitted

Sum new plants

Sum new permitted

Sum existing plants

Sum existing

permitted

Cement 124 122 1 1 123 121

Ceramics 6 5 6 5

Chemicals 4 4 4 4

Energy industries (combustion plants)

193 181 21 21 172 160

Ferrous metal industry

4 4 4 4

Fertiliser 2 2 2 2

Food 1 1 1 1

Lime 11 9 4 2 7 7

Non-ferrous metal industry

6 6 6 6

Pulp and paper 19 19 4 4 15 15

Detailed TJ data in Annex 5



Number of plants falling under the Waste Incineration Dir. Plant type

Sum of plants

Sum permitted

Sum new plants

Sum new permitted

Sum existing plants

Sum existing

permitted industry

Waste oil incineration plants

10 10 10 10

Wood industry 14 14 2 2 12 12

Other sectors* 389 127 389 129

Total 783 504 32 30 751 474

*) “Other sectors” not specified in EC (2007) (“unknown”) 3376

3377

Table 60 gives an overview of WDFs that are incinerated in these sectors. 3378

3379

Table 60: WDFs incinerated in co-incineration plants of different industrial branches 3380

WDF Plant type

Bio

gas

Bio

dies

el

Bio

etha

nol

Syng

as

Pyro

lysi

s O

il, T

ar, C

oke

Was

te O

il

Indu

stria

l Liq

uid

Was

te

Edib

le O

il an

d Fa

t

Was

te S

olve

nts

Woo

d W

aste

Was

te T

yres

/Rub

ber

Was

te P

last

ics

Was

te P

aper

Was

te T

extil

es

RD

F / S

RF

Ani

mal

Fat

Mea

t and

Bon

e M

eal

Mun

icip

al S

ew. S

ludg

e

Indu

stria

l Sew

. Slu

dge

Cement X (X) X (X) X X (X) X X X X X

Ceramics X

Chemicals (X) X

Energy industries (Combustion plants) X (X) (X) X X X X X X X

Ferrous metal industry X X

Lime (Rotary kiln) X X X (X) X (X) (X) X X X X

Non-ferrous metal industry X

Pulp & paper industry (Autoproducer) X X X X X X X

Waste oil incineration plants X

Wood industry (X) X (X) (X)

Rendering industry X

3381

5.3.1 Public Thermal Power Stations 3382

Public thermal power stations generate electricity for sale to third parties, as 3383 their primary activity. They may be privately or publicly owned. This category 3384 comprises electricity plants, which are designed to produce electricity only, 3385

Eurostat Energy Statistics Data



and combined heat and power plants, which are designed to produce both heat 3386 and electricity. Heat plants, which are designed to produce heat only, belong to 3387 the category district heating plants. 3388

Table 62 shows the input to public thermal power stations of renewable fuels 3389 and waste in the European Union in the year 2008, in 1,000 t/a and 1,000 3390 Nm3/a, respectively. 3391

Weight data of liquid biofuels could be extracted from the Eurostat database on 3392 energy statistics. For the other fuels data is only reported in energetic units. 3393

As no country specific data for the lower calorific values of the respective fuels 3394 could be obtained from Eurostat, data were taken from the Austrian energy sta-3395 tistics for the year 2008. For biogas and for municipal waste one value was ap-3396 plied for all energy indicators, while for industrial waste and for wood, wood 3397 waste & other solid waste distinctly different values were extracted from the sta-3398 tistic for the transformation input and for the final energy consumption. For the 3399 latter fuel yet another different value was applied for the final energy consump-3400 tion of households. 3401

For public thermal power stations, as for other transformation input, the follow-3402 ing lower calorific values were used. 3403

Table 61: Lower calorific values of the covered fuels (Source: Austrian Energy Statistic 3404 for the year 2008) 3405

Fuel Lower Calorific Value

Wood, Wood Waste & Other Solid Waste 0.0094 TJ/t

Biogas 0,0256 TJ/1,000 Nm3

MSW 0,0098 TJ/t

Industrial Waste 0,0098 TJ/t

3406

Table 62: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year into Public Thermal Power 3407 Stations, reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3408


Biogas MSW Indus-trial Waste

Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 49,712 6,193,404 30,480 1,431 : : 1,193

Belgium 2,155 94,926 2,398 768 : : 17

Bulgaria : : : 0 : : :

Czech Republic

734 24,551 93 0 : : :

Denmark 2,114 53,318 1,132 : : : :

Germany 13,124 4,836,651 14,527 0 : : 997

Estonia 3 : : : : :

Ireland 16 42,350 : : : : :

Greece 0 46,253 : : : : :

Spain 674 4,059 1,061 0 : : :

France 0 0 838 : : : :

Primary data

LHV used from Austrian Energy Statistics





Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel


Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

Italy 3,925 633,724 5,159 81 : : 8

Cyprus : : : : : : :

Latvia 70 3,591 : : : : :

Lithuania 199 820 : : : : :

Luxemburg 0 0 162 : : : :

Hungary 2,526 : 394 7 : : :

Netherlands 2,262 24,200 0 0 : : 104

Austria 2,615 364,637 492 127 : : 24

Poland 3,245 0 : 385 : : :

Portugal 224 0 0 : : : :

Romania 0 : : 0 : : :

Slovenia 248 7,377 : : : : :

Slovakia : : : 2 : : :

Finland 6,031 36,378 476 24 : : :

Sweden 6,944 20,570 3,749 37 : : 43

United Kingdom

2,602 0 0 : : : :

3409

The major fuels used are wood, wood waste & other solid waste and municipal 3410 solid waste. As for all other uses covered by this report except for the final en-3411 ergy consumption of transport no data is reported for biogasoline and biodiesel. 3412

Germany is by far the biggest user of all covered fuels except for industrial 3413 waste for which no use is reported. Possibly some industrial waste is reported in 3414 the category municipal solid waste. Several countries use only minor amounts 3415 or don´t report data. 3416

In most EU countries wood, wood waste & other solid waste is used in public 3417 thermal power stations to some extent, the biggest users except for Germany 3418 being the Scandinavian countries. Germany accounts for nearly 80 %, Italy and 3419 Austria together for another 16 % of the European biogas input into public ther-3420 mal power stations. 3421

Municipal solid waste is particularly used in Germany, Italy, Sweden and Bel-3422 gium for public electricity production. Industrial Waste is only exploited in a few 3423 countries in public thermal power stations, especially in Belgium, Poland and 3424 Austria. 3425

Only six countries report data for other liquid biofuels, the biggest users being 3426 Germany and the Netherlands. 3427

Table 63 shows that the use of the covered fuels has increased considerably 3428 over time. Biogas rose most notably, almost tripling, while the use of indus-3429 trial waste doubled. But also the fuels that already were deployed in large 3430 amounts in 2004, wood, wood waste & other solid waste and municipal solid 3431 waste, performed well in the last couple of years rising by 61 and 82 %, respec-3432




tively. The use of other liquid biofuels increased by more than 20 % in the last 3433 two years while no data are available for the year 2004. 3434

Table 63: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year into Public Thermal Power Stations, 3435 development over time 2004-2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3436

EU-27 2004 2006 2008

Wood, Wood Waste & Other Solid Waste 288,953 360,407 466,174

Biogas 57,682 93,746 158,675

Municipal Solid Waste 164,291 214,371 299,077

Industrial Waste 6,959 8,892 14,019

Biogasoline : : :

Biodiesel : : :

Other Liquid Biofuels : 23,373 28,167

3437

The following shares of WDFs for each waste and renewable fuel category of 3438 the European energy statistics for the year 2008 were used. While municipal 3439 solid waste and industrial waste used energetically are 100 % WDFs other 3440 categories of the energy statistics also contain non-WDF fuels. The WDF share 3441 of “Wood, wood waste & other solid waste” is assumed to be 25 %, the rest be-3442 ing biomass. This value can be deducted from a comparison of waste statistics 3443 and energy statistics (cf. Table 7). The WDF share of biogas is calculated to be 3444 55 % (resulting from 100 % for sewage sludge gas and for landfill gas and 15 % 3445 for other biogas, respectively, cf. 5.2.1.1). For liquid biofuels a WDF share of 5 3446 % is assumed (cf. chapter 5.2.2.1). 3447

Table 64: Percentages of WDFs for each waste and renewable fuel category for the year 3448 2008 3449

EU-27 2008 Share of WDFs (%)

Wood, Wood Waste & Other Solid Waste 25

Biogas (Landfill Gas, Waste-derived share of AD incl. Sewage Sludge Gas)

55

Municipal Solid Waste 100

Industrial Waste 100

Liquid Biofuels 5

3450

Table 65 shows the fuel mix and the calculated WDF input into public thermal 3451 power stations in the European Union in the year 2008. 3452

Table 65: Fuel and WDF input in TJ/year into Public Thermal Power Stations in the year 3453 2008 (Source for fuel input: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3454

EU-27 2008 Fuel Input (TJ/year)

Fuel In-put (%)

Share of WDF (%)

WDF Input (TJ/year)

WDF Fuel Input (%)


466,174 3.0% 25% 116,544 0.8%

Biogas 158,675 1.0% 55% 87,271 0.56 %

MSW 299,077 1.9% 100% 299,077 1.9 %

Fuel Mix




Fuel In-put (%)

Share of WDF (%)

WDF Input (TJ/year)

WDF Fuel Input (%)

Industrial Waste 14,019 0.1% 100% 14,019 0.1 %

Other Liquid Biofuels 28,167 0.2% 5% 1,408 0.01 %

Solid Fuels 8,760,071 56.7%

Oil 665,928 4.3%

Gas 5,065,171 32.8%

Total 15,457,282 100.0% 518,319 3.35% 3455

Table 65 shows that WDFs currently only have a low share in public thermal 3456 power production. Between 3 and 4 % of fuel input into public thermal power 3457 stations stem from WDFs. 3458

Generally it is assumed that waste-derived fuels only substitute other fuels 3459 and that other sources of energy like wind, solar or nuclear energy are not 3460 substituted. 3461

To calculate the amount of substituted fuel energy it is necessary to regard 3462 each individual WDF. 3463

For solid WDFs there are basically two different ways of being thermally used in 3464 public thermal power stations. On the one hand part of wood waste, which is not 3465 subject to the waste incineration directive, is commonly burned in small to me-3466 dium scale CHP plants. While these plants have a low electrical efficiency of 3467 only a few up to about 30 % in most cases they are operated depending on the 3468 heat demand and therefore have a high thermal efficiency of up to 85 %. Thus, 3469 the electrical efficiency of decentralised wood-fired CHP plants is deemed to be 3470 not more than half of the electrical efficiency of central thermal power stations 3471 while the overall efficiency should be higher as most central power stations in 3472 the European Union are electricity only power plants. On the other hand wood 3473 waste and other solid waste like dewatered sewage sludge are co-fired in coal-3474 fired thermal power plants. Here the co-firing of WDFs leads to a slight de-3475 crease in the electrical efficiency of the power plant. No precise figures are 3476 available for the extent of the efficiency decrease. 3477

Biogas is usually converted to electricity without making use or making only little 3478 use of waste heat. On average biogas plants have an electrical efficiency of 3479 about 35 % (VOGT ET AL. 2008). It can be assumed that electricity from biogas 3480 substitutes demand-based power production which is basically electricity from 3481 coal and natural gas-fired thermal power stations (cf. Table 65). While the effi-3482 ciency of older coal-fired power plants is in the range of biogas plants the elec-3483 trical efficiency of new coal plants is about 45 % and the efficiency of new gas-3484 fired power plants is about 55 %. Thus, the 87 PJ of biogas per year can substi-3485 tute about 60-70 PJ per year of fossil fuels, mainly coal and natural gas. Up-3486 graded biogas fed into gas pipelines would obviously only substitute natural gas 3487 but this way of using biogas is currently of little relevance. 3488

Municipal solid waste is incinerated in dedicated installations. These plants 3489 usually have a low electrical efficiency of up to approximately 20 %. Further-3490 more, also the average efficiency for the combined heat and power production 3491 is not more than about 50 % (BREF WI, 2006). Assuming an electrical efficiency 3492 of 20 % for municipal waste plants and 45 % for coal-fired power plants, the 3493

Substitution of Fuels



299 PJ per year of municipal solid waste can only substitute less than half of 3494 this energy amount of coal. Even less energy is substituted if it was assumed 3495 that the electricity produced by MSW plants would otherwise be generated by 3496 modern gas-fired power plants. 3497

Industrial waste and liquid biofuels are of no particular relevance in this sector. 3498

3499

5.3.2 Autoproducer Thermal Power Stations 3500

Autoproducer thermal power stations generate electricity, wholly or partly for 3501 their own use as an activity which supports their primary activity. As with auto-3502 producer thermal power stations this category comprises electricity plants, 3503 which are designed to produce electricity only, and combined heat and power 3504 plants, which are designed to produce both heat and electricity. Heat plants, 3505 which are designed to produce heat only, belong to the category district heating 3506 plants. 3507

The following table shows the input to autoproducer thermal power stations of 3508 renewable fuels and waste in the European Union in the year 2008. 3509

Table 66: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year into Autoproducer Thermal 3510 Power Stations, reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3511

Wood, Wood Waste &

Other Solid Waste

Biogas MSW Indus-trial

Waste

Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 21,054 4,159,875 19,512 1,763 : : 599

Belgium 290 31,382 0 0 : : 15

Bulgaria : : : 9 : : :

Czech Re-public

429 73,849 68 13 : : :

Denmark 73 38,251 2,287 0 : : :

Germany 1,629 43,169 23 290 : : 568

Estonia 14 0 : : : :

Ireland 16 8,431 : : : : :

Greece 0 8,860 : 17 : : :

Spain 2,404 283,138 1,738 0 : : :

France 1,071 606,011 5,806 0 : : :

Italy 81 36,261 295 136 : : 11

Cyprus : : : : : : :

Latvia 0 7,728 : : : : :

Lithuania 0 1,756 : : : : :

Luxemburg 0 19,555 : 0 : : :

Hungary 6 16,081 0 : : : :

Netherlands 493 224,473 5,567 0 : : :

Austria 2,179 16,354 182 352 : : 5

Poland 611 117,760 39 93 : : :

Portugal 815 37,549 780 18 : : :

Romania 28 273 : 0 : : :




Wood, Wood Waste &

Other Solid Waste


Waste

Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

Slovenia 35 12,451 : 2 : : :

Slovakia 355 9,407 129 13 : : :

Finland 5,016 39 158 108 : : :

Sweden 4,481 0 : 10 : : 0

United Kingdom

1,030 2,567,096 2,441 702 : : :

3512

Of the covered fuels the major fuels in autoproducer thermal power stations are 3513 wood, wood waste & other solid waste and municipal solid waste. No data is re-3514 ported for biogasoline and biodiesel. 3515

In all countries that report data renewable fuels and waste are used in autopro-3516 ducer thermal power stations to some extent with remarkable differences. 3517

In most EU countries wood, wood waste & other solid waste is used in autopro-3518 ducer thermal power stations. The biggest users are the Scandinavian countries 3519 followed by Spain, Austria, Germany and France, which reported no use of 3520 these fuels for public thermal power stations. Primarily France utilizes Biogas as 3521 a fuel for autoproducer thermal power stations. 3522

France, the Netherlands, Denmark and the United Kingdom are the main users 3523 of municipal solid waste, while the United Kingdom and Austria are the main 3524 users of industrial waste. 3525

Again Germany is by far leading in incinerated quantities of other liquid biofuels. 3526 Only three other countries report some use, i.e. Belgium, Italy and Austria. 3527

Table 67 shows a slight but rather modest increase in the use of wood, wood 3528 waste & other solid waste, biogas and municipal solid waste – especially 3529 when compared to the rapid development of biomass exploitation in public 3530 thermal power stations. The use of industrial waste in autoproducer thermal 3531 power stations has collapsed between 2004 and 2006 and has since remained 3532 on a low level. This sharp decrease results from the development in Germany 3533 where the deployment of industrial waste went down from five-digit numbers up 3534 to 2004 to only a few TJ per year thereafter, the reason for which is unknown. 3535 Biofuels remained stable in the last three years. 3536

Table 67: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year into Autoproducer Thermal Power 3537 Stations, development over time 2004-2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3538

EU-27 2004 2006 2008

Wood, Wood Waste & Other Solid Waste 180.656 194.946 197.437

Biogas 84.191 88.660 106.576

Municipal Solid Waste 154.824 177.736 191.458

Industrial Waste 79.130 20.573 17.268

Biogasoline : : :

Biodiesel : : :




EU-27 2004 2006 2008

Other Liquid Biofuels : 13.265 12.997

3539

Table 68 shows the fuel mix and the calculated WDF input into autoproducer 3540 thermal power stations in the European Union in the year 2008. 3541

Table 68: Fuel and WDF input in TJ/year into Autoproducer Thermal Power Stations in 3542 the year 2008 (Source for fuel input: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3543


Fuel Input (%)

Share of WDF (%)

WDF Input (TJ/year)

WDF Fuel Input (%)


197,437 8.6% 25% 49,359 2.2%

Biogas 106,576 4.7% 55% 58,617 2.6 %

MSW 191,458 8.4% 100% 191,458 8.4 %


Other Liquid Biofuels 12,997 0.6% 5% 650 0.03 %

Solid Fuels 342,386 15.0%

Oil 212,760 9.3%

Gas 1,204,153 52.7%

Total 2,285,035 100.0% 317,352 13.89% 3544

Currently WDFs have a share of about 15 % of total fuel input into autoproducer 3545 thermal power stations. Combined they have about the same share as solid 3546 fossil fuels (15 %) and a higher share than liquid fossil fuels (9 %). The most 3547 important source of energy for autoproducer thermal power stations is natural 3548 gas (about 53 %). Industrial waste (0.8 %) has a higher share than in public 3549 thermal power stations, but still is not very relevant in this sector. 3550

Compared to public thermal power stations autoproducer thermal power sta-3551 tions in general have a lower electric efficiency but a higher overall efficiency, 3552 as usually both electricity and heat are used. 3553

According to the European energy statistics the most important WDF in auto-3554 producer thermal power stations is municipal solid waste. Although these instal-3555 lations tend to have higher overall efficiencies than public MSW plants their effi-3556 ciency is significantly lower compared to gas-fired autoproducer thermal power 3557 stations, the main source of energy for industrial installations. Thus, substan-3558 tially less natural gas than the energy equivalent can be substituted by MSW 3559 plants. 3560

While WDFs from solid and gaseous biomass may be co-fired in fossil plants it 3561 is believed that most biomass in industry is converted to energy in dedicated 3562 biomass plants. While these plants have about the same overall efficiencies as 3563 other autoproducer thermal power stations their electrical efficiency is lower, 3564 especially when comparing solid biomass fired to natural gas fired plants. The 3565 extent to which fossil energy can be substituted by biomass fired autoproducer 3566 thermal power stations depends on the specific situation, especially on the de-3567 sired products (electricity, steam or heat). 3568

3569

Fuel Mix

Substitution of fuel



3570

5.3.3 District Heating Plants 3571

In this category heat plants designed to produce heat only are treated. 3572

The following table shows the input to district heating plants of renewable 3573 fuels and waste in the European Union in the year 2008. 3574

Table 69: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year into District Heating Plants, 3575 reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3576

Wood, Wood Waste & Other Solid

Waste


Waste

Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year

)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 11,400 77,361 5,854 116 : : 78

Belgium 0 0 0 0 : : :

Bulgaria 3 : : 10 : : :

Czech Re-public

119 0 180 42 : : :

Denmark 1,309 8,353 449 : : : :

Germany 942 26,932 2,384 : : : 11

Estonia 415 0 : : : :

Ireland 0 : : : : : :

Greece 0 0 : : : : :

Spain 0 : : : : : :

France 0 : 998 : : : :

Italy 0 : : : : : :

Cyprus : : : : : : :

Latvia 615 : : : : : :

Lithuania 757 0 : : : : :

Luxemburg 0 : : : : : :

Hungary 26 : : : : : :

Netherlands 0 : 787 : : : :

Austria 1,410 9,641 209 0 : : :

Poland 224 820 : 3 : : :

Portugal 0 : : : : : :

Romania 100 781 : 23 : : :

Slovenia 28 0 : 0 : : :

Slovakia 135 937 26 28 : : :

Finland 1,280 8,938 55 10 : : :

Sweden 4,036 20,960 768 0 : : 67

United Kingdom

0 : : : : : :

3577

Others than wood, wood waste & other solid waste and municipal solid waste 3578 only account for a small portion of fuel input to district heating plants. Several 3579 countries report no use of the covered fuels. 3580




Wood, wood waste & other solid waste serve as fuel in a majority of Member 3581 States. However, along with Denmark the biggest amounts are again used in 3582 the Scandinavian countries and in Austria. Unlike in conventional thermal power 3583 stations the Baltic States also exploit major amounts in district heating plants. 3584 The biggest biogas user is Germany. 3585

The heat of municipal solid waste plants is exported to district heating networks 3586 in several Member States, especially in Germany, France, Sweden and the 3587 Netherlands, while only in Germany and Sweden liquid biofuels are used for this 3588 purpose. 3589

The use of renewable fuels and waste showed a diverse trend in the last couple 3590 of years. Wood, wood waste & other solid waste increased up to 2006 and have 3591 since stayed approximately the same. The same is true for biogas but, as indus-3592 trial waste and solid biofuels, it stays on a very low level. The use of municipal 3593 solid waste has risen in recent years but a longer timeline shows that compared 3594 to 1990 MSW use is several percent lower now. 3595

Table 70: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year into District Heating Plants, 3596 development over time 2004-2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3597

EU-27 2004 2006 2008


Biogas 1,049 1,990 1,982


Industrial Waste 644 353 1,135

Biogasoline : : :

Biodiesel : 0 0


3598

In this category installations that produce district heat but no electricity are 3599 summed up. Table 71 shows the fuel mix and the calculated WDF input into dis-3600 trict heating plants in the European Union in the year 2008. 3601

Table 71: Fuel and WDF input in TJ/year into District Heating Plants in the year 2008 3602 (Source for fuel input: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3603


Fuel Input (%)

Share of WDF (%)

WDF Input (TJ/year)

WDF Fuel Input (%)


106,906 14.8% 25% 26,727 3.7%

Biogas 1,982 0.3% 55% 1,090 0.15 %

MSW 57,440 7.9% 100% 57,440 7.9 %


Other Liquid Biofuels 3,050 0.4% 5% 153 0.02 %


Oil 35,729 4.9%

Gas 344,984 47.6%

Total 724,780 100.0% 86,544 11.94% 3604


Fuel Mix



Municipal solid waste and solid biomass based WDFs have a combined share 3605 of about 13 % in district heating plants, while other WDFs are not relevant in 3606 this sector. 3607

As mentioned in chapter 5.3.1, municipal solid waste plants have a signifi-3608 cantly lower thermal efficiency than fossil fuel fired plants. Assuming effi-3609 ciencies of municipal solid waste plants of about 60 % and of natural gas fired 3610 heat only plants of about 90% it is deducted that the amount of fossil energy 3611 that can be substituted by 57 PJ of municipal solid waste is less than 40 PJ. 3612

Efficient biomass boilers producing district heat have efficiencies of considera-3613 bly more than 80%. Thus, about the same amount of solid fossil fuels and sev-3614 eral percent less of natural gas can be substituted. 3615

3616

5.3.4 Iron and Steel Industry 3617

Industrial companies utilize energy products for heating for their own use 3618 and for non energetic purposes, but also for transport, for electricity produc-3619 tion and for the production of heat designated to be sold to third parties. The 3620 last three categories are not part of the final energy consumption of the branch 3621 but are covered by other categories of energy statistics (e.g. transport, autopro-3622 ducer thermal power stations). When it comes to the iron and steel industry, the 3623 energy consumption of coke ovens and blast furnaces is also not part of the fi-3624 nal energy consumption but of the consumption of the energy sector. 3625

The following table shows the final energy consumption of the iron and steel in-3626 dustry of renewable fuels and waste in the European Union in the year 2008. 3627

Table 72: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year into the Iron and Steel 3628 Industry, reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3629

Wood, Wood

Waste & Other Solid

Waste

Biogas MSW Industrial Waste

Bio-gaso-line

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 10 : : 160 : : :

Belgium 0 : : : : : :

Bulgaria 0 : : : : : :

Czech Re-public

0 : : 1 : : :

Denmark 0 : : : : : :

Germany 0 : : : : : :

Estonia 0 : : : : : :

Ireland 0 : : : : : :

Greece 0 : : : : : :

Spain 4 : : : : : :

France 0 : : : : : :

Italy 0 : : : : : :

Cyprus : : : : : : :

Latvia : : : : : : :

Substitution of fuels




Wood, Wood

Waste & Other Solid

Waste


Bio-gaso-line

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

Lithuania 0 : : : : : :

Luxemburg 0 : : : : : :

Hungary : : : : : : :

Netherlands 0 : : : : : :

Austria 0 : : 82 : : :

Poland 0 : : 45 : : :

Portugal 0 : : : : : :

Romania 0 : : 32 : : :

Slovenia : : : : : : :

Slovakia 6 : : : : : :

Finland 0 : : : : : :

Sweden 0 : : : : : :

United Kingdom

0 : : : : : :

3630

For the iron and steel industry, as for other final energy consumption by indus-3631 trial sectors, the following lower calorific values were used. Data were taken 3632 from the Austrian energy statistics for the year 2008 (cf. chapter 5.3.1). 3633

3634




Biogas 0,0256 TJ/1,000 Nm3

MSW 0,0098 TJ/t

Industrial Waste 0,0221 TJ/t

3637

Of the covered fuels, only industrial waste is used in the iron and steel industry, 3638 but only in Austria, Poland, Romania and a small amount in the Czech Repub-3639 lic. Small amounts of wood, wood waste & other solid waste are also reported 3640 by some countries. 3641

The use of industrial waste has steadily increased in the last couple of years; 3642 still the total use of renewable fuels and waste in the iron and steel industry is 3643 not noteworthy compared to the overall energy consumption of the sector. 3644

3645

3646

3647

3648




3649

Table 74: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year into the Iron and Steel Industry, 3650 development over time 2004-2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3651

EU-27 2004 2006 2008

Wood, Wood Waste & Other Solid Waste 240 56 89

Biogas : : :

Municipal Solid Waste : : :


Biogasoline 0 0 0

Biodiesel 0 0 0

Other Liquid Biofuels 0 0 0

3652

3653

5.3.5 Chemical and Petrochemical Industry 3654

The following table shows the final energy consumption of the chemical and 3655 petrochemical industry of renewable fuels and waste in the European Union 3656 in the year 2008. 3657

Table 75: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year into the Chemical and 3658 Petrochemical Industry, reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3659

Wood, Wood

Waste & Other Solid

Waste


Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year

)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 634 923,224 441 620 : : 10

Belgium 0 3,201 : 0 : : 10

Bulgaria 0 : : : : : :

Czech Re-public

: 117 0 13 : : :

Denmark : : 0 : : : :

Germany 104 911,905 441 : : : :

Estonia 4 : : : : :

Ireland 0 : : : : : :

Greece 0 : : : : : :

Spain 63 : : : : : :

France 0 : : : : : :

Italy 0 : : : : : :

Cyprus : : : : : : :

Latvia 21 : : : : : 0

Lithuania 0 : : : : : :

Luxemburg 0 : : : : : :

Hungary 0 : : 0 : : :

Netherlands : 3,240 : : : : :




Wood, Wood

Waste & Other Solid

Waste


Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year

)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

Austria 158 4,762 : 189 : : :

Poland 0 : : 327 : : :

Portugal 169 : : : : : :

Romania 1 : : 49 : : :

Slovenia 52 : : 5 : : :

Slovakia : 0 : 35 : : :

Finland 30 : : 3 : : :

Sweden 32 : : : : : :

United Kingdom

0 : : : : : :

3660

In the chemical and petrochemical industry several renewable fuels are applied, 3661 the major one is biogas, although the bulk of the reported biogas stems from 3662 only one country, Germany. 3663

In several countries wood, wood waste & other solid waste and industrial waste 3664 are employed in the chemical and petrochemical industry. The most relevant 3665 are Portugal and Austria for wood, wood waste & other solid waste and Poland 3666 and Austria for industrial waste. 3667

Municipal solid waste is only used in Germany (and Denmark); Belgium is the 3668 only country that makes use of other liquid biofuels in the chemical sector. 3669

Biogas use in the chemical and petrochemical sector has increased tremen-3670 dously recently. Its use in Germany has leaped from 0 to more than 23,000 TJ 3671 from 2006 to 2007, the reason for which is unknown. Possibly this is due to 3672 changes in the reporting methodology of the country. On the other hand the ex-3673 ploitation of industrial waste has collapsed as Belgium reported more than 3674 70,000 TJ for the year 2006 and no use at all afterwards. 3675

Wood, wood waste & other solid waste have been steadily deployed in the past 3676 several years while municipal waste has risen sharply thanks to its use in Ger-3677 many from 2007 onwards. 3678

Table 76: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year into the Chemical and 3679 Petrochemical Industry, development over time 2004–2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy 3680 Statistics) 3681

EU-27 2004 2006 2008


Biogas 250 279 23,653

Municipal Solid Waste 22 19 4,329


Biogasoline : : :

Biodiesel : : :




Other Liquid Biofuels : 0 370

3682

5.3.6 Non-ferrous Metals Industry 3683

Conventional fuels or reducing agents can in some cases and to some extent 3684 be replaced by waste materials. Different types of waste are used as fuels or 3685 reducing agents in the non-ferrous metals industries. Waste can often only be 3686 used after certain pre-treatment stages to provide tailor-made fuels for the burn-3687 ing process. Selected wastes with recoverable net calorific values such as 3688 waste oil, solvents, and plastics can be used as fuels, replacing conventional 3689 fossil fuels provided that they meet certain specifications and characteristics. 3690 Wastes that are used as fuel in the non-ferrous metals industry have a high net 3691 calorific value, e. g. waste oil with a net calorific value of 37 MJ/kg and solvents 3692 with a net calorific value of 26 MJ/kg. In a rotary kiln of a nickel-roasting plant in 3693 Austria conventional fuels are replaced by waste oil and solvents. These fuels 3694 can, in principle, be used where complete combustion of organic matter is as-3695 sured and waste input control as well as emissions control guarantees a low 3696 level of emissions, e.g. metals and dioxins (BREF NME 2009). 3697

The following table shows the final energy consumption of the non-ferrous 3698 metal industry of renewable fuels and waste in the European Union in the 3699 year 2008. 3700

Table 77: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year into the Non-ferrous Metals 3701 Industry, reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3702

Member State

Wood, Wood Waste

& Other Solid Waste


Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

(1,000 t/year) (1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 33 742 27 57 : : :

Belgium 0 : : : : : :

Bulgaria 0 : : : : : :

Czech Republic

: : : : : : :

Denmark 0 : : : : : :

Germany 5 742 17 : : : :

Estonia : : : : : : :

Ireland 0 : : : : : :

Greece 0 : : : : : :

Spain 0 : : : : : :

France 0 : : : : : :

Italy 0 : : : : : :

Cyprus : : : : : : :

Latvia : : : : : : :

Lithuania : : : : : : :

Luxemburg 0 : : : : : :

Hungary : : : : : : :


Austria 1 : : : : : :




Member State

Wood, Wood Waste

& Other Solid Waste


Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

(1,000 t/year) (1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

Poland 0 : : 57 : : :

Portugal 26 : : : : : :

Romania 0 : : : : : :

Slovenia 0 : : 0 : : :

Slovakia : : : : : : :

Finland 0 : 10 : : : :

Sweden 0 : : : : : :

UK 0 : : : : : :

3703

Only few amounts of the covered fuels are exploited in the non-ferrous metal 3704 industry, with each one being reported by a maximum of three countries. The 3705 most relevant uses are 1.252 TJ of industrial waste in Poland and 239 TJ of 3706 wood, wood waste & other solid waste in Portugal. No use or only negligible 3707 amounts are reported for other liquid biofuels and for biogas. 3708

Industrial waste is used on a fairly constant basis with ups and downs but only 3709 in Poland while the use of wood, wood waste & other solid waste in Portugal 3710 has remained stable for the last decade. There is no indication that renewable 3711 fuels and waste are about to play an important role in this sector soon. 3712

Table 78: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year into the Non-ferrous Metals 3713 Industry, development over time 2004–2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3714

EU-27 2004 2006 2008

Wood, Wood Waste & Other Solid Waste 234 236 295

Biogas 0 0 19

Municipal Solid Waste 0 0 261


Biogasoline 0 0 0

Biodiesel 0 0 0

Other Liquid Biofuels 0 0 0

3715

3716

5.3.7 Non-metallic Mineral Industry 3717

The cement, lime, ceramics (including bricks) and glass industries are counted 3718 under the non-metallic mineral industry. 3719

In total, 124 plants falling under the WID have been identified by 19 Member 3720 States21 in the ÖKOPOL study on WID plants (EC 2007; cf. Table 59). There are 3721 also cement plants co-incinerating waste in Belgium, Finland, Poland, Greece, 3722

21 Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany,Hungary, Ire-

land, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden and UK.


Co-incinerating cement plants



Portugal and Italy. In total there are 162 plants to be covered by the WID in 22 3723 Member States and one EEA Country22. All of them are covered by the IPPC 3724 Directive (EC 2007). 3725

The following table shows the final energy consumption of the non-metallic 3726 mineral industry of renewable fuels and waste in the European Union in the 3727 year 2008. 3728

Table 79: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year into the Non-metallic Mineral 3729 Industry, reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3730

Wood, Wood Waste

& Other Solid Waste


Waste

Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year

)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 5,809 2,186 3,368 1,159 : : 5

Belgium 525 : : 210 : : :

Bulgaria 1 : : 21 : : :

Czech Republic

5 : : 226 : : :

Denmark 1 : 109 : : : :

Germany 1,209 2,186 3,221 : : : 5

Estonia 4 : : : 0 0 0

Ireland 44 : : : : : :

Greece 14 : : : : : :

Spain 631 : : 0 : : :

France 0 : : : : : :

Italy 1,122 : : : : : :

Cyprus 31 : 0 11 : : :

Latvia 8 : : 9 : : :

Lithuania 55 : : : : : :

Luxemburg 0 : : : : : :

Hungary 138 : : 38 : : :


Austria 346 : : 288 : : :

Poland 25 : 39 334 : : :

Portugal 1,511 : : : : : :

Romania 132 : : 0 : : :

Slovenia 4 : : 22 : : :

Slovakia 0 : : 0 : : :

Finland 5 : : 0 : : :

Sweden 0 : : : : : :

United Kingdom

0 : : : : : :

3731

22 Norway




In the non-metallic mineral industry, especially in the cement industry, WDFs 3732 are a major source of energy. Great amounts of wood, wood waste & other solid 3733 waste, industrial waste and municipal solid waste are deployed, while biogas 3734 and other liquid biofuels are only reported by Germany. 3735

In most countries wood, wood waste & other solid waste is exploited in the non-3736 metallic mineral industry, with three countries (Portugal, Germany, Italy) each 3737 reporting a use of more than 10 PJ for the year 2008. 3738

While Germany reports vast amounts of municipal solid waste, no use of indus-3739 trial waste is reported by this country at all. Possibly some waste streams were 3740 falsely allocated. Two other countries notify the use of municipal solid waste. 3741

Industrial waste is deployed by several countries, especially Poland, Austria, the 3742 Czech Republic and Belgium. 3743

Wood, wood waste & other solid waste has risen constantly in the period 3744 viewed. Part of the rise is due to the fact that Germany has begun reporting 3745 data for its use only in 2007. On a similar note the leap of municipal solid waste 3746 exploitation is attributed to Germany´s reporting 0 TJ/year for every industrial 3747 use of this fuel prior to 2007 (cf. chapter 5.3.5). Industrial Waste is deployed on 3748 a steadily rising basis over the last two decades. Others of the covered fuels are 3749 not relevant in the non-metallic mineral industry. 3750

Table 80: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year into the Non-metallic Mineral 3751 Industry, development over time 2004-2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3752

EU-27 2004 2006 2008


Biogas 0 0 56



Biogasoline : : :

Biodiesel : : :


3753

Table 81 shows the fuel mix and the calculated WDF input into the non-metallic 3754 mineral industry in the European Union in the year 2008. 3755

Table 81: Fuel and WDF input in TJ/year into the Non-metallic Mineral Industry in the 3756 year 2008 (Source for fuel input: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3757


Fuel Input (%)

Share of WDF (%)

WDF Input (TJ/year)

WDF Fuel Input (%)


52,685 3.6% 25% 13,171 0.89%

Biogas 56 0.0% 55% 31

MSW 33,052 2.2% 100% 33,052 2.24 %


Other Liquid Biofuels 105 0.0% 5% 5


Oil 449,679 30.5%


Fuel Mix




Fuel Input (%)

Share of WDF (%)

WDF Input (TJ/year)

WDF Fuel Input (%)

Gas 641,113 43.4%

Total 1,476,071 100.0% 71,933 4.87% 3758

The share of WDFs in the non-metallic mineral industry in the European Union, 3759 according to Eurostat Energy Statistics, is about 5 %, while in some countries 3760 the share is more than 25 %, which can be allocated predominantly to the ce-3761 ment industry. Between the different branches of this sector (i.e. cement, lime, 3762 glass), the percentages of WDF use vary widely: For the brick and glass indus-3763 try, the amounts of WDF fuels used are significantly lower and often equal to 3764 zero. For 2006, CEMBUREAU reports an average WDF fuel input for the Euro-3765 pean cement industry of 17.9 % (CEMBUREAU 2010; CEMBUREAU 2006-2008). 3766 For 2003, EULA reports 8 % waste and 1 % biomass input for the European 3767 brick industry (EULA 2006). The only relevant WDFs are the solid ones. It is as-3768 sumed that the amounts reported in the category municipal solid waste are 3769 RDFs. 3770

In total, 72 PJ of WDFs have been reported for the year 2008 in the Euro-3771 pean Union. However, it has to be noted that this is the maximum amount of 3772 fossil energy that can be substituted. Taking into account loss in plant effi-3773 ciency of about 12-20 % when using WDF fuels, the substituted amount will be 3774 rather in the range of 58-63 PJ. [Without using WDFs, the energy consumption 3775 in efficient cement kilns is between 3,000 and 3,200 MJ per tonne clinker. In 3776 case of substituting fossil fuels by substantial amounts of WDFs and RDFs, the 3777 efficiency deteriorates and an energy consumption of about 3,600 MJ/tonne 3778 clinker is reached. Thus, about 12-20 % less fossil fuels than the energy equiva-3779 lent can be substituted by WDFs.] 3780

Development of WDF Fuel Utilisation in the Austrian Cement Industry 3781

Starting with the co-incineration of waste tyres, petcoke and waste oil in the 3782 1980s, in the late 1990s also waste plastics were first used as an energy 3783 source in the Austrian cement industry and were used as such in quickly in-3784 creasing amounts. From about the year 2000 onwards, also animal by-products 3785 (predominantly bone meal) were used as waste-derived fuel. 3786

While in 1990 the thermal WDF input to Austrian cement plants amounted to 3787 approximately 20 % of the total energy demand, their share had risen to about 3788 40 % in 2000 and to 46 % in 2007 (HACKL & MAUSCHITZ 1995; HACKL & 3789 MAUSCHITZ 1997; HACKL & MAUSCHITZ 2001; MAUSCHITZ 2008). 3790

In Austria, all nine cement plants with a total clinker production of 3,992,376 3791 t/year (5.202.513 t/year of cement) in 2007 co-incinerated waste. The WDF in-3792 put of these plants for the year 2007 is described in Table 82. 3793

Table 82: WDF input in the Austrian Cement Industry in 2007 (Source: MAUSCHITZ 2008) 3794

WDF Use in the Austrian Cement Industry (2007)

LHV (MJ/kg)

Input (t/year)

Input (GJ/year)

Waste tyres 26.48 31,581 836,294

Waste plastics 21.32 163,605 3,488,228

Waste oil 36.30 23,809 864,326


Austria - Cement industry



WDF Use in the Austrian Cement Industry (2007)

LHV (MJ/kg)

Input (t/year)

Input (GJ/year)

Waste solvents 25.01 15,176 379,615

Agricultural waste 16.31 2,755 44,934

Paper sludge 4.80 36,023 172,910

Others 14.26 61,469 876,379

WDF (total) 334,418 6,662,687 3795

Other WDF input to Austrian cement plants that is not explicitly named in Table 3796 82 is e.g. non-contaminated sawdust, sawdust soaked with waste oil, meat and 3797 bone meal, animal fat or petcoke (HACKL & MAUSCHITZ 2003). 3798

When beginning with waste co-incineration, the Austrian cement industry com-3799 mitted itself to a legally non-binding negotiated environmental agreement be-3800 tween the Austrian cement industry, the Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, 3801 Forestry, Environment and Water Management and the Austrian Federal Minis-3802 try of Economics and Work, all partners agreeing on a “positive list” of waste 3803 fractions that may be subjected to co-incineration in Austrian cement kilns. 3804

In 2006, a legally non-binding regulation was issued by the Austrian Federal 3805 Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management23, setting 3806 up quality criteria for waste input into co-incineration plants. 3807

On December 27th, 2010, these regulations became legally binding when inte-3808 grating them into the Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance24. 3809

3810

5.3.8 Food and Tobacco Industry 3811

The following table shows the final energy consumption of the food and tobacco 3812 industry of renewable fuels and waste in the European Union in the year 2008. 3813

Table 83: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year into the Food and Tobacco 3814 Industry, reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3815



Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel


Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 4,366 122,717 7 0 : : 17

Belgium 23 3,981 : : : : 0

Bulgaria 9 : : : : : :

Czech Re-public

9 1,444 : 0 : : :

23 Richtlinie für Ersatzbrennstoffe (Guideline for Waste Fuels):

http://www.lebensministerium.at/article/articleview/65132/1/6956 24 Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance: „Verordnung des Bundesministers für Land- und Forst-

wirtschaft, Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft und des Bundesministers für Wirtschaft, Familie und Jugend über die Verbrennung von Abfällen (Abfallverbrennungsverordnung – AVV)“. BGBl. II Nr. 389/2002, most recent adaption BGBl. II Nr. 476/2010

WDF Regulation in Austria






Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel


Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

Denmark 79 6,518 4 : : : :

Germany 208 14,442 3 : : : 17

Estonia 4 : : : 0 0 0

Ireland 185 2,303 : : : : :

Greece 1,089 312 : : : : :

Spain 1,463 17,603 : : : : :

France 469 32,865 : : : : :

Italy 0 : : : : : :

Cyprus : : : : : : :

Latvia 40 : : : : : :

Lithuania 11 390 : : : : :

Luxemburg 0 : : : : : :

Hungary 127 : : 0 : : :

Netherlands : 32,670 : : : : :

Austria 28 6,518 : 0 : : :

Poland 40 3,669 : 0 : : :

Portugal 426 : : : : : :

Romania 60 0 : 0 : : :

Slovenia 0 : : : : : :

Slovakia 4 : : 0 : : :

Finland 13 : : 0 : : :

Sweden 78 : : : : : :

UK 0 : : : : : :

3816

In the food and tobacco industry among the covered fuels only wood, wood 3817 waste & other solid waste is a major source of energy, while several others are 3818 deployed in minor amounts. 3819

Again Germany has the most versatile range of fuels being the only country that 3820 uses other liquid biofuels and besides Denmark the only one using municipal 3821 solid waste. 3822

The countries using the most wood, wood waste & other solid waste are Spain 3823 and Greece. France and Portugal also report large quantities of that fuel. 3824

Biogas is deployed in almost half of the countries of the EU. The biggest num-3825 bers are reported by France and the Netherlands. 3826

The use of wood, wood waste & other solid waste in the food and tobacco 3827 industry has risen steadily over the last two decades gaining another 30 % 3828 from 2004 to 2008. The same is true for biogas which increased by 24 % in 3829 that period but it is less significant as no more than 3,000 TJ are used per year. 3830 The other fuels used in this sector do not show a clear trend and so far only are 3831 deployed on a low key. 3832




Table 84: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year into the Food and Tobacco Industry, 3833 development over time 2004-2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3834

EU-27 2004 2006 2008


Biogas 2,536 2,942 3,144


Industrial Waste 0 0 0

Biogasoline : : :

Biodiesel : : :


5.3.9 Paper, Pulp and Print Industry 3835

Table 85 shows the final energy consumption of the Paper, Pulp and Print in-3836 dustry of renewable fuels and waste in the European Union in the year 2008. 3837

Table 85: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year into the Paper, Pulp and 3838 Printing Industry, reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3839

Wood, Wood Waste

& Other Solid Waste


Waste

Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year

)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/ year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 48,036 58,392 553 129 : : 889

Belgium 1,300 1,600 : : : : :

Bulgaria 29 : : 105 : : :

Czech Republic

1,126 : : 0 : : :

Denmark 1 : 4 : : : :

Germany 1,417 38,329 392 : : : 889

Estonia 18 : : : 0 0 0

Ireland 0 : : : : : :

Greece 0 : : : : : :

Spain 2,347 9,016 : : : : :

France 2,603 : : : : : :

Italy 0 : : : : : :

Cyprus : : : : : : :

Latvia 1 : : : : : :

Lithuania 0 : : : : : :

Luxemburg 0 : : : : : :

Hungary 54 : : 0 : : :

Netherlands : 5,660 : : : : :

Austria 1,957 3,162 : 2 : : :

Poland 2,175 : : 6 : : :

Portugal 3,859 : : : : : :

Romania 55 : : 0 : : :

Slovenia 33 : : 0 : : :



Wood, Wood Waste

& Other Solid Waste


Waste

Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year

)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/ year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

Slovakia 1,119 625 : : : : :

Finland 14,041 : 158 16 : : :

Sweden 15,901 : : 0 : : :

United Kingdom

0 : : : : : :

In the paper, pulp and print industry wood, wood waste & other solid waste is 3840 the major renewable fuel being exploited in vast amounts while the others only 3841 play a minor role in this sector. 3842

Again the Scandinavian countries are leading when it comes to using wood, 3843 wood waste & other solid waste, each deploying way more than 100,000 3844 TJ/year. Several others report five-digit numbers while some, among them the 3845 United Kingdom and Italy, notify no use at all. 3846

A few countries each deploy biogas, municipal solid waste and industrial waste. 3847 For the first two the country reporting the largest quantities is Germany, for the 3848 latter it is Bulgaria. 3849

Remarkably, Germany uses great amounts of other liquid biofuels (similar to the 3850 public thermal power and autoproducer sectors) while no other country reports 3851 a use thereof in this sector. 3852

Already starting from a very high level the use of wood, wood waste & other 3853 solid waste in the paper, pulp and print industry has increased another sev-3854 eral percent in the last four year. Other liquid biofuels have also increased a 3855 lot but as it is only reported by Germany it remains unclear whether it was not 3856 used in that country before 2007 or whether it was only not reported (cf. chapter 3857 5.3.7 - development over time). The same applies for biogas and municipal 3858 solid waste whose leaps between 2006 and 2008 both are basically attributed to 3859 the fact that Germany only reported their use from 2007 onwards. The use of 3860 industrial waste has increased by a quarter from 2004 to 2008. 3861

3862

Table 86: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year into the Paper, Pulp and Print 3863 Industry, development over time 2004-2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3864

EU 2004 2006 2008


Biogas 587 477 1,496

Municipal Solid Waste 911 847 5,431


Biogasoline : : :

Biodiesel : : :

Other Liquid Biofuels : 0 18,580

3865




Table 87 shows the fuel mix and the calculated WDF input into the paper, pulp 3866 and print industry in the European Union in the year 2008. 3867

3868

Table 87: Fuel and WDF input in TJ/year into the Paper, Pulp and Print Industry in the 3869 year 2008 (Source for fuel input: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3870


Fuel Input (%)

Share of WDF (%)

WDF Input (TJ/year)

WDF Fuel Input (%)


435,643 47.7% 25% 108,911 11.9%

Biogas 1,496 0.2% 55% 823 0.09%

MSW 5,431 0.6% 100% 5,431 0.59%

Industrial Waste 2,858 0.3% 100% 2,858 0.31%

Other Liquid Biofuels 18,580 2.0% 5% 929 0.10%


Oil 68,965 7.6%

Gas 325,669 35.7%

Total 913,434 100.0% 118,952 13.02% The share of WDFs in the paper, pulp and print industry in the European Union, 3871 according to Eurostat Energy Statistics, is about 17 %. Other WDFs than wood, 3872 wood waste & other solid waste only have shares of below 1 % each. Apart 3873 from wood based fuels natural gas plays a major role in this sector. 3874

Concerning the fuels substituted by wooden WDFs in this sector, basically the 3875 same is true as what was said for the use of WDFs from biomass in autopro-3876 ducer thermal power stations (cf. Chapter 5.3.2). 3877

3878

5.3.10 Transport 3879

Table 88 shows the final energy consumption of renewable fuels and waste in 3880 the transport sector in the European Union in the year 2008. The transport sec-3881 tor comprises rail transport, road transport, inland navigation and pipeline trans-3882 port. 3883

Table 88: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year in the transport sector, 3884 reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3885



Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel


Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 : 30,601 : : 2,807 9,211 118

Belgium : : : : 19 98 :

Bulgaria : : : : : 2 2

Czech Republic

: : : : 54 85 :

Denmark : : : : 8 0 :

Germany : : : : 624 3,027 :

Fuel Mix






Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel


Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

Estonia : : : : 0 0 0

Ireland : : : : 28 39 3

Greece : : : : : 76 :

Spain : : : : 144 588 :

France : : : : 643 2,104 :

Italy : : : : 90 745 :

Cyprus : : : : : 16 :

Latvia : : : : 0 2 :

Lithuania : : : : 24 52 :

Luxemburg : : : : 1 41 :

Hungary : : : : 73 132 :

Netherlands : : : : 163 203 :

Austria : : : : 92 315 107

Poland : : : : 198 344 6

Portugal : : : : : 145 :

Romania : : : : : 122 :

Slovenia : : : : 0 25 :

Slovakia : : : : 50 105 :

Finland : : : : 100 11 :

Sweden : 30,601 : : 333 154 :

United Kingdom

: : : : 163 780 :

3886

In the transport sector biodiesel and biogasoline are obviously the most promi-3887 nent ones of the covered fuels. Naturally wood, wood waste & other solid waste, 3888 municipal solid waste and industrial waste are not used in this sector. The only 3889 exception in this context is Sweden, where wood is used for wood gas produc-3890 tion in the transport sector. 3891

Biodiesel use is reported by all Member States except for Denmark and Esto-3892 nia. The bigger countries are the ones using the largest amounts, notably Ger-3893 many and France, followed at some distance by the United Kingdom, Italy and 3894 Spain. The only smaller country that uses more than 10,000 TJ/year is Austria. 3895

Biogasoline use shows a similar but less diversified use. Again France and 3896 Germany are the ones deploying the biggest quantities, but also Sweden makes 3897 intense use of biogasoline. About ten countries don´t use biogasoline so far. 3898

Other liquid biofuels are used in four member states with Austria being the only 3899 one reporting major amounts. 3900

Biogas use is only reported in the 2008 Eurostat Energy Statistics by Sweden, 3901 the amount of upgraded biogas being used as vehicle fuel approximately was 3902 333 GWh in the year 2010 (PETERSSON 2010). There is evidence from recent 3903 literature that biogas capacities for use in the transport sector are built up or 3904 even already used also in other EU countries. In Austria, 800,000 m3 of up-3905



graded biogas were used as vehicle fuel (BRAUN 2010). In Lille, the first French 3906 biogas upgrading that delivers biogas for use as vehicle fuel was supposed to 3907 take up operation by end of 2010/beginning 2011 (BASTIDE & THEOBALD 2010). 3908 United Kingdom reports a Government Demonstration Project with United Utili-3909 ties and National Grid being under development near Manchester, which will 3910 provide 250 m3/hr for vehicle fuel as well as for grid injection (HARWOOD 2010). 3911

In 2003, European Directive 2003/30/EC25 defined the goal of a 5.75 % share of 3912 biofuels in the transport sector by 2010, followed by the RES Directive 3913 2009/28/EC26 which set the goal at 10 % for 2020. 3914

In the transport sector, renewable fuels have significantly gained ground in the 3915 last three years. The prevailing alternative transport fuel, Biodiesel, rose 78 % in 3916 the period 2006-2008, while biogasoline and other liquid biofuels soared 103 % 3917 and 195 %, respectively. Biogas use was first reported in 2008. 3918

Table 89: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year in the transport sector, development 3919 over time 2004-2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3920

EU-27 2004 2006 2008

Wood, Wood Waste & Other Solid Waste : : :

Biogas 0 0 784

Municipal Solid Waste : : :

Industrial Waste : : :

Biogasoline : 36,946 75,019

Biodiesel : 192,636 342,867


3921

3922

5.3.11 Residential 3923

Table 90 shows the final energy consumption of renewable fuels and waste in 3924 the residential sector in the European Union in the year 2008. 3925

Table 90: Waste and renewable fuel input in quantities/year in the residential sector, 3926 reference year 2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3927

Wood, Wood Waste

& Other Solid Waste


Waste

Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year

)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

EU-27 95,072 95,238 47 0 : 0 9

Belgium 643 0 : : : : :

Bulgaria 1,884 : : : : : :

25 Directive 2003/30/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 May 2003 on the pro-

motion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport 26 Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the

promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently re-pealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC




Wood, Wood Waste

& Other Solid Waste


Waste

Bio-gasoline

Bio-diesel

Other Liquid

Biofuels

Member State

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 Nm3/year

)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

(1,000 t/year)

Czech Republic

3,109 : : : : : :

Denmark 2,705 0 0 : : : 9

Germany 15,767 : : : : : :

Estonia 1,145 : : : 0 0 0

Ireland 68 0 : : : : :

Greece 1,766 0 : : : : :

Spain 6,055 0 : : : : :

France 19,660 : : : : : :

Italy 4,189 0 0 : : 0 :

Cyprus 24 : : : : : :

Latvia 2,157 : : : : : :

Lithuania 1,187 0 : : : : :

Luxemburg 46 : : : : : :

Hungary 1,370 : : : : : :

Netherlands 675 0 : : : : :

Austria 4,811 : : : : : :

Poland 7,215 : : : : : :

Portugal 3,421 0 : : : : :

Romania 10,089 : : 0 : : :

Slovenia 955 : : : : : :

Slovakia 105 : : : : : :

Finland 3,317 : : 0 : : :

Sweden 1,821 95,238 : : : : :

United Kingdom

888 0 47 0 : : :

3928

For the residential sector, the following lower calorific values were used. Data 3929 were taken from the Austrian energy statistics for the year 2008 (cf. Chapter 3930 5.3.1). 3931




Biogas 0,0256 TJ/1,000 Nm3

MSW 0,0098 TJ/t

3934

In the residential sector, wood, wood waste & other solid waste is the only one 3935 of the covered fuels playing an important role. It is essential that wood and 3936



wood waste that are not under the scope of the WID27 (firewood, wood chips, 3937 wood pellets) form the major part of the category wood, wood waste & other 3938 solid waste in this sector. The other covered fuels are only reported by one or 3939 none of the Member States. 3940

The use of wood, wood waste & other solid waste is fairly diversified among 3941 Member States as it is reported by all in considerable amounts. In numbers, the 3942 highest use occurs in France, Germany, Romania and Poland, but also Spain, 3943 Austria and Italy report more than 50,000 TJ/year. Remarkably the Scandina-3944 vian sectors are not as prominent as they were in other sectors regarding this 3945 fuel. 3946

Biogas is deployed by Sweden in amounts worth mentioning. 3947

Other liquid biofuels are only used by Denmark in the residential sector. 3948

Municipal solid waste is reported by the United Kingdom, but it remains unclear 3949 what kind of use has to be envisaged by this, or whether it is an estimate for 3950 MSW fractions such as paper or packaging wood which are still incinerated in 3951 household ovens. 3952

The residential use of wood, wood waste & other solid waste has risen by 9 % 3953 in the last four years reaching a peak level in 2008. While biogas and other liq-3954 uid biofuels were reported for the first time in 2008 by only one country each, 3955 biodiesel which was notified by Italy in 2006 and 2007 is not reported any more. 3956 It remains to be seen whether a renewable fuel other than wood is going to be a 3957 relevant source of energy in the residential sector soon. In statistics, one or an-3958 other flow can be misleadingly attributed to different categories by different 3959 countries (or companies). This fact inherent to statistics has to be born in mind 3960 when interpreting statistical data, especially data based on small figures. The 3961 more entities report and the higher the reported amounts are, the more valid the 3962 information is. 3963

Table 92: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year in the residential sector, 3964 development over time 2004-2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3965

EU 2004 2006 2008

Wood, Wood Waste & Other Solid Waste 1,243,499 1,279,181 1,350,677

Biogas 0 0 2,440


Industrial Waste 0 0 0

Biogasoline : : :

Biodiesel : 1,608 0


3966

3967

27 Directive 2000/76/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 December 2000 on

the incineration of waste

Wood, wood waste & other solid waste

Biogas

Other liquid biofuels

MSW as a fuel in the residential sector?




5.3.12 Others 3968

The category “Others” consists of the consumption of the energy branch, distri-3969 bution losses and of the final energy consumption of sectors not treated in the 3970 chapters before, i.e. industrial sectors not separately covered, services and ag-3971 riculture. 3972

The use of wood, wood waste & other solid waste, the major renewable fuel in 3973 the afore mentioned sectors, has remained quite stable in recent years. It is es-3974 pecially deployed in the wood industry and in agriculture. The exploitation of 3975 municipal solid waste also has been steady recently the bulk of its use stem-3976 ming from the Spanish service sector. Biogas is mainly used in the service sec-3977 tor but also in agriculture, industrial sectors not thoroughly covered and in the 3978 energy sector. Among ups and downs its use has slightly increased in the last 3979 decade. The exploitation of industrial waste which is naturally concentrated in 3980 industry has been rather volatile not showing a clear trend. The use of liquid 3981 biofuels has increased in numbers recently but while the growth of other liquid 3982 biofuels is attributed to the industrial sectors not covered elsewhere the in-3983 crease of biogasoline and biodiesel is due to statistical differences. 3984

Table 93: Waste and renewable fuel input in TJ/year in other sectors not covered in 3985 detail, development over time 2004-2008 (Source: Eurostat Energy Statistics) 3986

EU-27 2004 2006 2008


Biogas 15,104 15,718 18,696



Biogasoline : (27) (1,150)

Biodiesel : (114) (5,666)


3987



6 MARKET AND DEMAND 3988

In this chapter, the following terms are used: 3989

Market price: 3990 A (positive) market price means that a market for the waste/WDF in question 3991 exists and that it can be sold (e.g. the waste owner sells it to the treatment 3992 plant, or the treatment plant sells it to the energy recovery installation) 3993

Gate fee: 3994 A gate fee (“negative market price”) means that there is no market for the re-3995 spective waste/WDF, but that the current waste owner has to pay when de-3996 livering the waste/WDF (e.g. the waste owner pays money to the treatment 3997 plant, or the treatment plant pays money to the energy recovery installation). 3998

3999

6.1 Data Basis 4000

6.1.1 Key Data Sources 4001

Publications by WDF producing and incinerating enterprises, by their national 4002 and European interest groups and by print media specialized in recycling and 4003 recovery are the main data sources for this chapter. These are complemented 4004 by information found in recent publications as well as in various print and online 4005 media. Additional information can be collected by way of specific investigations, 4006 from workshops, conferences and seminaries and from personal contacts with 4007 players in this economic area. 4008

4009

6.1.2 Availability of Data 4010

Information on market development and relevant market players is available. 4011 Data about the mechanisms of price formation, cost data and data about market 4012 prices and gate fees could be extracted from a number of recent publications 4013 that are available. 4014

4015

6.1.3 Market drivers 4016

If the waste/WDF can be sold on the market or not depends mainly on the fol-4017 lowing properties: 4018

Calorific value (LHV) and 4019 Content of contaminants which adversely affect either the incineration proc-4020 ess (e.g. corrosion, slagging of boiler heat exchangers) or its gase-4021 ous/aqueous effluents and solid residues (e.g. higher emission concentra-4022 tions, worse residue quality that raises landfill costs). 4023

In general, the market for WDF incineration is influenced by the following pa-4024 rameters: 4025

Quality and availability of the waste/WDF, 4026 Existing pre-treatment capacities, 4027 Existing (co-)incineration capacities, 4028

Market prices / Gate fees

Crucial WDF properties

Key factors influencing the market



Current energy prices for electricity and heat, 4029 Input specifications for WDFs (if relevant), 4030 Price of (substituted) fuel, e.g. coal, oil, (bio-)gas, diesel, 4031 Economy of the pre-treatment process (if applicable): 4032

o Capital expenditures (CAPEX), 4033 o Operational costs (OPEX) of waste for WDF production, 4034 o Market situation for materials assaulting from the treatment process 4035

(e.g. market price of separated metal or glass, gate fees for residues 4036 to be disposed of), 4037

Economy of the co-incineration process: 4038 o Additional costs (CAPEX and OPEX) arising from waste/WDF co-4039

incineration compared to the process without waste/WDF input, 4040 o Market prices for input material (e.g. raw material for the cement in-4041

dustry), 4042 o Market prices for products of the co-incineration process, 4043

(e.g. cement clinker prices), 4044 o Market price for CO2 emission allowances under the EU-ETS 4045

(if applicable), 4046 Situation on competing markets (reuse, material recovery, MSWI…), e.g.: 4047

o If gate fees have to be paid, excess incineration capacities at low gate 4048 fees render SRF production for co-incineration economically not fea-4049 sible. 4050

Legally binding requirements to be met, e.g. landfill ban, landfill tax, recy-4051 cling targets, end-of-waste criteria…, 4052

Legally non-binding requirements, e.g. WDF input specifications restricted 4053 locally or to selected sectors. 4054

4055

4056

6.1.4 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 4057

Municipal solid waste is a relevant waste source for RDF generation, and 4058 MSWI incinerators compete with co-incinerators for some of the waste 4059 streams. Especially when there are incineration overcapacities, MSWI gate 4060 fees will have a significant influence on the gate fees of co-incineration 4061 plants. 4062

Figure 48 shows the development of MSW gate fees in Germany between 4063 October 2009 and October 2010, according to EUWID 2011, a period of only 4064 12 months, within which no strong volatility of prices can be observed. This 4065 may also be attributed to the fact that in general, municipalities are the MSW 4066 owners and often have long-term contracts with MSW incinerating facilities, 4067 which are predominantly owned by municipalities themselves or by companies 4068 tightly connected with or partly in the possession of municipalities. 4069

The data represented in Figure 48 are taken from data for different German 4070 federal states. Detailed data for the German market (EUWID 2011) show that the 4071 price level is higher in western and southern parts of Germany, such as in Saar-4072 land, North Rhine - Westphalia and Bavaria, while lower in other federal states. 4073

MSWI gate fees influence gate fees for co-incineration

MSW gate fees (municipal sector) in Germany



4074

4075

Figure 48: Development of MSW gate fees in the German municipal sector from 4076 October 2009 until October 2010 (EUWID 2011) 4077

In RDF Power Plants, in 2007, waste co-incineration gate fees were in the 4078 range of about € 50 per tonne of waste, while they came up to € 400 per tonne 4079 in some waste incineration plants (SZ 2007). 4080

On the other hand, waste treatment prior to incineration causes considerable 4081 additional costs. Incineration overcapacities given, the concurrence among 4082 waste incinerators and/or co-incinerators can reduce incineration gate fees in 4083 an extent that WDF production may not pay any more. In 2009, some German 4084 waste treatment plants already had to stop operation due to lack of rentability 4085 (BVSE 2010). 4086

It is reported that future operators of German RDF Power Plants28 have to fix 4087 long-term contracts in advance that constantly cover about 50-70% of the 4088 plant’s capacity, because otherwise the project would not be financed by a 4089 bank. 4090

According to DEFRA (2008), in the UK, a gate fee of about 245 € (194 £)29 per 4091 tonne had to be paid for the incineration of MSW with a net calorific value of 4092 16 MJ/kg. 4093

According to UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2002), the costs of a waste incineration plant 4094 basically depend on following factors: 4095

Plant design 4096 Size 4097 Local infrastructure 4098

28 RDF Power Plants (German: “Ersatzbrennstoff-Kraftwerk”, “EBS-Kraftwerk”, “RDF-Kraftwerk”)

are Waste Incineration Plants according to WID, not co-incineration plants. 29 Calculation of Euro prices by means of the exchange rate of June 30th, 2008 of 1.26 € per £

(according to http://kurse.wienerborse.at/teledata_php/cc/currcalc.php )

Costs



Specific binding conditions for waste disposal 4099 Possibility for energy utilisation 4100

The main components are: 4101 Repayment of investment, 4102 Maintenance and re-investment costs, 4103 Personnel costs, 4104 Other fix costs such as administration and insurance, 4105 Operating costs proportional to throughput such as chemical supply and 4106 waste disposal, 4107

Revenues from energy production proportional to throughput. 4108 Basically it has to be considered that the thermal output is the important pa-4109 rameter for the investment and operating costs and not the mass throughput. 4110 The thermal output determines the size of the boiler and primarily the flue gas 4111 volume and therefore the size of the flue gas cleaning devices. 4112

4113

6.1.5 Influence of legislation 4114

Legislation, such as the European Landfill Directive and Recycling Directives, 4115 has a strong influence on the market situation for waste-derived fuels. 4116

Article 5(2) of the Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC) requires the reduction of 4117 biodegradable municipal waste (i.e. any waste that is capable of undergoing 4118 anaerobic or aerobic decomposition, such as food and garden waste, and paper 4119 and paperboard) going to landfills to 4120

75% by 16 July 2006, 4121 50% by 16 July 2009, 4122 35% by 16 July 2016, 4123

calculated on the basis of the total amount of biodegradable municipal waste 4124 produced in 1995 or the latest year before 1995 for which standardised Eurostat 4125 data is available. 4126

Member States which in 1995 or the latest year before 1995 for which standard-4127 ised EUROSTAT data is available put more than 80 % of their collected MSW to 4128 landfill may postpone the attainment of these targets maximum four years. 4129

Furthermore, according to Article 5(3) it requires that in 2003 no whole used 4130 tyres, excluding tyres used as engineering material, and in 2006 no shredded 4131 used tyres are accepted in a landfill. 4132

The figure below compiles available information (EEA 2009, EIONET 2009, EC 4133 2005 and CEWEP 2010) on the status of achieving diversion of biodegradable 4134 waste from landfill. 4135

4136

Landfill Directive



Targets already achieved 35% target will be achieved according to the Landfill Directive (i.e.2016) Achieving of 35% target postponed for 2 years (i.e. 2018) Achieving of 35% target postponed for 4 years (i.e. 2020) information not available

Figure 49: Status of diverting biodegradable waste from landfills (Source: 4137 Umweltbundesamt based on EEA 2009, EIONET 2009, EC 2005 and CEWEP 2010) 4138

Those Member States, which have already implemented diversion of biode-4139 gradable waste from landfills in most cases also ban landfill of combustible 4140 wastes (Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Austria, France and Swe-4141 den).Several Member States have strategies in place aiming at achieving the 4142 35% target in 2016 as required by the Landfill Directive (Ireland, Finland, Hun-4143 gary, Slovenia). Others used the possibility to postpone achieving of the targets. 4144 Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Latvia, Poland, Slovakia postponed 4145 the final target for 4 years; Italy for 2 years. No information on the schedule for 4146 achieving the targets is provided by the above mentioned references for Spain, 4147 Cyprus, Malta, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Portugal. 4148

Introduction of a complete landfill ban for biodegradable waste by 2020 to 2025 4149 is currently under consideration by the European Commission (EUWID, 2011). 4150

4151



European Waste Legislation requests – based on the Waste Hierarchy 4152 (WFD, Article 4) - targets for recycling, re-use or recovery of several waste 4153 streams. 4154

Recycling targets stipulated by the Packaging Directive, by the WEEE Direc-4155 tive and by the ELV Directive as well as recycling efficiencies requested for 4156 battery recycling processes by the Batteries Directive already have lead to 4157 changes in collection and treatment of waste streams containing considerable 4158 amounts of combustible material. Advanced sorting and recycling technologies 4159 were developed. Examples are automated sorting facilities for packaging waste, 4160 RDF-production plants, post-shredder installations and rubber material recycling 4161 processes. 4162

The recycling targets to be achieved for C&D waste (70%) and particular waste 4163 streams originating from households (50%) by 2020 - as stipulated by the new 4164 WFD - will furthermore lead to decreasing amounts of waste available for incin-4165 eration. 4166

For the German waste market, FRIEGE & FENDEL (2010) illustrate how the incin-4167 eration gate fee more than doubled when the landfill ban for biodegradable 4168 waste came into force at the beginning of 2005, and then fell back to its former 4169 level while incineration and co-incineration capacities were gradually increased 4170 (cf. Figure 50). 4171

4172

4173

Figure 50: Prices for incineration of organic waste in Germany (spot market) according to 4174 FRIEGE & FENDEL (2010) 4175

4176

6.1.6 Public support 4177

There are support programmes which aim mostly at reducing the amounts of 4178 waste going to landfill. 4179

For instance, there is a governmental support programme in the UK which is 4180 called the National Industrial Symbiosis Programme (NISP), which brings to-4181 gether producers, users and potentially aggregators of materials that would oth-4182 erwise be disposed of as waste, in order to support the WDF supply chain 4183 (DEFRA 2008). 4184

Packaging Directive, WEEE Directive, ELV Directive, Batteries Directive, WFD



6.1.7 Incineration capacities for MSW 4185

The availability of waste incineration capacities has an influence on gate fees 4186 and waste market prices. While in several EU-27 countries there are not yet 4187 enough capacities available and installations are currently being planned or un-4188 der construction, in other Member States such as Germany, Denmark, the 4189 Netherlands, Sweden or Austria have already built up sufficient capacities or 4190 are at the verge to overcapacities. 4191

In 2006, 30,100,000 t/year of mixed waste were generated in Germany (cf. 4192 Table 94). 4193

Table 94: Mixed waste generation in Germany in 2006 (NABU 2009a) 4194

Generation of mixed waste in Germany in 2006 Amount (t/year)

Waste from households 13,800,000

Bulky waste 2,400,000

Mixed commercial and industrial waste for disposal 5,400,000

Mixed commercial and industrial waste for recovery 8,500,000

Total 30,100,000 4195

In 2007, the construction of more than 80 new plants for waste incineration in 4196 Germany was announced. Even at that time it was predicted that future waste 4197 incineration capacities would be higher than the amounts of waste generated in 4198 Germany. Among others, about 20 so-called WDF Power Stations30 have taken 4199 up operation by 2008, which incinerate predominantly waste from the pulp and 4200 paper industry, waste plastics, waste oil and residues from waste sorting plants 4201 [SZ 2007; NABU 2010]. 4202

In 2008, the total capacity of mechanical and mechanical/biological waste 4203 treatment plants for mixed waste from households and from the commercial 4204 sector amounted to 5.9 million t/year. Further increase in capacities of 4205 120,000 t/year was planned at two sites (NABU 2009a). 4206

The theroretical WDF generation potential (medium and high LHV31) for the 4207 year 2008, assumed that the necessary waste treatment capacities were avail-4208 able, is estimated to amount to approximately 6.9 million tonnes, consisting of 4209 about 4.9 million tonnes of medium calorific and 2 million tonnes of high calorific 4210 WDFs. For the year 2020, a reduction in generation of these WDF fractions of 4211 13% compared to the 2008 amounts is expected due to the expected so-4212 ciographic development (NABU 2009a). 4213

Existing waste incineration and co-incineration capacities in Germany in the ref-4214 erence year 2008 are shown in Table 95. 4215

4216

30 German: „Ersatzbrennstoffkraftwerk“, abbreviated “EBS-Kraftwerk” 31 Medium calorific WDF fraction: „Ersatzbrennstoffe“

High calorific WDF fraction: „Sekundärbrennstoffe“

Germany: Incineration and co-incineration capacities



Table 95: Waste incineration and co-incineration capacities in Germany in 2008 4217 (NABU 2009a) 4218

Existing German waste incineration and co-incineration capacities (2008)

Amount (t/year)

MSW incinerators 18,500,000

WDF Power Plants (20 installations) 2,200,000

Co-incineration in the cement and lime industry and in power plants

2,000,000

Total 22,700,000 4219

Additional capacities of 6,880,000 t/year were already planned or under con-4220 struction in July 2009, i.e. an increase in capacities of approximately 30.3 % 4221 compared to July 2008. These new plants consist predominantly of WDF 4222 Power Stations. For the year 2020, the authors expect thermal treatment 4223 overcapacities for Germany that amount to about 15% of the relevant waste 4224 available on the inland market (NABU 2010a). 4225

4226

6.2 Biogas 4227

Influenced by the obligations and targets of the Renewables Energy Direc-4228 tive (2009/28/EC), the biogas is a product with a rapidly growing market in 4229 Europe. Waste fractions are only one out of various different possible sub-4230 strates for biogas production and contribute only to a minor extent to biogas 4231 production. 4232

Biogas and/or biomethane (i.e. upgraded biogas) are already used in Austria 4233 (BRAUN 2010), Denmark (EC 2003), Finland (RINTALA & MYKKÄNEN 2010), 4234 France (BASTIDE & THEOBALD 2010; DUMONT 2010), Germany (WEILAND 2010), 4235 Ireland (MURPHY 2010), Italy (WELLINGER 2007), Sweden (AVFALL 4236 SVERIGE 2008; PETERSSON 2010), and the United Kingdom (HARWOOD 2010). 4237

Predominantly, biogas is produced via Anaerobic Digestion (AD) from carbona-4238 ceous substrates such as agricultural products, industrial waste, biowaste or 4239 sewage sludge. By far the most important substrate for biogas production is ag-4240 ricultural crops such as maize. In AD, with the exception of sewage sludge di-4241 gestion, waste substrates contribute only to a minor extent of about 15% to bio-4242 gas production (cf. Chapter 5.2.1). 4243

Another biogas source is landfill gas which contains the gaseous decomposition 4244 products of deposited waste. Landfill gas can be used only for some years, as 4245 the gas amount produced in a landfill site continually decreases over time. It is 4246 usually used for electricity generation in small combustion engines on-site, i.e. it 4247 is not a traded good. 4248

In Europe, biogas from AD is used in three different ways: 4249 Electricity generation (most preferably in CHP plants), 4250 Feed-in into the natural gas grid, or as a 4251 Fuel in the mobility sector. 4252

Germany (2020): Incineration overcapacities of 15% expected

Growing market



Biogas producers are in most cases small operators, e.g. farmers (correspond-4253 ing to the fact that agricultural residues are predominantly used in anaerobic di-4254 gestion) or municipalities. 4255

As biogas production via AD requires considerable investment, long-term con-4256 tracts are a relevant basis for this investment, whatever the purpose of biogas 4257 production is. Thus, investment in an AD biogas production plant is typically 4258 calculated for a 20 years‘ period (CARMEN 2005). Biogas delivery contracts are 4259 accordingly set up for the long term. 4260

4261

According to BRAUN (2010), the average32 operating costs of biogas production 4262 and clean-up in Austria range from about 6-8 €ct/kWhth of produced and up-4263 graded biogas. Production contributes to about 66-75% and upgrade to about 4264 25-33% to the costs. Other factors such as filtration, oxygen injection or trans-4265 port costs only play a minor role in the production costs of the described plants. 4266

For Sweden, MÅRTENSSON (2010) reports biogas production costs to be in the 4267 range of 3.4 €ct/kWh from sewage treatment, 4.5 €ct/kWh from slaughterhouse 4268 waste and 4.9 €ct/kWh from energy crops. 4269

The investment costs for an anaerobic digestion plant for biogas production with 4270 combined heat and power production in a 500 kWel CHP unit are in the range of 4271 about 2 million € according to BRAUN (2010) as well as to EDER & KIRCHWEGER 4272 (2011), who evaluated the project data of several biogas plants recently erected 4273 in Lower Austria. 4274

According to WRAP (2010), in the UK, the gate fees for anaerobic digestion 4275 (AD) lie in the range of € 64-114 (£ 50-90) per tonne, the median being at 4276 € (£ 73). 4277

4278

In several Member States, electricity production from biogas has been encour-4279 aged by renewable energy feed-in tariffs for some years, which led to increasing 4280 numbers of biomass and waste AD plants. An overview about recent feed-in tar-4281 iffs for electricity produced from biogas is given in Table 96. 4282

32 Average values of 40 investigated Austrian plants.

Long-term contracts

Costs of biogas production

Electricity generation



Table 96: Electricity from Biogas – Comparison of Remuneration in €ct/kWh (excl. VAT) 4283 in the year 2010 (according to SAKULIN 2010) 4284

Agricultural substrates Non-agricultural substrates

100 kWel 500 kWel

1 MWel

100 kWel

500 kWel

1 MWel

€ct/kWh (excl. VAT)

Austria 18.5 16.5 13.0 14.8 13.2 10.4

Belgium 19.8 19.8 19.8 20.3 20.3 20.3

England & Wales 15.5 15.5 13.0 15.5 15.5 13.0

England & Wales – ROCs a) 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0

France b) 9.8-15.3 9.5-15.0 9.1-14.6 9.8-15.3 9.5-15.0 9.1-14.6

Germany c) 11.7 d)

- 30.7 e) 9.2 d)

- 25.2 e) 8.3 d)

- 19.3 e) 11.7 d)

- 19.7 f) 9.2 d)

- 17.2 f) 8.3 d)

- 15.3 f)

28 g) 28 g) 28 g) 18 g) 18 g) 18 g) Italy

28 h) 28 h) 28 h) 20 h) 20 h) 20 h)

Poland 11.4 11.4 11.4 11.4 11.4 11.4

Slovenia 15.6 i) - 18.9 j)

15.6 i)- 17.8 j)

14.1 i)- 16.0 j) 13.9 13.9 13.9

Spain 13.8 10.2 10.2 13.8 10.2 10.2 a) Renewables Obligation Certificate 4285 b) Minimum prices only consider the cogeneration rate (tariff 2010); maximum prices include 4286

cogeneration rate, methanisation bonus and the maximum overall efficiency bonus. 4287 c) Feed-in-tariffs (2009), plants which are started running during the following calendar years 4288

the payment sink yearly by 1%. 4289 d) Only basis price 4290 e) Includes basis price and all bonus without the landscape maintenance bonus 4291 f) Includes basis price, formaldehyde bonus (up to 500 kWel), technology bonus, technology 4292

bonus (processes raw-biogas up to 350 m³/h) and CHP bonus 4293 g) Option “fixed tariff” 4294 h) Option “green certificates”; factor K = 1.8 (agricultural substrates) or K = 0.8 (non-4295

agricultural substrates); a revenue due to energy sales of 8 €ct/kWh is included 4296 i) Base price 4297 j) Base price with different bonus – extra pays (supplement) 4298 4299

In Austria, an AD plant located at a Municipal Waste Water Treatment Plant 4300 using municipal sewage sludge as a substrate produces biomethane with 4301 upgrade units. In full load operation, the plant produces 750 m³/h of raw bio-4302 gas, yielding 450 m³/h of upgraded biomethane. The yearly biomethane produc-4303 tion amounts to about 3 million m³, which is equivalent to 50% of the Austrian 4304 biomethane production at the moment. Apart from use in the municipality’s mo-4305 bility sector (see below), the biogas from this plant is also supplied to private 4306 households, who have to pay 1.17 €cent more per kWh than for natural gas 4307 (LINZ AG 2010). 4308

About 5 million gas vehicles are in operation worldwide, which can poten-4309 tially be run on both natural gas and upgraded biogas. Most of them are so-4310 called bi-fuel engines, i.e. they are capable of running on both methane and 4311 gasoline. 4312

The Member State with the most relevant share of biomethane in the mobility 4313 sector is Sweden (cf. Chapter 5.3.10). In other Member States, e.g. Germany, 4314

Feed into the natural gas grid

Mobility



Finland (RINTALA & MYKKÄNEN 2010) and Austria, the use of biomethane in the 4315 mobility sector is already increasing. 4316

One normal m3 of natural gas or upgraded biogas corresponds to about one li-4317 tre of fuel oil. In the Swedish transport sector, the price for biogas compared on 4318 the basis of energy content is about 20-40% lower than the petrol price 4319 (MÅRTENSSON 2010). 4320

The use of biogas in the transport sector is not yet that common and often takes 4321 place in the form of single, independent biogas filling stations. E.g. in Austria 4322 three biogas filling stations of that kind exist at the moment33 (July 2011). The 4323 tanks are filled to a pressure of max. 220 bar, which is continually decreasing 4324 with biogas consumption, so that prices are usually given per kilogram of bio-4325 gas. Whereas the price for natural gas as fuel in Austria is above 90 €ct/kg, bio-4326 gas is sold at a slightly smaller price (BALA 2011). 4327

Furthermore, there are two digestion plants which supply the municipalities of 4328 Salzburg (OTS 2009) and Linz (LINZ AG 2010) with biomethane for the busses 4329 used in these cities’ public transport system, the latter deriving the biogas from 4330 an AD plant fermenting municipal sewage sludge. 4331

The EBA European Biogas Association34 was founded in 2009 and represents 4332 20 countries, 21 national organisations and several companies and research in-4333 stitutes (WELLINGER 2011a). 4334

4335

6.3 Biodiesel 4336

Biodiesel has been produced on an industrial scale in the European Union since 4337 1992, largely in response to positive signals from the EU institutions. There are 4338 more than 120 plants in the EU in operation, producing about 8 million tonnes of 4339 biodiesel in the reference year 2008. Germany and Spain are the member 4340 states with the largest yearly biodiesel production by far. With reference to re-4341 newable energy targets in the transport sector according to the Renewable En-4342 ergy Directive (2009/28/EC), biodiesel is a product with a rapidly growing mar-4343 ket. 4344

Nevertheless, there seem to exist significant overcapacities in the EU, as for 4345 2009, the degrees of capacity utilization are reported to be in the range of about 4346 41% in Western Europe and of about 30% in CEE countries. Germany, as 4347 Europe’s most relevant biodiesel producing country, is had a capacity utilization 4348 of 40% and experienced insolvency of one big and two smaller biodiesel plants 4349 (DÖRFLER 2010). 4350

For November 2010, market prices for non-refined rapeseed oil, which is the 4351 major substrate for biodiesel production, in the range of 950 – 1000 € per tonne 4352 are reported for Germany and Austria. Contrary to this identical price, the mar-4353 ket price for waste edible oil and fat, which is another important substrate for 4354 biodiesel production, is reported to be in the range of 600 – 650 €/t in Austria 4355 and 800 – 850 €/t in Germany respectively. The biodiesel price when sold at the 4356 production plant is given to be in the range of 950 €/t in Austria (DÖRFLER 2010). 4357

33 http://www.methapur.at/treibstoff.tankstellen.php 34 www.european-biogas.eu

EBA European Biogas Association

Growing market

Overcapacities



The share of waste-derived biodiesel is very small and is estimated to be in the 4358 range of about max. 5% of the biodiesel produced in the European Union (cf. 4359 Chapter 5.2.2). 4360

The market price for biodiesel is volatile and strongly depending on 4361 a) the market price for fossil diesel, with which it is directly competing in the 4362

mobility sector, and on 4363 b) the market price for vegetable oil, from which it is predominantly produced. 4364 Relevant products such as rapeseed methyl ester (RME), fatty acid methyl ester 4365 (FAME), soybean methyl ester (SME) or crude glycerine are traded on the stock 4366 exchange worldwide. 4367

In order to illustrate the price volatility, according to TEMPEL 2010, the prices 4368 for biodiesel at German filling stations ranged between 91.9 and 116.9 4369 €ct/litre in August 2010 (each including 18.6 €ct/litre energy tax and 19% VAT), 4370 while at the same time the price for fossil diesel ranged between 113.9 and 4371 125.9 €ct/litre in August 2010 (each including 47.04 €ct/litre energy tax and 4372 19% VAT). The average prices in four different regions of Germany ranged be-4373 tween 108.50 and 109.70 €ct/litre, the maximum changes of average prices 4374 compared to the previous week ranging between -1.97 and +1.20 €ct/litre. 4375

The EBB European Biodiesel Board35 was founded in 1997 and represents 4376 members from 20 European Member States as well as from Norway. 4377

4378

6.4 Bioethanol 4379

European bioethanol production is a small market compared to e.g. Brazil or 4380 the U.S., which produce each about ten times more than Europe. In 2008, 4381 the European bioethanol production amounted to 2.8 billion litres, while it 4382 amounted to 24.2 billion litres in Brazil and to 33.4 billion litres in the U.S. re-4383 spectively. Nevertheless, the European bioethanol market is rapidly growing, 4384 the production in the reference year 2008 being about 58% higher than in 2007 4385 (GAUPMANN 2009). 4386

The amount of waste in bioethanol substrates can be regarded as not rele-4387 vant (cf. also Chapter 5.2.3). According to ePURE (2011), in 2009, 60% of 4388 EU renewable fuel ethanol was produced from grains, primarily wheat and 4389 maize. 30% was produced from sugar beet (thick juice, molasses) and 10% 4390 from other sources (straw, organic waste, biomass, raw alcohol, whey, etc). E.g. 4391 in Germany, the share of other sources (including residues from the food indus-4392 try) in bioethanol production amounted to only 3% (TEMPEL 2010). 4393

In the fuel sector, bioethanol is blended with petrol in amounts of 5% (E5) ac-4394 cording to European Standard 228, and from 2011 on in amounts of 10% (E10). 4395 The market for 85% bioethanol blended with only 15% petrol (E85) is of minor 4396 relevance up to now, as the so-called FlexiFuel Vehicles (FFV) needed to use 4397 E85 are not widely-spread at the moment. Furthermore, bioethanol is brought to 4398 reaction with isobutene, in order to produce Ethyl-tertiary-butyl-ether (ETBE), an 4399 additive for petrol (up to 15% ETBE). 4400

Bioethanol is not only used for fuel purposes, but also for food and industrial 4401

35 http://www.ebb-eu.org/

Spot market

Price volatility

EBB European Biodiesel Board

Small share of the world market, but rapidly growing

Waste as substrate not relevant

Spot market



purposes. Trade takes place on a spot market. 4402

The economy of production strongly depends on the market for substrates such 4403 as corn, wheat or sugar beet. As an example, the only Austrian ethanol produc-4404 tion plant at Pischelsdorf36 started operation in 2007, but had to be stopped af-4405 ter only 12,000 tonnes produced, due to the skyrocketing prices of wheat in the 4406 second half of 2007. The production in Pischelsdorf was resumed in June 2008, 4407 when wheat prices had declined to a lower level (AEA 2010). 4408

According to TEMPEL (2010), in Germany the bioethanol prices differ strongly at 4409 the more than 300 German bioethanol filling stations. In August 2010, the prices 4410 for Bioethanol (E5) varied from 0.847 €/litre to 1.080 €/litre (average price 4411 0.939 €/litre). In June 2011, the prices for Bioethanol (meanwhile E10) varied 4412 from 0.949 €/litre to 1.319 €/litre (average price 1.072 €/litre) (ETHANOL 4413 TANKEN 2011). 4414

According to HENNIGES (2007), the cost for bioethanol production from wheat 4415 and sugar beet ranged, depending on the economy of scale, from 42.5 €ct/litre 4416 (400 million litres per year) to 51.4 €ct/litre (50 million litres per year). 4417

Formed by the merger of UEPA (European Union of Ethanol Producers) and 4418 eBIO (European Bioethanol Fuel Association), the European Renewable Etha-4419 nol Association ePURE37 represents companies that produce renewable etha-4420 nol in the EU for all end-uses, i.e. fuel, potable and industrial uses. Its member-4421 ship accounts for 80% of the installed renewable ethanol production capacity in 4422 Europe. 4423

4424

6.5 Pyrolysis Products 4425

Pyrolysis products are pyrolysis gas, oil and coke which are produced in varying 4426 shares depending on reaction parameters, i.e. reaction temperature in the first 4427 place. Pyrolysis being an endothermic process, the gas is usually incinerated 4428 on-site in order to keep the process running. 4429

Pyrolysis oil contains a variety of chemical species, some of them hazardous. 4430 Pyrolysis coke consists mainly of ashes and carbon black and contains also 4431 certain amounts of pyrolysis oil adsorbed to it (cf. Annex 1). At the moment, 4432 there is no evidence either of an existing market or of market prices being paid 4433 for pyrolysis oil or coke. 4434

According to EC (2003), there are some pyrolysis plants that use waste sub-4435 strates in the Netherlands. Other projects are under development in the UK 4436 (DEFRA 2010; POWRIE 2010). 4437

4438

6.6 Gasification Products 4439

Gasification products are synthesis gas, which contains high percentages of 4440 carbon monoxide and hydrogen, and solid residues (ash / slag). 4441

36 Annual production capacity of about 190.000 tonnes (240.000 m3) bioethanol per year, using

wheat, corn and sugar beet syrup as substrates. 37 http://epure.org/

Market price

Production cost

ePURE European Renewable Ethanol Association

Gas used for plant’s own energy demand

Gas, oil: Hazardous properties, no significant market existing



While there is no heating value left in the solid residues, the synthesis gas is 4442 usually used for energy production on-site or in a neighbouring plant, or may 4443 also be used as feedstock for petrochemical plants. 4444

If the syngas is not used on-site but delivered to a neighbouring plant, long-4445 term delivery contracts are the necessary precondition for investment into 4446 the gasification plant. Gas transport is usually effected via pipeline. Thus, no 4447 real market exists for this product. 4448

According to the NETL/DOE (2010), there are several gasification plants in 4449 Europe, using refinery residues, biomass and (predominantly wood) waste as 4450 input (e.g. Lahti Energia Oy in Finland, cf. Chapter 8.1.2.4 and 8.1.2.5). Waste 4451 plays only a minor role as input to these plants. 4452

4453

6.7 Waste Oil 4454

Waste oil is an inhomogeneous waste fraction that contains, depending on 4455 its origin, liquid hydrocarbons, solid hydrocarbons (often with lubricating 4456 properties), lubricants, cooling agents, emulsions / sludges / mixtures of hydro-4457 carbons with aqueous components (e.g. water, acids), silicon oils and soluble or 4458 solid contaminations originating from the production and former use of the 4459 waste oil. They are derived from the transport sector (e.g. fuel stations, ga-4460 rages), from various industrial branches as well as from households. Various 4461 hazardous contaminants can be contained in waste oil, e.g. aromatic com-4462 pounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), chlorinated biphenyls includ-4463 ing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), nitrite or other nitrogen compounds that 4464 may produce nitrosamines. According to the List of Waste, waste oil is regarded 4465 as hazardous waste. 4466

Legal requirements for waste oil treatment may vary from Member State to 4467 Member State. As an example, according to the German Waste Oil Ordi-4468 nance38 (AltölV), four different categories of waste oil are distinguished, 4469 which have to be collected separately and may not be mixed with each 4470 other. The Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance (AVV) defines input criteria 4471 for waste oil being co-incinerated that comprise limit values for several heavy 4472 metals and for PCB (cf. Chapter 7.4.1). 4473

Waste oils are subjected to different treatment steps, which often include at 4474 least separation of aqueous and oily phase (for emulsions) and sedimenta-4475 tion of solids. 4476

Recycling by means of distillation / rectification is possible. In Belgium, a 4477 plant with a capacity of 150.000 t/a is in operation that produces medium 4478 and light fuel oil products via thermal cracking of waste oils (REVATECH 2011). 4479

Considerable amounts of waste oil are subjected to direct energy recovery, 4480 e.g. in the cement industry. Partly, oils are also blended with other liquid or-4481 ganic waste in order to yield “Secondary Liquid Fuel” (SLF; cf. Chapter 6.9). 4482

38 Altölverordnung (AltölV) in der Fassung der Bekanntmachung vom 16. April 2002 (BGBl. I

S. 1368), die durch Artikel 2 der Verordnung vom 20. Oktober 2006 (BGBl. I S. 2298) geändert worden ist

Syngas: Long-term contracts, no trade

Hazardous waste

Varying legal requirements on MS level

Pre-treatment

Recycling

Energy recovery



According to their heating value and contaminant contents, there are gate fees 4483 as well as market prices for waste oil incineration, which range from about 4484 100 €/t gate fees to about 150-200 €/t market prices for waste oils of higher 4485 calorific value. Waste oils are predominantly incinerated in the cement industry, 4486 where they substitute fossil fuels. For the Austrian and German cement indus-4487 try, typical market prices for waste oil in the range of 50-100 € are reported. 4488

According to EC (2008), a gate fee of 30 € per tonne is paid to Greek cement 4489 plant operators for used oil with an LHV of 35.2 MJ/kg. 4490

4491

6.8 Edible Oil and Fat 4492

Edible oil and fat comprises various waste fractions of vegetable and animal 4493 origin, such as used cooking oil from restaurants and households or fat arising 4494 in the food industry. There are possibilities for recycling, for instance in the pro-4495 duction of lubricant or soap. 4496

The most important use for waste edible oil and fat of vegetable or animal origin 4497 is as a substrate for biodiesel production. It can be assumed that the main 4498 share of this WDF is used in the form of biodiesel in the transport sector. 4499

There are some examples of small CHP plants incinerating waste edible oil and 4500 fat. For instance, there is one example plant in Austria, where the local sewage 4501 board operates a CHP plant with 1.13 MW electrical and 1.35 MW thermal out-4502 put, and where 260 kg/hour of waste edible oil are incinerated in several sta-4503 tionary Diesel engines. Due to high NOx emissions of about 3,900 mg/Nm3, a 4504 catalytic DeNOx unit is obligatory. Thorough quality assurance in collection and 4505 pre-treatment of the waste oil are of highest importance in order to achieve con-4506 stant operation and minimize the duration of annual shut-down periods 4507 (CALLEGARI 2002; OELI 2011). According to CALLEGARI (2002), CHP plants in-4508 cinerating waste edible oil are economically feasible from a plant size of 1 MW 4509 electrical output onwards. 4510

Although there are some projects promoting virgin vegetable oils (e.g. rapeseed 4511 oil) as motor fuels, the use of waste edible oil and fat as a motor fuel has to be 4512 regarded as technically not fully developed. Technical problems occur e.g. re-4513 garding suitability for winter operation (heated tanks and tubes) or clogging of 4514 tubes and engine parts. Furthermore, vegetable oils show unfavourable storage 4515 properties as they are prone to oxidation, hydrolysis, polymerisation and enzy-4516 matic degradation. According to TEMPEL (2010), pure virgin vegetable oils ac-4517 counted for 100.000 kg of the yearly German motor fuel consumption (com-4518 pared to 900.000 kg of bioethanol and 2,5 million tonnes of biodiesel), whereas 4519 waste edible oil and fat is not mentioned in these statistics. 4520

In large amounts, waste edible oil is traded worldwide on a spot market, its price 4521 being connected to the market price of crude oil. 4522

For Austria and the year 1998, waste edible oil and fat treatment costs of 150-4523 290 € per tonne are reported, based on collected amounts of only 0.2 - 4524 0.3 kilogram per inhabitant and year (OELI 2004). Meanwhile, the collected 4525 amounts per inhabitant and year have increased to 0.7 kilogram (data for 2010, 4526 www.oeli.info) and the different paths for recycling and energetic recovery 4527 have further developed. As a consequence, considerable market prices are 4528 paid. For November 2010, market prices for waste edible oil and fat of 600-4529

Gate fees and market prices for co-incineration

Predominant use: Biodiesel substrate

Direct energetic use: Fuel in CHP plants

Direct energetic use: Motor fuel

Spot market

Market price



650 € per tonne for Austria and of 800-850 € per tonne for Germany are re-4530 ported (DÖRFLER 2010). Usually, municipalities, waste collectors and also some 4531 producers of edible oil and fat offer their customers cost-free collection. 4532

6.9 Waste Solvents 4533

Various non-halogenated and halogenated liquid hydrocarbons, mostly with 4534 low boiling points and considerable heating values, are used as solvents for 4535 industrial purposes. 4536

Solvents often have to be gained from liquid or solid industrial production 4537 residues by means of pre-treatment steps (e.g. liquid-liquid extraction, steam 4538 stripping, air stripping, adsorption processes). When collected after use, many 4539 of them contain residues from the processes in which they were used. Accord-4540 ing to the List of Waste, waste solvents are regarded as hazardous waste. 4541

Solvents can be recovered e.g. by distillation or rectification processes, 4542 which is mostly done if the solvent is thermally stable and has a high market 4543 price. According to IRISH EPA (2010), recovery costs are in the range of 110-4544 170 €/t for merchant waste recovery facilities or 75-140 €/t respectively for own 4545 recovery, both depending on the complexity of the recovery operation. The lat-4546 ter costs are lower than those for external recovery due to the reduction of the 4547 cost of transport, storage, cleaning and profit, while there is less risk of cross-4548 contamination. If secondary markets exist for the recovered solvent, then sol-4549 vent recovery is potentially profitable. In the case of methanol recovered for the 4550 Irish market, a profit of 114 €/t could be achieved estimated on the basis of a 4551 300 €/t income (100 €/t recovery gate fee, 200 €/t recovered solvent market 4552 price) versus 186 €/t costs (150 €/t recovery cost including residual waste dis-4553 posing, and 36 €/t transport cost)39. 4554

When recovery is technically or economically not feasible, solvents are sub-4555 jected to energy recovery. Especially in the cement industry, there is signifi-4556 cant demand for waste solvents as secondary fuels, resulting in market prices. 4557

With respect to quantity and constant waste solvent quality, buying waste 4558 solvents from a waste collector who blends the solvents is an option for op-4559 erators compared to buying from the waste solvents’ producers directly. Under 4560 the trade name of “Secondary Liquid Fuel” (SLF), various liquid waste fractions 4561 such as oils, non-halogenated and halogenated solvents, organic acids, distilla-4562 tion residues, solvent based inks / paints / adhesives, aqueous-organic mix-4563 tures, viscous organic liquids, amines and alkali are blended and sold 4564 (VEOLIA 2011). 4565

Use of blended solvent in cement kilns in Ireland is a low cost option, with a 4566 potential cost of € 36 per tonne (IRISH EPA 2010). According to EC (2003), in 4567 2001, there was no gate fee payable for waste solvents in the cement industry 4568 in Sweden, while in Belgium a gate fee of 0-446 €/t had to be paid. There is also 4569 indication for market prices for high calorific waste solvents in the European 4570 cement industry that amount to 50-60 €/t. 4571

For waste solvents arising in Ireland, IRISH EPA (2010) gives the following over-4572 view of recovery and incineration options: 4573

39 According to IRISH EPA (2010), for methanol, a price of up to 250 €/t for recovered solvent

seems plausible, while the market price for the virgin solvent is in the range of 360 €/t.

Hazardous waste

Pre-treatment

Recycling

Energy recovery

SLF production

Market price



4574

Table 97: Cost estimates (€/tonne) for various recovery / disposal options for waste sol-4575 vents generators in Ireland. (IRISH EPA 2010) 4576

Cost [€ per Tonne] Total Cost

Option Gate Fee Transport/

Handling Cost Lowest

Estimate Highest

Estimate

Material recovery (In-house)

0 € 0 € Net Saving* (+ 198 €)

Net Saving*(+ 235 €)

Material recovery with credit (Export to UK)

- 100 € to 0 € 124 € 24 € 124 €

Material recovery (Ireland / Soltec process)

100 € 36 € 136 € 136 €

Fuel recovery (Ireland, cement kiln)

0 € 36 € 36 € 36 €

Fuel recovery (Export to UK)

0 € 124 € 124 € 124 €

Incineration (Domestic, on-site)

150 € 36 € 186 € 186 €

Incineration (Export to UK)

150 – 350 € 113 – 135 € 263 € 486 €

*) Net savings estimated under the supposition of an in-house Solvent Recovery Unit 4577 (SRU) 4578

4579

6.10 Industrial Liquid Waste Concentrates 4580

The term “industrial liquid waste concentrates” (with the exception of waste oil 4581 and waste solvents and SLF, which are treated separately) comprises predomi-4582 nantly aqueous solutions originating from various industrial processes, contain-4583 ing a broad variety of soluble chemical substances. 4584

One aqueous solution arising in industry in large amounts is black liquor, resi-4585 due of the pulp and paper production process. Black liquor is a complex solution 4586 of inorganic and organic compounds, the latter comprising e.g. lignin, polysac-4587 charides (cellulose, hemi-cellulose), resin acids and fatty acids. In the European 4588 Pulp & Paper Industry, black liquor is usually incinerated on-site in special liquor 4589 boilers, generating heat from the organic compounds which is used for the en-4590 ergy demand of the production process, and at the same time recovering the 4591 inorganic compounds of the black liquor in order to recycle them in the process. 4592 Black liquor is not a WDF within the scope of this study, as it is usually ac-4593 counted for as a biomass fuel. Furthermore, it is explicitly excluded from the 4594 scope of the Waste Incineration Directive (WID) according to Article 2 (b) (iii) 4595 WID, if it is co-incinerated at the place of production and the heat generated is 4596 recovered. The latter being usually the case in the P&P industry, which oper-4597 ates energy-intensive processes, black liquor is usually not sold on the market. 4598

Other industrial liquid waste concentrates may arise e.g. as mother liquors, 4599 washing water from purification of products, vapour condensates, quench water, 4600 waste water from exhaust air / flue gas clean-up, waste water from equipment 4601 cleaning or waste water from vacuum generation, which vary significantly from 4602

Pulp & Paper Industry: Black liquor Not waste within the scope of this study, not sold on the market

No significant Energy content, no indication of a market



each other depending on the industrial process they originate from. In Eurostat 4603 COMEXT data, no indication for trade of these liquids can be found. In case that 4604 these mostly aqueous liquids are incinerated, this has to be seen as a disposal 4605 operation, as no significant energy content can be attributed to these liquid 4606 waste streams. 4607

Liquid waste from various industrial branches is disposed of either by co-4608 incineration (often in an on-site existing energy boiler) or by other processes 4609 especially designed for this application, as e.g. by wet oxidation. If disposed of 4610 externally, the waste producer has to pay for the respective treatment. 4611

4612

6.11 Wood Waste 4613

Waste wood arises mainly in the three areas Construction and Demolition 4614 (C&D), Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and Commercial and Industrial Waste 4615 (C&I). Both tonnages and sources are unpredictable and materials are often 4616 mixed with other types of waste. 4617

In terms of waste production, wood products for construction, used railway 4618 sleepers and utility poles dominate in the C&D sector. In C&I, large amounts 4619 of wood waste are generated from packaging material (e.g. cases, pallets). The 4620 main commercial and industrial wood waste producers are manufacturers of 4621 panel board and furniture. 4622

There are usually a large number of small private sector wood waste aggrega-4623 tors (accumulators) who are predominantly focused on aggregating high grades 4624 of wood waste, for consecutive material recovery e.g. in the chipboard industry. 4625 Only a small number of aggregators are focused on low-grade wood waste, due 4626 to an only smaller demand for these wood fractions. Aggregators often get the 4627 wood waste from transfer stations or Civic Amenity (CA) sites. 4628

Energetic recovery of wood waste often takes place in commercial and indus-4629 trial sectors that generate large amounts of wood waste, such as panelboard or 4630 furniture manufacturers. These larger CHP boilers operated in these sectors are 4631 sometimes WID compliant and thus can accept wood waste delivered from ex-4632 ternal sources as well. The European Emission Trading Scheme (EU-ETS) 4633 made waste wood attractive also for power generators (e.g. one example plant 4634 in Austria uses waste wood). 4635

Smaller CHP boilers for wood waste in most cases are not WID compliant and 4636 incinerate only high grade wood waste. As they incinerate only wood waste 4637 fractions that are not waste in the definition of the WID, these small boilers 4638 compete on the market with material recovery of high grade wood waste. 4639

Typically producers enter into relatively short term disposal contracts or act 4640 on the basis of one-off arrangements. The contractual arrangements offer 4641 slightly lower disposal prices for segregated waste wood, which will depend 4642 on the quality of the wood and level of contamination. 4643

According to DEFRA (2008), aggregators’ output contractual arrangements vary 4644 according to the nature of the outlet. Typically the supply of materials to recy-4645 clers tend to be on a ‘spot basis’, with no penalties for failure to supply. It is 4646 unlikely that materials are accepted by aggregators without a clear secondary 4647 use. 4648

Disposal operations

Players

Contractual arrangements



Larger aggregators have developed arrangements to supply wood waste as a 4649 biomass fuel which include typical ‘take or pay’ contract provisions, including: 4650

A fuel cost is paid by users for high quality, guaranteed supply of clean or 4651 contaminated wood; 4652

Long term contract with users (~10years); 4653 Certificate of compliance with output specification (provided by a third party); 4654 Price sharing arrangements linked to the moisture content; 4655 Penalties paid by aggregator for non-supply; 4656 Penalties paid by user for non-acceptance; and 4657 Prices index linked to the Retail Prices Index / landfill tax and fuel cost 4658

Large producers of waste wood, such as the panel board and furniture indus-4659 tries typically have a degree of self sufficiency through established processes 4660 for the recovery or reuse of waste materials. They usually operate biomass 4661 CHP boilers who may comprise, as e.g. in Austria, also a number of WID com-4662 pliant boilers. The supply of waste wood that can be incinerated as an additional 4663 fuel is usually based on shorter term contracts than e.g. RDF, which is typically 4664 bought and sold based upon longer term contracts (cf. German RDF Power 4665 Plants, Chapter 6.1.4.). 4666

The wood waste supply chain and prices that are indicative for the UK wood 4667 waste market in the reference year 2008 (DEFRA 2008) are given in Figure 51: 4668

4669

Producer

Transfer Station / CA site

Aggregator

User(Low grade

wood waste)

User(High grade wood waste)

€ 45-57(£ 35-45) + handling costs

(2)

(3) (4)

€ 45-57(£ 35-45)

(1)

€ 25(-45)(£ 20(-35))

€ 32-50(£ 25-40)

4670

Figure 51: Wood waste supply chain in the UK for the reference year 2008 (Sources: 4671 DEFRA 2008, WRAP 2009; figure adapted by Umweltbundesamt) 4672

1) Producers pay € 45-57 (£ 35-45) plus handling costs to the transfer sta-4673 tion / CA site for the disposal of the wood waste, the price depending on the 4674 degree of segregation and quality of the fraction. 4675 In the UK, Construction and demolition waste is typically disposed of using 4676 skips, for which the British disposal costs in 2008 ranged from about € 50 to 4677

Market Prices in the UK



€ 191 (£ 40 to £ 150) per tonne. The financial incentive for building contrac-4678 tors to separate wood waste from other waste amounts to about € 25 (£ 20) 4679 per tonne, which is regarded as unlikely to be a sufficient incentive to oper-4680 ate separate skips according to DEFRA (2008). 4681

2) The transfer station / CA site pays the aggregator (accumulator) € 45–57 4682 (£ 35-45) for disposal of the wood waste, the price depending on the degree 4683 of segregation and quality of the fraction. The price may be up to the current 4684 cost of landfill. 4685

3) For high grade wood waste, the user pays the aggregator a fee for wood fuel 4686 in the range of about € 25 (£ 20), which may be up to € 45 (£ 35). The wood 4687 waste must meet an output specification and supply requirements. 4688

4) For low grade wood waste that goes into incineration, the aggregator will 4689 rather pay about € 32-50 (£ 25-40) to the operator of the incineration plant, 4690 the price once again depending on the quality of the fraction. The wood 4691 waste must meet an output specification and supply requirements. 4692

For high quality as well as for low quality wood waste, on the British market 4693 prices change infrequently, which is supposed to be due to it being costly for 4694 wood recyclers to review whether their prices are consistent with current de-4695 mand and supply conditions. Pricing is rather reviewed after a particular period 4696 of time or in response to particular events (WRAP 2009). 4697

4698

Figure 52: Wood waste price on the British market between 2005 and 2009 4699 (Source: WRAP 2009, figure adapted by Umweltbundesamt) 4700

As shown in Figure 52, the maximum price paid by board mills between 2005 4701 and 2009 is about € 25 (£ 20) and does not show much disparity. 4702

The midpoint of the gate prices for high grade wood waste has risen in 2007 4703 and fallen twice in 2009. At end June 2009, it stood at € 6 (£ 5) per tonne, the 4704 difference between the highest and the lowest price being € 13 (£ 10) per tonne, 4705 the absolute price ranging between € 13 (£ 10) and 0 € (£) per tonne of high 4706 grade wood waste. 4707

At the same time, the gate fee that the waste owner has to pay for low grade 4708 wood waste disposal shows inverse development, rising from € 20 (£ 16) to 4709 € 40 (£ 32) in 2007, and then rising again to € 29 (£ 23) in 2009. The difference 4710 between the highest and the lowest price being € 19 (£ 15) per tonne, the abso-4711



lute gate fee ranges between about € 10 (£ 7.5) and € 29 (£ 22.5) per tonne of 4712 low grade wood waste. 4713

The development of maximum and minimum market prices for untreated, 4714 treated and contaminated wood waste on the German market is given in Figure 4715 53. Untreated wood has always had a positive market price between 2001 and 4716 2010. For treated wood, gate fees had to be paid in 2002, but prices gradually 4717 raised and now gate fees as well as market prices can be found. For contami-4718 nated wood, whereas up to € 75 gate fee per tonne had to be paid by the waste 4719 owner in 2002, the prices continually raised and are now in the range of € 10 4720 (gate fee) to € 20 (market price) per tonne. 4721

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

40

60

04.2001 09.2002 01.2004 05.2005 10.2006 02.2008 07.2009 11.2010 04.2012

pric

e [€

/t]

Wood waste (Germany)

untreated treated contaminated 4722 Figure 53: Development of minimum and maximum prices for untreated, treated and 4723 contaminated wood waste in Germany (EUWID 2011) 4724

In Germany, a landfill ban for biodegradable and high calorific waste entered 4725 into force in 2005. Starting on an already high level at that time, the WID com-4726 pliant incineration capacities in Germany were continuously raised in conse-4727 quence, leading to currently existing overcapacities. Especially a large number 4728 of so-called „WDF Power Stations“40, which are in spite of their name not per-4729 mitted as co-incineration but as incineration plants according to WID, were set 4730 into operation during the past few years. As waste incineration and co-4731 incineration capacities grew, the waste incineration operators entered into in-4732 creasing competition for high calorific waste-derived fuels. In consequence, the 4733 maximum gate fee for contaminated low-grade wood waste dropped from € 75 4734 per tonne in 2002 to € 15 per tonne in 2010. As Figure 53 shows, starting from 4735 2002 it has been possible for waste owners to even create revenues by selling 4736 low-grade wood waste to incineration and co-incineration operators (cf. the up-4737 per red curve in Figure 53). For wood waste, this market development was addi-4738 tionally enforced by a highly efficient German Renewable Energy Sources 4739 Law41, giving strong incentives for industrial intensive energy consumers to 4740 raise the percentage of energy derived from renewable energy sources. 4741

40 German: „Ersatzbrennstoffkraftwerk“ 41 Gesetz für den Vorrang Erneuerbarer Energien (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz – EEG),

http://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/inhalt/47585/4596

Market prices in Germany

Comparison UK and German Markets



Contrary to that, according to DEFRA (2008), the UK wood waste market is still 4742 in a position where larger WID compliant combustion capacities with better 4743 geographical distribution have to be built up and stronger incentives for renew-4744 able energy use to be created. Aggregation points and supply chains for waste 4745 wood are in their infancy, but are already growing and expected to grow further. 4746

As a consequence (cf. Figure 52 and Figure 53), the maximum gate fees that 4747 had to be paid to (co-)incineration operators for low-grade wood waste in the 4748 reference year 2008, in the UK market (ca. € 50/tonne) amounted to more than 4749 the double gate fee paid in Germany (ca. € 20/tonne) at the same time. The 4750 market price levels for high-grade wood waste in both countries did not and still 4751 do not differ that much from each other and can be found in the range of € 20-4752 25 per tonne in both countries. This may be due to the fact that non-4753 contaminated wood waste, as it is used in biomass boilers or for recycling e.g. 4754 in the panel board industry, can be more easily traded also between Member 4755 States and thus faces a more international market with similar price levels 4756 across the EU. 4757

4758

6.12 Waste Tyres, Waste Rubber 4759

Tyres are subjected to material recovery, e.g. for paving sport ground (runway, 4760 sport fields), in the automobile industry, architecture and equipment and in geo-4761 technical applications (e.g. asphalt additive). 4762

Indicative costs, revenues and profits for different waste tyres recovery op-4763 tions in Western Europe according to OECD (2005) are given in Figure 54 4764

4765 Figure 54: Financial costs of various recycling and waste management options in West-4766 ern Europe (OECD 2005) 4767

4768

For the UK, market prices of shredded tyre products that can be used in 4769 building and construction in the UK are given in Table 98 according to 4770 WRAP (2007): 4771

Treatment costs (Western Europe, 2005)

Recovery



Table 98: Value of size-reduced materials derived from waste tyres, approx. figures from 4772 manufacturers, 2006 (WRAP 2007) 4773

Material Approximate price per tonne42

Description Application

Coarse shreds (30-50 mm)

€ 7.2 (£ 5) ex works

Large tyre shreds with steel and fibre present

Civil engineering

Shreds (5-25 mm)

€ 86.7 (£ 60)

Flat thin particles; textile fi-bre present

Equestrian surfaces / paths

Small shreds / gran-ules with fibre (10 mm single size)

€ 145 (£ 100)

Flat thin particles; textile fi-bre present

Equestrian surfaces / paths

Rubber granules (2-5 mm)

€ 145-173.5 (£ 100-120)

Virtually single size shred material, minimal textile fibres

Playground surfac-ings / turf reinforcements

Tyre fibre € 7.2 (£ 5)

(Rayon / nylon with some rubber)

None currently

Buffings € 57.8-72.3 (£ 40-50)

Fibre-like rubber particles up to 3 mm long, minimal textile fibre content, some finer material

None currently

Dust € 7.2 (£ 5)

Fine ungraded material (approx. 2 mm down)

None currently

4774

There is not always a market available for material recovery of waste tyres. In 4775 some Member States, the domestic market is rather limited and does not show 4776 a significant demand for the reprocessed product. Rubber grinding is very en-4777 ergy intensive, which raises treatment costs. As a result, there exists treatment 4778 capacity, but operation is not always economically feasible, as this is e.g. the 4779 case in Hungary (HUNGARIAN NATIONAL WNP 2003-2008). 4780

Cement kilns are the most common installations for co-incineration of tyres, as 4781 they usually do not have to shred the tyres but may use entire waste tires, 4782 which is reported to save about 20 € shredding cost per tonne. 4783

According to EC (2003), in 2001, the incineration of waste tyres in cement kilns 4784 in Luxembourg is free, whereas in the UK a gate fee of about 50–65 € (30-40 £) 4785 per tonne was charged. 4786

According to EC (2008), an average gate fee for waste tyres of 20 € per tonne 4787 is paid to Greek cement plant operators. 4788

It is assumed that transporting whole tyres for material recycling and energy re-4789 covery is not economically feasible over distances beyond approximately 150 to 4790 250 kilometres (OECD 2005). 4791

4792

4793

4794

42 Calculation of Euro prices by means of the exchange rate of June 30th, 2006 of 1.45 € per £

(according to http://kurse.wienerborse.at/teledata_php/cc/currcalc.php)

Market prices for recovered tyres (UK, 2006)

Limited market for recovery

Energy recovery



6.13 Waste Plastics 4795

Waste plastics are collected separately from households as well as from com-4796 mercial and industrial sources. The qualities, composition and contamination of 4797 these waste fractions vary significantly depending on their origin, i.e. if they are 4798 production residues or post-consumer plastics, how high the percentage of im-4799 purities is, if they contain only one or a few different kinds of plastic materials or 4800 if they are e.g. low-quality sorting residues from mechanical treatment and sort-4801 ing plants. 4802

The term “thermal fraction” is used for the plastic-rich and high-calorific frac-4803 tion derived from mechanical treatment (MT) or mechanical-biological treat-4804 ment (MBT) of municipal solid waste and other waste fractions. This fraction 4805 is generally incinerated or co-incinerated (payment of gate fees to the operator 4806 of the energy recovery plant). For the energetically recovered plastic fraction 4807 (“thermal fraction” from MT and MBT plants) incineration gate fees of about 80 € 4808 per tonne are reported which have to be paid to the operator of the (co-4809 )incineration plant. 4810

Production residues are in general of high quality and often used on-site in 4811 the installation they are originating from. If this is not the case, they are sold 4812 on the market as granulate or foil and can achieve high market prices of 4813 several hundred € per tonne, depending on the material. Production residues 4814 usually are not subjected to energy recovery, but traded on the stock market for 4815 material recovery (prices cf. Figure 55). 4816

Mixed plastic waste comprises the plastic packaging waste originating from 4817 the domestic waste stream. It includes products made of different polymer 4818 types used for packaging purposes, such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene 4819 (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or Polystyrol (PS). 4820

Plastic bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) may also be contained 4821 in this waste stream, but are in many Member States already collected sepa-4822 rately due to a comparatively high market price of PET compared to other pack-4823 aging plastic material and to its constant quality: Contrary to e.g. PE and PP, 4824 there are not hundreds of different material qualities brought to the market, and 4825 due to its good recyclability recycled PET may even be used for food and drink 4826 packaging. 4827

Mixed plastic waste is also one of the high-calorific input streams used for 4828 RDF and SRF production. 4829

“Bioplastics” have been increasingly produced and placed on the European 4830 market, for instance for food packing or plastic carrier bags production. Nev-4831 ertheless, the use of bioplastics amounts to only 0.1 to 0.2 per cent of total EU 4832 plastics use (EC 2011). They are either: 4833

Not based on renewable raw materials, but biodegradable / compostable 4834 (e.g. synthetic polyesters, polyvinyl alcohol), 4835

Based on renewable raw materials, but non-biodegradable 4836 (e.g. PE and PVC from bioethanol, polyamides) or 4837

Based on renewable raw materials and biodegradable 4838 (e.g. polylactide (PLA), polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHA) or polymers based on 4839 starch or cellulose). 4840

Gate fees for thermal fraction

Market prices for production residues

Mixed plastics

SRF production

“Bioplastics”



Most of these plastics are produced on the basis of an agricultural feedstock, 4841 such as sugar, starch, vegetable oils and cellulose, but also food residues. Syn-4842 thetic components are used for performance reasons, e.g. processing aids, ad-4843 ditives, colours, inks, glue (DARTEE 2009). According to LAUSSMANN ET 4844 AL. (2010), the calorific values (HHV) of biopolymers are lower than those of 4845 conventional polymers, while the gaseous air contaminants of both groups 4846 seem comparable. According to EUROPEAN BIOPLASTICS (2011), compostable 4847 bioplastics certified according to EN 13432 potentially have lesser environ-4848 mental impacts due to controlled low levels of heavy metals (no indication is 4849 given, if this means mg/kg or mg/MJ). 4850

There are recycling targets for waste plastics and waste fractions containing 4851 plastic defined for European Member States: 4852

Waste from households including plastic waste: 50% recycling by 2020 (cf. 4853 Article 11 WFD) 4854

Packaging waste: 22.5% by 2008 (cf. Article 6, Packaging Directive43), 4855 Plastics contained in end-of-life vehicles (ELV; cf. Article 7 ELV Directive44), 4856 Plastics contained in waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE; cf. 4857 Article 7 WEEE Directive45), 4858

Plastics contained in batteries and accumulators (cf. Article 12 Batteries Di-4859 rective46). 4860

Thus, high-grade waste plastic fractions are predominantly recycled, whereas 4861 only low-grade plastic fractions are subjected to energy recovery. For 2008, the 4862 amount of waste plastics used for energy recovery47 in the EU amounted to 4863 about 6.5 million tonnes, whereas approximately 7.2 million tonnes were recy-4864 cled and 2.2 million tonnes exported to non-EU countries. 4865

The prices for virgin as well as for recovered plastics correlate significantly with 4866 the crude oil market price. Recovered polymers are generally traded based on a 4867 percentage of the virgin material price, which applies also for high-grade pro-4868 duction residues. 4869

Figure 55 shows the development of polyethylene (PE) production residues be-4870 tween 2001 and 2010, according to EUWID (www.euwid.de). Prices of col-4871 oured HDPE, colourless HDPE, coloured LDPE and colourless LDPE are con-4872 sidered, the red line showing the minimum and the blue line the maximum of the 4873 respective market price range. In course of the economic crisis of 2008, the 4874 maximum and minimum market prices for PE production residues each de-4875 creased by about one third. 4876

4877

43 Directive 94/62/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 1994 on

packaging and packaging waste 44 Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on

end-of life vehicles 45 Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on

waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) 46 Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on

batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators and repealing Directive 91/157/EEC

47 including also a marginal amount of D10 incineration

Recycling targets

Market

Prices

High prices for production residues



0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

12.1999 04.2001 09.2002 01.2004 05.2005 10.2006 02.2008 07.2009 11.2010 04.2012

pric

e [€

/t]

PE production residues

max price [€/t] min price [€/t] 4878 Figure 55: Price development of PE production residues (which will predominantly be 4879 subjected to recycling) in Germany from 2001 to 2010 (EUWID 2011). 4880

For plastic production residues as well as recyclable post-consumer plastics, 4881 market prices of several hundred € per tonne can be achieved. 4882

4883

6.14 Waste Paper 4884

Waste paper is collected separately at households, commercial and industrial 4885 sources. Quality and composition of waste paper fractions can vary significantly 4886 according to their places of origin. 4887

Waste paper is subjected to the following recycling targets: 4888

Waste from households including plastic waste: 50% recycling by 2020 (cf. 4889 Article 11 WFD) 4890

Packaging waste: 22.5% by 2008 (cf. Article 6, Packaging Directive43), 4891 European Standard CEN EN 643 specifies standard grades of recovered 4892 paper and board, classifying the following five groups for waste paper and 4893 describing those waste paper fractions which are the most commonly traded 4894 in the EU: 4895

Group 1: Ordinary qualities (11 subgroups), 4896 Group 2: Medium grades (12 subgroups), 4897 Group 3: High grades (19 subgroups) 4898 Group 4: Kraft grades (8 subgroups), and 4899 Group 5: Special grades (7 subgroups). 4900

Group 5 materials (“Special grades”) can, in most cases, only be recycled using 4901 specific processes, or can cause particular constraints to recycling. Recycling of 4902 these wastepaper qualities can only be done by a limited number of mills lo-4903 cated in a few countries only. 4904

Waste paper that contains large amounts of material unusable for paper pro-4905 duction (e.g. metal, plastic, glass, textiles, wood, sand and building material, 4906 synthetic material, and synthetic papers) cannot be used for material recov-4907 ery. Recovered paper from refuse sorting stations is explicitly mentioned in 4908 the European Standard as not suitable for use in the paper industry. These 4909 grades of paper and board are for most paper mills unsuitable as raw, as they 4910

Recycling targets

Waste paper qualities

Waste paper not suitable for material recovery



can cause damage to equipment or make the whole consignment of paper un-4911 usable. 4912

Increasing numbers of pulp and paper mills have adapted treatment plants to 4913 handle such grades. Thus, the range and amounts of waste paper qualities that 4914 can be subjected to material recovery have increased during the past few years. 4915

In former days, paper mills traditionally bought their waste paper input material 4916 from mill-owned or independent merchants for recovered paper. Nowadays, the 4917 sorting of waste paper is often effected by waste management companies. 4918

Waste paper is traded on the spot market. 4919

Usually, only residues from paper and cardboard recycling, i.e. rejects and fibre 4920 sludges, are subjected to energy recovery. For Austria, incineration gate fees in 4921 the range of 80 €/t are reported. 4922

Figure 56 shows the development of maximum and minimum market prices for 4923 waste paper („mixed bales“) in Germany, France, Italy and the UK between 4924 2001 and 2010. During the 2008 economic crisis, the prices dropped dramati-4925 cally and rapidly from a price range of 60 to 90 € per tonne to not more than 4926 10 € per tonne, being even in the range of gate fees in France for a short pe-4927 riod. 4928

4929

4930 Figure 56: Development of maximum and minimum market prices for waste paper 4931 („mixed bales“) in Germany, France, Italy and the UK between 2001 and 2010 4932 (EUWID 2010, no distinction between incineration and recycling is made). 4933

As shown in Figure 56, waste paper has in general volatile market prices, but it 4934 can be assumed that these waste paper qualities are rather subjected to mate-4935 rial recovery than to energy recovery. 4936

The data source does not distinguish between prices for recycling and incinera-4937 tion. Prices can be assumed to be paid for recycling. 4938

4939

Market

Gate fees for energy recovery

Market prices for high-grade material



6.15 Waste Textiles 4940

Waste textiles arise in the form of used clothes, textile production waste, car-4941 pets etc. This waste fraction consists of natural fibres such as cotton and wool 4942 as well as of various synthetic fibres. 4943

Separately collected waste textiles are manually sorted and separated into sev-4944 eral qualities with different purposes, while a smaller part is exported without 4945 prior sorting. 4946

In Austria and Germany, the amount of waste textiles going through recycling 4947 business amounts to only about 30%, in the UK 25% respectively (HANER & 4948 BARTL 2010). It can be assumed that the main part of waste textiles are both 4949 brought directly to charity organisations by the waste owners and disposed of 4950 via municipal solid waste collection. 4951

According to WER-ENTSORGT-WAS.DE (2011), on the German market about one 4952 third of the collected waste textiles is exported without being sorted, while about 4953 two thirds are manually sorted and yield the following waste textiles fractions: 4954

~ 40% can be reused as clothes and are sold on the European market or 4955 exported to Eastern European or African countries, 4956

~ 35% are recycled as raw material for the production of cleaning rags 4957 (used in machinery and automobile industry), 4958

~ 10% are recycled as raw material for the production of fleece (used in 4959 spinning and weaving mills), 4960

~ 5% are recycled in the Pulp and paper industry (e.g. for the production of 4961 roofing cardboard), and 4962

~ 10% are subjected to disposal (incineration and landfill). 4963 Waste textiles are traded world-wide. Their market price is depending on the 4964 market price for primary fibres and for new clothes. 4965

For waste textiles that are subjected to sorting, a market price of about 100 € 4966 per tonne is reported. It can be assumed that most of these textiles are not in-4967 cinerated, but either re-used or recycled. 4968

According to HANER & BARTL (2010), most sorting centres in European capitals 4969 have been shut down due to high labour costs. Recycling of textiles is a self-4970 paying business, but sometimes collectors have economical problems. 4971

Sorting costs of about 100 € per tonne of waste textiles are reported. 4972

For incineration of waste textiles, a gate fee has to be paid to the operator of 4973 the incineration plant. 4974

4975

6.16 Biowaste (in the meaning of the WFD) 4976

Biowaste in the meaning of the WFD comprises biodegradable garden and park 4977 waste, food and kitchen waste from households, restaurants, caterers and retail 4978 premises and comparable waste from food processing plants. In its original 4979 status of arising, biowaste is not able to be incinerated directly. Highly energy-4980 intensive and cost-intensive processes would be needed in order to produce re-4981 covered fuel from biowaste that is fit for incineration (cf. ARLT 2003). 4982

Market

Cost

Gate fees



It can be assumed that the only fraction of biowaste which is separated as 4983 screening overflow at composting plants and mechanical pre-treatment before 4984 anaerobic digestion is fit for use as a solid WDF. This fraction, which consists of 4985 mainly of biowaste material with a higher content of wood (e.g. branches of 4986 trees and bushes) is estimated to amount to about 5% of separately collected 4987 and mechanically treated biowaste. Recent investigations in Germany (FRICKE 4988 ET AL. 2009) indicate that those fractions might have too high contents of impuri-4989 ties and too low energy contents to live up to common quality standards for 4990 WDF. Rather than being incinerated, those fractions will be subjected to an-4991 aerobic digestion. 4992

According to ARLT (2003), the costs for biowaste treatment show significant in-4993 fluence of economy of scale and arise to about (minimum and maximum of the 4994 ranges given): 4995

Shredder: 4996 o 34 € per tonne dry mass 4997

(for a throughput of 1.8 tonnes dry mass per hour) 4998 o 8 € per tonne dry mass 4999

(for a throughput of 17.3 tonnes dry mass per hour) 5000 Hacker: 5001

o 45 € per tonne dry mass 5002 (for a throughput of 1.2 tonnes dry mass per hour) 5003

o 9 € per tonne dry mass 5004 (for a throughput of 13.2 tonnes dry mass per hour) 5005

Drum sieve, including air classifier and metal separation: 5006 o 6.5 € per tonne dry mass 5007

(for a throughput of 7.1 tonnes dry mass per hour) 5008 o 3.5 € per tonne dry mass 5009

(for a throughput of 20.3 tonnes dry mass per hour) 5010 5011

5012

6.17 RDF 5013

The term “Refuse-derived Fuel (RDF)” covers a wide range of waste fuels that 5014 are derived from waste, as e.g. from the waste sources 5015

Commercial and Industrial (C&I) waste, 5016 Municipal solid waste (MSW), 5017 Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste, 5018 Packaging waste etc. 5019

Most of these waste sources are non-hazardous waste, but there are also 5020 waste-derived fuels produced from hazardous waste, such as waste oil and 5021 waste solvents. 5022

According to EC (2003), the term “Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)” in English 5023 speaking countries usually refers to the segregated high calorific fraction of 5024 processed MSW. Also other terms are used for MSW derived fuels, e.g. “Re-5025 covered Fuel (REF)”, “Packaging Derived Fuel (PDF)”, “Paper and Plastic Frac-5026

Costs

RDF waste sources

Terms and abbreviations



tion (PPF)” and “Processed Engineered Fuel (PEF)”. In German speaking coun-5027 tries, in the 1990s also the terms “Brennstoff aus Müll48 (BRAM)” and 5028 “Brennstoff aus Papier49 (BRAP)” were known, whereas nowadays predomi-5029 nantly the term “Ersatzbrennstoff50 (EBS)” is used. 5030

The terms “Substitute Fuel”, “Secondary Recovered Fuel (SRF)” and “Substitute 5031 Liquid Fuel (SLF)” seem to be more commonly used in reference to commercial 5032 and industrial waste sources. Physical and chemical properties which are more 5033 constant than e.g. in the case of MSW allow the production of a WDF according 5034 to the users’ specifications and technical requirements. 5035

According to ERFO (2011), SRF is “(…) solid fuel prepared from non-hazardous 5036 waste to be utilised for energy recovery in incineration or co-incineration plants, 5037 and meeting the classification and the specification requirements laid down in 5038 EN15359 (…)”. 5039

After collection, the waste is subjected to mechanical treatment (MT) or me-5040 chanical-biological treatment (MBT) in order to produce a WDF. If the me-5041 chanical waste treatment plant is operated by the (co-)incinerator or by its sub-5042 sidiary company - as this is usually the case e.g. in the Austrian cement indus-5043 try - the operators cannot only control the quality of the accepted waste and of 5044 the RDF produced from it, but this also leads to a reduction of cost. 5045

Energy recovery of RDF usually takes place in co-incineration plants accord-5046 ing to WID, predominantly in cement kilns, but also in installations of the 5047 pulp & paper industry, metal and chemical industries. 5048

In Germany, a special type of incineration plant has been developed for RDF 5049 incineration, the so-called “Ersatzbrennstoffkraftwerk (EBS-Kraftwerk, RDF-5050 Kraftwerk)”, which can be translated into English as “RDF Power Station”. De-5051 spite of this name, an “EBS-Kraftwerk” is not a co-incinerating power plant, but 5052 a waste incineration plant according to WID, which was introduced to the mar-5053 ket only a few years ago. Relying on a more constant composition of the (pre-5054 treated) waste input, the steam parameters of an EBS-Kraftwerk are in the 5055 range of 450-480°C / 60-65 bar, i.e. higher than the well-known 400°C / 40 bar 5056 of the average MSWI incinerator. 5057

According to BVSE (2011), the German gate fees for the incineration of 5058 waste in MSWI plants and “RDF Power Plants” have decreased significantly. 5059 This affects not only material recovery but also SRF production, as significant 5060 amounts of commercial waste are not available for SRF production any more, 5061 despite of increasing arising as a consequence of the recent economic upswing. 5062 Facing incineration gate fees of 40 €/t on the spot market, SRF production is not 5063 economically feasible. 5064

In general, there is no market price paid for RDF. Also for SRF, which has 5065 been produced to fulfil specifications, usually a gate fee has to be paid. 5066

Ten years ago, in Belgian cement plants, SRF owners had to pay a gate fee in 5067 the range of 100 Euro51 (4000 BF) per tonne (EC 2003). 5068

48 Engl. “Fuel from Waste” 49 Engl. “Fuel from Paper” 50 Engl. “Substitute Fuel” 51 The reference year is not given in EC 2003, but can be estimated to be 2000-2001, i.e. before

introduction of the Euro.

Market

SRF co-incineration

“EBS-Kraftwerk”

Incinerators

Usually, gate fees have to be paid



According to WALSH (2010), in Ireland SRF gate fees in the cement industry of 5069 30-40 €/t have to be paid. 5070

In the UK, according to DEFRA (2008), a gate fee of about 50-62 € (40-50 £)29 5071 per tonne had to be paid for the incineration of SRF with a net calorific value of 5072 11-15 MJ/kg. 5073

Also in France, gate fees have to be paid for SRF, which depend on the SRF’s 5074 quality, i.e. predominantly on its LHV and chlorine content. For SRF of < 15-5075 18 MJ/kg LHV, gate fees of 20-50 €/t (including transport costs) have to be paid 5076 for co-incineration in the cement industry. If the LHV is > 18 MJ/kg, the gate 5077 fees in the cement industry are in the range of 0-20 €/t (ADEME 2009). 5078

According to ADEME (2009), there are gate fees between 0 and 80 €/t which 5079 have to be paid to German cement kiln operators, depending on SF quality. 5080

According to EC (2008), a gate fee of 35 € per tonne is paid to Greek cement 5081 plant operators for RDF with an LHV of 14 MJ/kg. 5082

According to ALWAST (2007), the following gate fees for RDF/SRF had to be 5083 paid in Germany in the year 2006: 50-75 €/t in RDF Power Stations with circu-5084 lating fluidized bed incineration and industrial energy consumers, 60-100 €/t in 5085 RDF Power Stations with grate firing and industrial energy consumers, 25-40 €/t 5086 in cement plants, 35-60 €/t in power stations fired with hard coal as well as in 5087 lignite-fired power stations. 5088

According to ERFO (2011), market prices for SRF co-incineration in the cement 5089 industry can be achieved in Germany, Northern Europe and Poland. There are 5090 also market prices reported for central European steel mills, which use granu-5091 late from mechanically treated plastic waste and shredder fractions as reduction 5092 agent and for energy supply in blast furnaces. 5093

Ten years ago, the cost of producing RDF in Belgium amounted to 50–75 €51 5094 (2000-3000 BF) per tonne (EC 2003). They have not changed significantly since 5095 then. 5096

For the UK, an economic model developed by DEFRA (2009a-2009e) gives the 5097 costs shown in Figure 57 for SRF production from MSW via mechanical-5098 biological treatment (MBT). The model is based upon the following assump-5099 tions: 5100

The MBT plant will receive a gate fee from the local authority, which is 5101 slightly below the landfill gate fee of 98-112 € (70-80 £/t)52 per tonne of MSW. 5102

CAPEX and OPEX are split pro-rata per tonne of SRF over the lifetime of 5103 the MBT plant). 5104

The MBT operator will have to cover transport cost to the (co-)incineration 5105 facility. 5106

The MBT operator will have to pay a gate fee to the (co-)incineration facility. 5107 The MBT plant has a capacity of 12.5 t/h (87,500 t/a) of SRF with a LHV of 5108 15 MJ/kg are produced, a gate fee of 72 €/t is paid to the MBT operator for 5109 acceptance of MSW. 5110

52 As the reference sources (DEFRA 2009a-2009e) were published in January 2009, an exchange

rate between British Pound and Euro of 1.40 €/£ as per December 31st, 2008, was assumed (http://kurse.wienerborse.at/teledata_php/cc/currcalc.php).

Singular examples of market prices reported

Cost



5111

5112

Figure 57: Economic balance for SRF production from MSW via mechanical-biological 5113 treatment for the UK market. Assumptions: 12.5 t/h (87,500 t/a) of SRF with a LHV of 5114 15 MJ/kg are produced, a gate fee of 72 €/t is paid to the MBT operator for acceptance 5115 of MSW. MBT plant operator’s income is indicated in green, cost in red colour52. (Source: 5116 DEFRA 2009a-2009e; figure adapted by Umweltbundesamt) 5117

Summing up the costs given in Figure 57, the costs which the MBT operator 5118 has to pay for MBT operation, SRF transport and SRF energy recovery sum up 5119 to 113-247 € per tonne. A ratio of one tonne MSW yielding half a tonne of SRF 5120 is given in DEFRA (2008b-2008f), which means that 142 € of MSW gate fees 5121 (i.e. for 2 tonnes of MSW) per tonne of SRF are earned. This means that a MBT 5122 plant can operate economically only if all costs are in the lower ranges of the 5123 given figures. 5124

In Ireland, SRF production from residual waste costs 30-50 €/t. Transport cost 5125 within Ireland amount to about 10 €/t. Gate fees of 30-40 €/t have to be paid to 5126 the cement industry for incinerating SRF. Thus, the total cost of SRF production 5127 and incineration in the domestic Irish cement industry amounts to 70-100 €/t 5128 (WALSH 2010). Contrary to that, SRF gate fees near zero are reported for the 5129 German and Swedish cement industry, transport costs from Ireland to these 5130 countries being in the range of 30-40 €/t. Thus, the incineration of Irish SRF in 5131 German or Swedish cement kilns amounts to total costs of 30-40 €/t, which is 5132 less than half the costs which have to be paid for domestic co-incineration 5133 (WALSH 2010). 5134

For France, SRF production costs of 40-70 € per tonne are reported 5135 (ADEME 2009). 5136



In Germany, in the year 2006, the production cost per tonne input to the treat-5137 ment plant amounted to 23-33 €/t for RDF and to 48-50 €/t according to 5138 ALWAST 2007). 5139

For the total costs of treatment, energy recovery and disposal of residues for 5140 commercial waste for energy recovery, ALWAST (2007) gives the following de-5141 tailed data for different energy recovery plants, referring to one tonne commer-5142 cial waste input into an RDF/SRF producing treatment plant (cf. 5143

5144

5145

Figure 58: Treatment costs and gate fees per tonne commercial waste input into an 5146 RDF/SRF producing treatment plant, Germany, 2006, for different energy recovery 5147 plants (Source: ALWAST 2007; figure adapted by Umweltbundesamt) 5148

According to ERFO (2010), the cost for SRF production are in the range of 50-5149 70 € per tonne of SRF. Average transport costs amount to about 20 €/t. 5150

5151

Whereas cost-covering operation of SRF production plants does not seem 5152 guaranteed at the moment, there is indication that considerable costs savings 5153 can be achieved by the operators of co-incineration plants who use SRF as a 5154 substitute fuel (cf. Table 99). Additional income is being generated by the SRF 5155 gate fees which usually have to be paid to co-incineration plant operators. 5156

5157

Cost-reduction for co-incineration operators



Table 99: Costs and savings per tonne of SRF for SRF co-incineration, under the as-5158 sumption of 70 €/t petcoke price, 13 €/t lignite price and an EU-ETS certificate price of 5159 15 €/t CO2 (ERFO 2010; FNADE 2010) 5160

Unit Cement kiln Lignite-fired Power Plant

Calorific value of SRF MJ/kg 18 14

Energy savings € / t SRF 48.5 21.5

CO2 savings (EU-ETS) € / t SRF 12 17.7

Additional CAPEX* € / t SRF - 6.7 - 3.6

Additional OPEX* € / t SRF - 3.3 - 8.5

Total savings for the operator of the co-incineration plant

€ / t SRF 50.5 27.1

*) Costs that arise in addition to CAPEX and OPEX without SRF co-incineration, e.g. 5161 caused by installation equipment required for SRF co-incineration 5162

Based upon the assumption of a petcoke price of 70 €/t, a lignite price of 13 €/t 5163 and an EU-ETS certificate price of 15 € per tonne of CO2, the operator of a ce-5164 ment kiln can achieve total savings of 50.5 € per tonne of co-incinerated SRF, 5165 whereas the operator of a lignite-fired power plant can achieve 27.1 € per tonne 5166 of co-incinerated SRF. 5167

Mixed solid waste streams, e.g. RDF, are rather traded in amounts below 5168 100,000 t/year and predominantly between neighbouring countries, such as 5169 Germany and the Netherlands, Sweden and Norway (EUBIONET 3, 2010b). Al-5170 though no trade data for RDF could be found in the Eurostat COMEXT data 5171 base (cf. Chapter 5.2.16), there is indication for RDF trade among the countries 5172 of the European Union (cf. Chapter 8.6.1.1 5173

According to TECPOL (2003), in Germany, a demand for treatment capacities 5174 for the plastic-rich Shredder Light Fraction (SLF) of about 90,000 t/a were 5175 predicted for the year 2006, due to the requirements of the End-of-life Vehi-5176 cle (ELV) Directive. For 2015, required treatment capacities of 1 million t/a are 5177 expected for Germany, and of 3-5 million t/a for the European market. 5178

DEFRA (2008b-2008f) points out that there are a number of risks associated 5179 with treatment technologies, the most notable of which are planning risks 5180 and the risk that the technology will not achieve the performance levels claimed 5181 by the technology providers. This could threaten the availability of markets for 5182 the products as the products would not meet the specification for end use and 5183 end up in Landfill. Most users will require an SRF produced consistently to a 5184 given specification. 5185

5186

5187

6.18 Animal By-products and derived products 5188

Contrary to animal by-products, such as manure, hides and skins etc. which 5189 have to be disposed of and do not seem suitable to be sold as a fuel, products 5190 derived from animal by-products have significant calorific values. The most 5191 relevant WDFs that are derived from animal by-products are Animal Fat and 5192 Meat and Bone Meal (MBM). 5193

Trade

Future development

Associated risks



Nevertheless, it seems unclear if and under which circumstances these prod-5194 ucts derived from animal by-products have to be seen as hazardous waste. 5195

The Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) first being observed in British 5196 cattle in the year 1986, the correlation between animal food production from 5197 animal by-products, the animal feeding practice and BSE soon became evident. 5198 The European Union started to take action accordingly in 1989. A ban on the 5199 feeding of mammalian processed animal protein to cattle, sheep and goats was 5200 introduced in July 199453. The ban was expanded in January 200154 with the 5201 feeding of all processed animal proteins to all farmed animals (with certain lim-5202 ited exceptions) being prohibited, (EC TSE/BSE; BBC 2011). Health rules con-5203 cerning animal by-products were laid down in 200255. 5204

According to European Regulation 1774/2002, animal by-products have to be 5205 classified into three different categories, which have to be treated in installations 5206 approved for these categories. 5207

Category 1 material comprises high-risk material, including all body parts of 5208 animals suspected of being infected by a transmissible spongiform encepha-5209 lopathy (TSE) or in which the presence of a TSE has been confirmed. This 5210 material has to be disposed of as waste by incineration in an approved incin-5211 eration plant, or processed in an approved plant and the resulting material 5212 disposed of as waste by incineration or co-incineration or burial in a landfill. 5213 Mixtures of category 1 with category 2 and/or 3 material are regarded as 5214 category 1 material. 5215

Category 2 material comprises material not presenting any risk of spreading 5216 a communicable disease, e.g. manure, digestive tract content and all animal 5217 materials other than those belonging to category 1. Category 2 material must 5218 be directly disposed of as waste by incineration or processed by a specific 5219 method, in which case the resultant material shall be marked and finally dis-5220 posed of as waste (exemptions granted for manure, material derived from 5221 fish, manure, digestive tract content, milk and colostrum). 5222

Category 3 material comprises low-risk material, e.g. parts of slaughtered 5223 animals which are fit for human consumption but are not intended for human 5224 consumption for commercial reasons. Category 3 material has to be directly 5225 disposed of as waste by incineration, used as raw material in a pet food 5226 plant, or processes in a technical, biogas or composting plant. 5227

5228

6.18.1 Animal fat (Tallow) 5229

Animal fat (tallow) derived from the rendering industry has a high LHV of about 5230 39 MJ/kg. Its high content of chlorine, sodium and calcium may lead to corro-5231 sion in the incineration plant. 5232

Usually, category 1 animal fat is incinerated on-site in the energy boilers of the 5233 rendering industry. There is indication that individual end-of-waste notifications 5234

53 94/381/EC: Commission Decision of 27 June 1994 concerning certain protection measures with

regard to bovine spongiform encephalopathy and the feeding of mammalian derived protein 54 Regulation (EC) No 999/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down rules

for the prevention, control and eradication of certain transmissible spongiform encephalopathies 55 Regulation (EC) No 1774/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 3 October

2002 laying down health rules concerning animal by-products not intended for human consump-tion

Hazardous properties?

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)

Category 1-3

Use



are granted to the operators for this purpose, so that incineration does not take 5235 place within the scope of the WID. 5236

Category 3 animal fat is either sold to the pharmaceutical, pet food or chemical 5237 industry (e.g. production of soap and detergents), or increasingly used as sub-5238 strate for biodiesel production. 5239

According to AEA (2008), in the absence of subsidies, the price of category 5240 1 tallow is linked to fuel oil prices. As fuel oil prices increase the incentive to 5241 the rendering industry to use tallow in their boilers increases. Category 2 and 3 5242 tallow prices reflect the trends in category 1 tallow, plus the additional cost of 5243 segregation and processing. The upper price of category 2 and 3 tallow is linked 5244 to the lowest equivalent virgin plant oil, minus the transport costs and any im-5245 port or export tariffs. 5246

If category 1 prices increase sufficiently, this acts to disincentivise the produc-5247 tion of the category 2 and 3 tallow and their availability decreases. This situation 5248 is assumed to have significant effect on the industrial branches that use animal 5249 as a substrate for e.g. soap or detergent production, if alternative feedstocks 5250 are not available. 5251

In the model applied for the UK market, a market price of about 189 €56 (150 £) 5252 per tonne was assumed for category 1 material, supposing that 50% of the pro-5253 duced animal is incinerated in the energy boilers of the rendering industry, while 5254 the rest is being sold as category 3 fat on the market. As tallow prices increase, 5255 a threshold would be reached at a category 1 market price of 234 € (186 £) per 5256 tonne: Above this threshold, it becomes more profitable for renderers to switch 5257 production to category 1 and away from category 2 and 3, unless the category 5258 market price simultaneously increases to 462 € (367 £) per tonne. 5259

For the Irish market, market prices for the year 2003 are given in SEI (2003). 5260 Category 1 producers are reported to incinerate their own tallow for energy pro-5261 duction on-site and sell the surplus as a fuel to category 3 plants, at a price of 5262 approximately 150 € per tonne. Market prices for category 3 tallow are reported 5263 to range from 240 € to 350 € per tonne. 5264

5265

6.18.2 Meat and Bone Meal (MBM) 5266

Under the influence of the feeding ban, MBM had to be disposed of. At that 5267 time, high gate fees were paid to incinerating and co-incinerating plants (e.g. 5268 power stations, cement kilns) that accepted meat and bone meal for incin-5269 eration. According to EC 2003, the gate fee for MBM incineration in Belgian 5270 cement kilns was in the range of € 74-124 Euros57 (BF 3000-5000) at that time. 5271

Nevertheless, with regard to technical requirements, only limited amounts of 5272 MBM are generally incinerated in these plants together with other input. Due 5273 to its origin, MBM contains high amounts of halogens that can cause boiler 5274 corrosion. Furthermore, in waste incineration plants, the phosphorus content 5275 in the bottom ash has to be limited, as it can lead to the formation of highly toxic 5276

56 As the reference source (AEA 2008) was published in April 2008, an exchange rate between

British Pound and Euro of 1.26 € per £ as per March 31st, 2008, was assumed (http://kurse.wienerborse.at/teledata_php/cc/currcalc.php).

57 The reference year is not given in EC 2003, but can be estimated to be 2000-2001, i.e. before introduction of the Euro.

Market and prices

Gate fees at peak of BSE Crisis

Input limitations due to technical and safety requirements



phosphine (PH3) in the alkaline milieu of a wet bottom ash discharge system 5277 (CHEMIN 2002). Phosphine concentrations up to 0,4 mg/m3 were measured in 5278 different working areas at German MSW incinerations plants, whereas the 5279 maximum concentration value at the workplace is 0,14 mg/m3 or 0,1 ml/m3 5280 (0,1 ppm) respectively (BGFE 2003). 5281

With a net calorific value (NCV, LHV) of typically 16-19 MJ/kg, meat and bone 5282 meal has since become a commonly used input to waste incineration and co-5283 incineration plants. Nowadays, waste co-incineration plants are usually ready to 5284 pay for meat and bone meal. Regarding the historical development of MBM in-5285 cineration with regard to the BSE Crisis and the technical limitations described 5286 below, the paid price does not correspond with the calorific value, if compared 5287 with other waste-derived fuels. According to CZ BIOM (2011), for the Czech 5288 market a purchase price of about € 4-8 (CZK 100-20058) per tonne of meat and 5289 bone meal (LHV 16 MJ/kg) is given. 5290

According to EC (2008), an average gate fee of 20 € per tonne is paid to Greek 5291 cement plant operators for Animal Meal with an LHV of 19.1 MJ/kg. 5292

5293

5294

6.19 Dried/dewatered Municipal Sewage Sludge 5295

Municipal sewage sludge is a waste with only limited calorific value, which is 5296 predominantly a result of its high water and ash content. The calorific value can 5297 be raised by mechanical dewatering, via drying operations in directly or indi-5298 rectly heated reactors the LHV can be further increased. If such energy-5299 intensive operation makes sense has to be investigated on a case-to-case ba-5300 sis. 5301

Incineration of municipal sewage sludge can take place in dedicated incinera-5302 tion plants, e.g. grate firing or fluidized bed plants, or in co-incineration plants 5303 such as cement kilns or coal-fired power stations, which are all within the scope 5304 of the WID. If incinerated in a mono-incineration plant, phosphor recovery from 5305 the solid incineration residues is technically viable but usually economically not 5306 feasible at the moment. 5307

The waste throughput of waste incineration plants is usually not limited by the 5308 amount of incinerated waste (weight in tonnes), but by the rated thermal input 5309 (energy input in MWh), i.e. by the size and design of the heat exchanger sur-5310 faces. Thus, when incinerated together with other waste streams, sewage 5311 sludge is often used to “cool” the plant, i.e. it allows the operator to incinerate 5312 higher amounts of high-calorific value waste together with the sewage sludge, 5313 which increases the income in terms of gate-fees. 5314

Municipal sewage sludges are usually disposed of regionally, in order to reduce 5315 transport costs. Generally, there is no indication of market prices for municipal 5316 sewage sludge incineration, but gate fees have to be paid. 5317

For Austria and Germany, gate fees in the cement industry of 30-60 € per 5318 tonne – depending on water content and heating value - are reported. 5319

58 Considering the date of publication, the currency exchange rate as per January 31st 2011 ac-

cording to the Vienna Stock Exchange (http://kurse.wienerborse.at) was used.

Recent gate fees

Low LHV

Incineration in WID plants

Regional disposal

Gate fees have to be paid



According to EC (2008), an average gate fee of 25 € per tonne is paid to Greek 5320 cement plant operators for (not specified) sewage sludge with an LHV of 5321 14.5 MJ/kg, i.e. practically dry sewage sludge with 7% water content. 5322

5323

6.20 Dried / dewatered Industrial Sewage Sludge 5324

The composition of industrial sewage sludge depends predominantly on the in-5325 dustrial processes they are derived from. The industrial sectors producing rele-5326 vant amounts of industrial sewage sludge are59: 5327

Food & Drink industry (67%), 5328 Pulp & Paper industry (20%), 5329 Abattoirs (12%) and 5330 Leather, Textile and Tanneries industries (1%). 5331

Relevant contaminants are, among others, heavy metals (mostly Hg, Cd) and 5332 hazardous organic compounds such as PAHs, which may occur in higher con-5333 centrations. Thus, contrary to municipal sewage sludge, industrial sewage 5334 sludge is not subjected to recovery as fertilizer in agriculture. 5335

Small amounts of industrial sewage sludge can recovered by use as an expand-5336 ing agent in the brick production process (cf. AMT DER OBERÖSTERREICHISCHEN 5337 LANDESREGIERUNG 2010). 5338

Industrial sewage sludge is often disposed of on-site in co-incinerating combus-5339 tion plants and used for energy recovery. This is usually practiced with sludges 5340 from the pulp and paper industry, which are explicitly excluded from the scope 5341 of the Waste Incineration Directive (2000/76/EC). 5342

If industrial sewage sludges are not incinerated at the site where they are pro-5343 duced, but brought to external installations with the purpose of incineration, 5344 payment of gate fees can be assumed. There is no indication of market prices 5345 being paid. 5346

According to EC (2008), an average gate fee of 25 € per tonne is paid to Greek 5347 cement plant operators for (not specified) sewage sludge with an LHV of 5348 14.5 MJ/kg, i.e. practically dry sewage sludge with 7% water content. 5349

5350

59 Percentage data for industrial sewage sludge (dry matter) arising in the EU in different industrial

sectors for the year 2001 (Source: EC 2002).

Gate fees have to be paid



7 SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS 5351

7.1 How can specifications and standards be declared 5352 legally binding? 5353

A standard is a published document that contains a technical specification or 5354 other precise criteria designed to be used as a rule, guideline, or definition. 5355

When developing a standard all interested parties are brought together includ-5356 ing manufacturers, consumers and regulators of a particular material, product, 5357 process or service. The resulting standard document is worked out by the prin-5358 ciple of consensus. 5359

Standards are designed for voluntary use and do not impose any regulations. 5360 (http://www.cen.eu/cen/products/en/pages/default.aspx) 5361

Therefore no standard is legally binding by itself. To achieve the status of being 5362 legally binding it has to be referred to in a legally binding document like e.g. a 5363 law, an (European) ordinance or a permit. 5364

A Technical Specification (TS) is a normative document produced and approved 5365 by a Technical Committee. A CEN/TS can be developed by CEN Technical 5366 Committees as a pre-standard which contains technical requirements for inno-5367 vative technology, or when various alternatives need to coexist in anticipation of 5368 future harmonization that would not gather enough as to allow agreement on a 5369 European Standard (EN). A TS does not have the status of an EN but may be 5370 adopted as national standard. Moreover there is no standstill, no public enquiry 5371 and no weighted vote. A TS must be produced in one of the official CEN lan-5372 guages and its maximum lifetime is reduced to two or three years. A TS may 5373 not conflict with an EN. If a conflicting EN is subsequently published, the TS 5374 must be withdrawn. (http://www.cen.eu/cen/Products/TS/Pages/de-5375 fault.aspx). 5376

If no European Standard is available, also Technical Specifications can achieve 5377 the status of being legally binding by reference to in a law, an ordinance or simi-5378 lar officially legally binding documents. 5379

Most of the existing standards for WDFs are not related to end-of-waste specifi-5380 cations, but describe different qualities of WDFs, so that market players who 5381 deal with WDFs - e.g. buyers, sellers, operators of (co-)incineration facilities, 5382 plant engineering enterprises - may refer to them and have a common under-5383 standing of the waste qualities in question. 5384

5385

7.2 Data Basis 5386

7.2.1 Key Data Sources 5387

Key data source for standards on WDF on a European level is the European 5388 Committee for Standardization (CEN). Several CEN technical committees 5389 (CEN/TC) are engaged in the standardization of WDF. 5390

No standard legally binding by itself



As there are: 5391 CEN/TC 19 - Gaseous and liquid fuels, lubricants and related products of 5392 petroleum, synthetic and biological origin 5393

CEN/TC 307 – Oilseeds, vegetable and animal fats and oils and their by-5394 products 5395

CEN/TC 308 – Characterization of sludges 5396 CEN/TC 335 – Solid biofuels 5397 CEN/TC 343 – Solid recovered fuels (SRF) 5398

5399

5400

7.3 European Standards and Specifications 5401

The structure of the CEN standardization work on WDF is mainly based on the 5402 aggregate state of the WDF. 5403

The major part of the relevant standards on WDF covers solid WDF such as 5404 solid biofuels (see 7.3.2.2) and solid recovered fuels (see 7.3.2.3). These stan-5405 dards are designed by technical committees dealing exclusively with the special 5406 characteristics of WDF. 5407

When it comes to the standardization of liquid and gaseous WDF the situation is 5408 not that explicit. 5409

As a matter of fact there are standards dealing with the characteristics of gase-5410 ous and liquid fuels like bio diesel or bio ethanol but they do not differentiate be-5411 tween the basic raw materials the fuel is made of (e.g. bio diesel made of used 5412 edible fat vs. bio diesel made of crops). 5413

On the one hand this may be due to the fact that the process of preparation 5414 changes the character of such kind of fuels in such an extent that its properties 5415 are not longer directly related to the raw materials (e.g. ethanol obtained by al-5416 coholic fermentation of biomass). 5417

On the other hand the use of some of these WDF may not be spread wide 5418 enough to justify standardization on a European level. 5419

It can be expected that, liquid and gaseous refuse derived fuels are generally 5420 handled like ordinary and comparable non-waste-derived fuels. 5421

The following chapter represents an attempt to summarise the current state of 5422 standardization in the field of waste-derived fuels. 5423

A full list of the relevant published standards as well as relevant standards 5424 currently in development sorted by the elaborating CEN/TC can be found in 5425 the Annex 6 “Specification and Standards”. 5426

5427

7.3.1 European Standards on gaseous and liquid WDF 5428

There are two CEN technical committees at least partly engaged with the stan-5429 dardization of gaseous and liquid WDF. One is the CEN/TC 19 which is occu-5430 pied with all kinds of fuels, the other one is the CEN/TC 307 which deals with 5431 vegetable and animal fats and oils and their by products. 5432

Annex 6



7.3.1.1 CEN/TC 19 - Gaseous and liquid fuels, lubricants and related 5433 products of petroleum, synthetic and biological origin 5434

As the name of the technical committee indicates, the scope of its field of activ-5435 ity is widely spread. As a matter of fact, the main focus of the CEN/TCs stan-5436 dardization efforts lies on all types of petroleum products with a special field of 5437 attention on automotive fuels. Nevertheless the CEN/TC 19 has published vari-5438 ous European standards regarding specifications and analysis of biodiesel 5439 (FAME) and bio ethanol. 5440

The European standard EN 14213:2003 contains requirements and test meth-5441 ods for fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) used as substitute for heating fuel or as 5442 a blending component for heating fuels. The specifications can be found in An-5443 nex 6. 5444

The European standard EN 14214:2008+A1:2009 contains requirements and 5445 test methods for fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) for the use in automotive die-5446 sel engines. The specifications can be found in Annex 6. 5447

The EN 14214 is mentioned in Directive 2003/30/EC (Directive on the promo-5448 tion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport) to provide the 5449 appropriate specifications to guarantee the quality of fatty acid methyl esters 5450 (FAME) for the use as automotive fuel. 5451

The European standard EN 15376:2011 contains requirements and test meth-5452 ods for (bio) ethanol for the use as blending component for petrol. The specifi-5453 cations can be found in Annex 6. 5454

5455

7.3.1.2 CEN/TC 307 – Oilseeds, vegetable and animal fats and oils and 5456 their by-products 5457

The focus of the CEN/TC 307 lies on the standardization of methods of sam-5458 pling and analysis in the field of oilseeds, vegetable and animal fats and oils 5459 and their by-products. As that includes the use of fatty acid methyl esters 5460 (FAME) made of fats and oils as a fuel, a number of standards on this subject 5461 matter have been published or are under development respectively. 5462

On this topic there exists a joint working group (JWG) with CEN/TC 19 5463 (CEN/TC 19 JWG 1: Vegetable fats and oils and their by-products for use in 5464 automotive fuels) 5465

5466

7.3.1.3 Gaseous and liquid WDF not covered by European standardiza-5467 tion 5468

Apart from the liquid WDF mentioned above, for the majority of gaseous and 5469 liquid WDF there exist no explicit standards on a European level, such as for: 5470

Syngas from gasification 5471 Pyrolysis Gas 5472 Industrial Liquid Waste Concentrates 5473 Waste Oil (mineral, synthetic) 5474 Waste Solvents (halogenated) 5475 Liquid Pyrolysis Output 5476

Biodiesel

Bioethanol

Biodiesel Edible Oil and Fat



5477

7.3.2 European specifications and standards on solid WDF 5478

The standardization of solid WDF on European level is far more advanced 5479 compared to the standardization of gaseous and liquid WDF. Out of three CEN 5480 technical committees providing expertise on this topic, two are almost exclu-5481 sively engaged with WDF (CEN/TC 335, CEN/TC 343). 5482

5483

7.3.2.1 CEN/TC 308 – Characterization of sludges 5484

While the main focus of this technical committee does not lie on the use of 5485 sludges as WDF, various standards dealing with good practice for incinera-5486 tion and thermal treatment of sludges were published or are under develop-5487 ment. 5488

The standardization of sludges for the use as WDF falls under the compe-5489 tence of the CEN/TC 343 (cf. 7.3.2.3). 5490

5491

7.3.2.2 CEN/TC 335 – Solid biofuels 5492

CEN/TC 335 was established to develop the relevant European standards 5493 for the market for solid biofuels. Its standardisation work on solid biofuels 5494 shall be within the following scope: 5495

products from agriculture and forestry - vegetable waste from agriculture 5496 and forestry 5497

vegetable waste from the food processing industry 5498 wood waste, with the exception of wood waste which may contain halo-5499 genated organic compounds or heavy metals as a result of treatment with 5500 wood preservatives or coating, and which includes in particular such wood 5501 waste originated from construction and demolition waste 5502

fibrous vegetable waste from virgin pulp production and from production of 5503 paper from pulp, if it is co-incinerated at the place of production and heat 5504 generated is recovered 5505

cork waste 5506 The CEN/TC 335 consists of 5 working groups (WG) engaged in the standardi-5507 zation of solid biofuels: 5508

WG 1: Terminology, Definitions and description 5509 WG 2: Fuel specifications, classes and quality assurance 5510 WG 3: Sampling and sample reduction 5511 WG 4: Physical and Mechanical Test Methods 5512 WG 5: Chemical Test Methods 5513

A general classification system for solid biofuels is given in the European stan-5514 dard EN 14961-1:2010. It is based on: 5515

Origin and source 5516 Main commercial size and packing (e.g. pellets, wood chips, shavings, etc.) 5517 Physical and chemical properties (e.g. moisture content, particle size, ash 5518 content, etc.) 5519

Dried or dewatered Municipal Sewage Sludge

Dried or dewatered Industrial Sewage Sludges

Biowaste Waste Wood



5520

7.3.2.3 CEN/TC 343 – Solid recovered fuels (SRF) 5521

The standardization of Solid recovered fuels (SRF) lies in the hands of the 5522 CEN/TC 343. The CEN/TC 343 was established to develop the relevant Euro-5523 pean Standards for the market for solid recovered fuels. The scope is: “Elabora-5524 tion of Standards, Technical Specifications and Technical Reports on solid re-5525 covered fuels, prepared from non-hazardous waste to be utilised for energy re-5526 covery in waste incineration or co-incineration plants, excluding those fuels 5527 which are included in the scope of CEN/TC 335”. 5528

The CEN/TC 343 consists of 5 working groups (WG) engaged in the standardi-5529 zation of SRF: 5530

WG 1: Terminology and Quality Assurance 5531 WG 2: Fuel specifications and classes 5532 WG 3: Sampling, sample reduction and supplementary test methods 5533 WG 4: Physical/Mechanical tests 5534 WG 5: Chemical Tests 5535

A classification system for SRF is provided in CEN/TS 15359:2006. It is based 5536 on 3 key properties (lower heating value, chlorine and mercury) and allows a 5537 classification of SRF into 5 classes. 5538

Table 100: Classification system for SRF according to CEN/TS 15359:2006 5539

Class Classification property

Statistical measure

Unit

1 2 3 4 5

Lower heating value (LHV)

Mean MJ/kg (ar) ≥ 25 ≥ 20 ≥ 15 ≥ 10 ≥ 3

Chlorine (Cl) Mean % (d) ≤ 0.2 ≤ 0.6 ≤ 1.0 ≤ 1.5 ≤ 3.0

Median mg/MJ (ar) ≤ 0.02 ≤ 0.03 ≤ 0.08 ≤ 0.15 ≤ 0.50 Mercury (Hg)

80th percen-tile

mg/MJ (ar) ≤ 0.04 ≤ 0.06 ≤ 0.16 ≤ 0.30 ≤ 1.00

(d) dry 5540 (ar) as received 5541

5542

Compared to LHV analysis of hard coal and lignite (cf. Table 123), the class 1 5543 LHV is in the range of hard coal whereas the class 4 LHV is in the range of lig-5544 nite. 5545

The chlorine content for class 1 is above respectively in the upper range if com-5546 pared to hard coal, for class 4 very high compared to lignite. 5547

The mercury content for both classes (1 and 4) is ten times higher than for hard 5548 coal or lignite respectively. Other metals (e.g. Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu…) as well as 5549 As are not described in CEN/TS 15359:2006. 5550

5551

5552

Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF)

Comparison with coal



7.3.3 Other European specifications on WDF 5553

7.3.3.1 European Pellet Council 5554

The European Pellet Council has published the “Handbook for the Certification 5555 of Wood Pellets for Heating Purposes” which is based on the EN 14961’s clas-5556 sification system. 5557

This Handbook imposes the labelling of wood pellets certified according to the 5558 introduced system with 3 possible quality classes: ENplus-A1, ENplus-A2 or 5559 EN-B. 5560

ENplus and ENplus certification differs from EN 14961-2 in the following parts: 5561 Raw material basis (no chemically treated wood is allowed in class B in EN 5562 certification) and 5563

Ash melting behaviour is mandatory (voluntary in EN 14961-2). Ash used 5564 for determining the ash deformation temperature (DT) is to be produced at 5565 815 C. 5566

Wood pellets of the EN-B class cannot be sold as bagged pellets. 5567 5568

Table 101: Wood types that are permitted to be used for wood pellet production 5569 (EUROPEAN PELLET COUNCIL, 2011) 5570

ENplus-A1 ENplus-A2 EN-B

1.1.3 Stem wood Whole trees without roots Stem wood

1.1 Forest, plantation and other virgin wood

1.2.1 Chemically untreated by-products and residues from the wood processing industry



1.2.1.5 Bark 1) 1.3.1 Chemically untreated used wood2)

1.1.4 Logging residues 1)

From sawmill activities and cork residues. 5571 2)

Demolition wood is excluded. Demolition wood is used wood arising from demolition of 5572 buildings or civil engineering installations. 5573

5574

7.3.3.2 EURITS criteria substitute fuels in cement co-firing applications 5575

EURITS is the European Association of Waste Thermal Treatment Companies 5576 for Specialised Waste. EURITS has published criteria for waste co-incinerated 5577 in cement plants as substitute fuel. The cement industry has states that these 5578 criteria are too stringent, especially with regard to the minimum calorific value. 5579

Table 102: EURITS criteria for substitute fuels in cement co-firing applications (European 5580 Commission DR ENV 2003): 5581

Parameter Unit Value

Calorific value MJ/kg 15

Cl % 0.5

S % 0.4

Br/l % 0.01



Parameter Unit Value

N % 0.7

F % 0.1

Be mg/kg 1

Hg/Tl mg/kg 2

As, Se, (Te), Cd, Sb mg/kg 10

Mo mg/kg 20

V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Pb, Mn, Sn mg/kg 200

Zn mg/kg 500

Ash content (excl Ca, Al, Fe, Si) % 5

5582

5583

7.4 Specifications and Standards on MS Level 5584

As all national standard organizations of the 27 European Union member states 5585 are also members of CEN, all European Standards are implemented as national 5586 standards by the member states. Simultaneously any conflicting national stan-5587 dards are withdrawn. 5588

Therefore all European Standards have to be regarded as national standards in 5589 all EU member states. 5590

For the following member states neither explicit national specifica-5591 tions/standards (apart from the CEN’s European Standards) nor voluntary 5592 commercial agreements on WDFs were reported by the national authorities’ ex-5593 perts or found in another way during the research for this report: 5594 5595

Cyprus 5596 Denmark 5597 Estonia 5598 Greece 5599 Hungary 5600 Ireland 5601 Latvia 5602 Lithuania 5603 Luxembourg 5604 Malta 5605 Poland 5606 Portugal 5607 Romania 5608 Slovenia 5609 Spain 5610

Although for these member states no standards or specifications on WDF were 5611 found, it is likely that in some of these there are commercial agreements, facil-5612 ity-dependent regulations or the like on some kind of WDF. 5613



In those member states where national standards apart from the European 5614 standards can be found, the focus of standardization lies on solid recovered fu-5615 els with regard to quality classes. Some of these standards are legally binding 5616 (cf. Chapter 7.1). 5617

Then, in some Member States, there are criteria for end-of-waste laid down in 5618 standards or studies, which are not legally binding up to now (July 2011). 5619

At the moment (July 2011), the only specifications on national level that de-5620 fine end-of-waste and which are legally binding, can be found in Austria (for 5621 WDF made from waste wood and for other WDF, cf. Chapter 7.4.1) and in 5622 Slovakia (for waste oil, cf. Chapter 7.4.7). 5623

5624 7.4.1 Austria 5625

Up to now the legally non-binding guidelines ‘positive list (2001)’ or the ‘Guide-5626 line for Waste Fuels (2008)’ were used by national authorities to set up permits 5627 for co-incineration plants. 5628

Legally binding requirements for the use of waste-derived fuels in co-5629 incineration plants were published on 27th of December, 2010 by the 5630 Amendment of the Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance (BGBl. II Nr. 5631 476/2010). 5632

Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance 5633

In Austria several studies were performed in order to collect information 5634 about possible WDF-qualities and to evaluate the whole characterization 5635 process containing steps of sampling, sample preparation (minimum sample 5636 size/increment size, homogenization, particle size reduction, digestion), quanti-5637 fication and data evaluation. 5638

An excerpt of the relevant recommendations and results of the studies that have 5639 been incorporated in the guideline (2008) and in the later published Austrian 5640 Waste Incineration Ordinance are listed below (Umweltbundesamt 2006; Um-5641 weltbundesamt 2009; further studies available but not published yet): 5642

According to the tested dispersion of environmental and technical parame-5643 ters the robust statistical parameters median and 80th percentile were classi-5644 fied to be best suited for characterization of heavy metals in WDF (significant 5645 deviations from normal distribution were frequently detected) whereas the 5646 arithmetic mean was chosen for the lower heating value (LHV) and chlorine 5647 (Cl). This outcome was also in line with the proposed statistical parameters 5648 for Hg, LHV and Cl in solid recovered fuels – specifications and classes 5649 (CEN/TS 15359:2006). 5650

It was decided that so-called ‘outliers’ belong to the real data set and 5651 must not be eliminated. In order to avoid unwanted high contaminated 5652 fractions to be incinerated compliance with median and 80th percentile limit 5653 values of the last ten measurements for a specific WDF has to be demon-5654 strated (separately investigated by origin and type of waste (waste catalogue 5655 number)). 5656

Sample preparation: Particle size reduction by combination of cutting mills 5657 and centrifuge mills (liquid nitrogen) <0.5 mm is mandatory. 5658

Legally binding EOW specifications only in Austria and Slovakia

Legally binding EOW criteria

Technical Background

Statistical aspects



Microwave assisted digestion according to CEN/TS 15411-A with use of 5659 aqua-regia/hydrofluoric acid or alternative digestion method to achieve ‘total 5660 contents’ of elements of interest have to be performed. 5661

Use of XRF (x-ray fluorescence spectrometry, EN 15309) is allowed as al-5662 ternative for quantification of heavy metals after waste specific calibration 5663 (exemptions: not applicable for Hg; not applicable in course of external con-5664 trol). 5665

The ordinance sets out legally binding criteria for WDFs that are used for co-5666 incineration. Furthermore specific requirements for end-of-waste status for re-5667 covered products from waste wood and from other appropriate fractions are 5668 published. The legally-binding limit values are accompanied by precise regula-5669 tions for sampling, sample preparation and quantification and data evaluation. 5670 For the evaluation of results statistical parameters median and 80th percentile of 5671 the last 10 subsequent characterizations of WDF have to fulfil the listed limit 5672 values of each sub-group for median and 80th percentile. In case of require-5673 ments for sampling, the ordinance differentiates between two groups of WDFs: 5674 waste streams > 40,000 t/a and others (e.g. smaller waste streams or batches 5675 of WDF). The lot size for characterization of WDF-products is limited to 1500 t. 5676 Separate requirements and standards for liquid waste (e.g. waste oil and sol-5677 vents) are cited. 5678

For Sampling, Sample preparation and quantification the ordinance refers to 5679 technical standards for solid recovered fuels (SRF)60 prepared from non-5680 hazardous waste. In the meantime for most of the TS European standards have 5681 been published by CEN/TC 343. 5682

The minimum quality of WDF required for use in co-incineration plants depends 5683 upon the type of the subsequent thermal process. Therefore different technolo-5684 gies are accounted for in the different lists for regulation (limit values) as listed 5685 below. 5686

The requirements of the following table apply to those parts of cement kilns in 5687 which cement clinker is burnt (consisting of rotary kiln, cyclone or grate pre-5688 heater and calcinator). 5689

Table 103: Limit values WDFs used in cement kilns (Austrian Waste Incineration 5690 Ordinance, 2010). 5691

Limit value [mg/MJ] Limit value [mg/MJ]

median 80th percentile

Sb 7 10

As 2 3

Pb 20 36

Cd 0,23 (0,45*) 0,46 (0,7*)

Cr 25 37

Co 1,50 2,7

Ni 10 18

Hg 0,075 0,15

60 e.g. CEN/TS 15443, CEN/TS 15442, CEN/TS 15411-A, CEN/TS 15400, CEN/TS 15407.

Specifications and criteria for WDF co-incineration



*) sole exemption: limit value in brackets are only applicable for WDF that fall under a quality audit 5692 scheme. 5693

5694

The listed requirements for combustion plants apply to boilers mainly utilizing 5695 hard coal or lignite and which are used to produce electricity and district heat-5696 ing. The proportion of thermal energy gained from incinerating waste fuels as a 5697 percentage of the overall thermal energy is limited to a maximum of 15 %. 5698

5699

Table 104: Limit values WDFs used in combustion plants (Austrian Waste Incineration 5700 Ordinance, 2010). 5701

Limit value [mg/MJ] Proportion of thermal energy

≤ 10 %*

Limit value [mg/MJ] Proportion of thermal energy

≤ 15 %*

median 80th percentile median 80th percen-tile

Sb 7 10 7 10

As 2 3 2 (1)** 3 (1,5)**

Pb 23 41 15 27

Cd 0,27 0,54 0,17 0,34

Cr 31 46 19 28

Co 1,5 2,5 0,9 1,6

Ni 11 19 7 12

Hg 0,075 0,15 0,075 0,15

*) Thermal energy resulting from waste incineration as percentage of the total thermal energy. 5702 5703

In the Austrian Incineration Ordinance also limit values for WDF used in other 5704 co-incineration plants than listed are regulated by the limit values for combus-5705 tion plants for ≤ 15 % (taking into account values in brackets for As). 5706

For recurring production-specific recovered fuels that are treated thermally fol-5707 lowing the principle of proximity, the limit values for ≤ 10 % thermal energy are 5708 applicable. 5709

Table 105: Limit values for waste used in co-incineration plants (waste not used entirely 5710 or to a relevant extent for the purpose of energy generation) (Austrian Waste Incineration 5711 Ordinance, 2010). 5712

Limit value [mg/kg dm]


Sb 35 (35) 50 (50)

As 5 (10) 7,5 (15)

Pb 75 (115) 135 (205)

Cd 0,85 (1,35) 1,7 (2,7)

Cr 95 (155) 140 (230)

Co 4,5 (7) 8 (12,5)

Ni 35 (55) 60 (95)

Hg 0,375 (0,375) 0,75 (0,75)



*) Limit values in brackets account for recurring production-specific waste fuels that are treated 5713 thermally following the principle of proximity the limit values in brackets are applicable. 5714

5715

For waste oil and solvents a limit value of 10 mg/kg for the sum of 7 polychlori-5716 nated biphenyls (PCB 28, PCB 52, PCB 101, PCB 118, PCB 138, PCB 153 and 5717 PCB 180) is defined. The thermal treatment of waste oil and solvents with a 5718 PCB content of > 10 mg/kg is permitted, if reliable destruction of the PCBs is 5719 guaranteed in the specific co-incineration plant (proved by expert certificate, no 5720 exemptions from operation conditions concerning temperature and residence 5721 time laid out in §7 Par. 6 of the Waste Incineration Ordinance, 2010). 5722

Table 106: Limit values for sewage sludge and paper fibre waste residuals according to 5723 waste list chapter 943, 945 and 948 (Waste Catalogue Ordinance, Federal Law Gazette, 5724 II No. 570/2003 as amended) used in co-incineration plants (Austrian Waste Incineration 5725 Ordinance, 2010). 5726

Limit value [mg/MJ]


Cd 0,8 0,95

Hg 0,15 0,25

5727

WDF may only be accepted in a co-incineration plant, if there is a valid proof of 5728 the assessment referred to in Annex 8 of the Austrian Waste Incineration Ordi-5729 nance. The producers of waste, the waste collector, or the owner of the co-5730 incineration plant can create a certificate of assessment, also an authorised 5731 specialist or professional institution can be contracted. 5732

Prerequisite for performing basic characterization is compliance with a quality 5733 assurance system in accordance with the State of the art. The certificate of as-5734 sessment must comply with the requirements of Annex 8 chapter 2.12 Austrian 5735 Waste Incineration Ordinance. 5736

A new certificate of assessment must be drafted whenever input of waste 5737 changes or whenever relevant process modifications with impacts on the quality 5738 of waste take place. The proof of the assessment must be transferred electroni-5739 cally from the 1st January 2015 by means of the register in accordance with 5740 2002 AWG, section 22. 5741

The owner of a co-incineration plant must record the basic procedure for the in-5742 put inspection, the results of input inspection and in particular the results of 5743 identity controls and external monitoring. Furthermore the waste information of 5744 wrong declarations must be indicated. Assessment evidence and waste infor-5745 mation shall be retained for at least seven years after expiration and must be 5746 forwarded at the request of the authority. 5747

Criteria to achieve the end-of-waste status for WDF 5748

If the waste holder intends to apply for end-of-waste status for the production of 5749 solid recovered fuels, the standard ÖNORM CEN/TS 15358 ‘Solid recovered 5750 fuels – Quality management systems – particular requirements for their applica-5751 tion to the production of solid recovered fuels’ (EN 15358:2011-03 is available in 5752 the meantime) has to be applied. 5753

Waste oil and solvents

Sewage sludge and paper fibre waste residuals

Acceptance of WDF and recording

End-of-waste Status



For the end-of-waste status of WDF the product has to fulfil the limit values 5754 listed for the intended use. 5755

Table 107: Limit values for the end-of-waste status for WDF for the intended use (note: 5756 mg/kg dm for WDF-products made of waste wood, mg/MJ for others; Austrian Waste 5757 Incineration Ordinance, 2010) 61. 5758

Limit value for WDF-products made of waste wood62

Limit values for other WDF-products

median 80th percentile median 80th percentile

mg/kg dm mg/kg dm mg/MJ mg/MJ

Sb - - 0,50 0,75

As 1,2 1,8 0,8 1,2

Pb 10 15 4 6

Cd 0,8 1,2 0,05 0,075

Cr 10 15 1,4 2,1

Co - - 0,7 1,05

Ni - - 1,6 2,4

Hg 0,05 0,075 0,02 0,03

Zn 140 210

F 15 20 - -

Sum of PAH (EPA)

2 3 - -

S - - 200 300

Cl 250 300 100 150

5759

Intended use in accordance with Waste Incineration Ordinance (2010) 5760

The intended use of WDF-products is limited to plants ≥ 50 kW (nominal 5761 heat output) that comply with limit values for dust below 20 mg/m³ (half-5762 hourly Average value) or plants that fall within scope of § 2. (1) of the Aus-5763 trian Waste Incineration Ordinance (2010). 5764

WDF-products that meet the listed requirements lose their waste property for 5765 the intended use with the Declaration on the basis of the delivery of valid 5766 evidence of the assessment to the Federal Minister of agriculture and for-5767 estry, environment and water management. 5768

61 Exemption of sampling exist for natural and untreated wood waste or treated wood waste with-

out contamination, that are collected at source and that are classified according to the Austrian Waste Catalogue Ordinance (Federal Law Gazette II No. 570/2003, as amended), as bark, wood chips from natural, clean and untreated wood, saw dust and wood shavings from natural, clean and untreated wood, abrasive dust and sludges from solely mechanically treated wood, emballages of wood and wood waste, not contaminated from solely mechanicaly treated wood, emballages of wood and wood waste, not contaminated from treated wood (without contamina-tion, e.g. treated with linseed oil), wood shavings, not contaminated. Furthermore animal meal and animal fat, edible oil and waste from agriculture, nutritive, consumption and animal feed production.

62 Appropriate waste wood according to the List of wastes chapter 17 (e.g. solely mechanically treated wood, treated wood free from contaminants according to Austrian Waste Catalogue Or-dinance ,Federal Law Gazette II No. 570/2003, as amended).

Intended use of WDF-products

Declaration of the End-of-waste Status



The waste producer or waste collector can create a certificate of assessment. 5769 Also an authorised specialist or a technical Institute can be assigned for testing. 5770 Prerequisite is compliance with a quality assurance system in accordance with 5771 the State of the art. 5772

A certificate of assessment must comply with the requirements of Annex 9 5773 Chapter 2.8 Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance. 5774

In case of relevant changes concerning the WDF-product process or input ma-5775 terial which have impact on the product quality a new certificate or assessment 5776 must be created. Type and quantity of WDF-products, changes in terms of cus-5777 tomer and results of external monitoring must be submitted to the Federal Min-5778 ister of agriculture and forestry, environment and water management. 5779

From 1 January 2012 the regulation on the end-of-waste status (Austrian Waste 5780 Incineration Ordinance) shall apply for all WDF-products, which have been used 5781 as products before 1 January 2011, and will continue to be used. 5782

The nature and extent of the input control (§ 6 Austrian Waste Incineration Or-5783 dinance) must be addressed in the permit of the authority for the co-incineration 5784 plant. The proprietor of the co-incineration plant must ensure that only the types 5785 of waste are burned, which are included in the permit. The input control consists 5786 of: 5787

determining the mass of each type of waste, 5788 a visual inspection of the delivered waste to proof conformity of the deliv-5789 ered waste with the waste information or, where available, with the proof of 5790 the assessment. 5791

a review of relevant documents (in particular the waste information or, if 5792 available, proof of assessment) and 5793

performing identity checks of the waste, unless the certificate of assess-5794 ment is not created by the owner of the co-incineration plant. 5795

If the identity of the waste is not given, the delivery of waste must be rejected 5796 and the results of the identity checks must be sent to the holder of the waste. 5797

Input control shall comprise of random analytical testing of WDF to verify the 5798 identity of the delivered waste (at least once a year). If a possible contamination 5799 or incorrect description of a WDF is found in course of visual inspection spot 5800 sampling must be carried out. 5801

The identity check is considered positive completed if no single measurement 5802 result exceeds the limit for the 80th percentile (for all parameters). Otherwise 5803 the identity checks must be repeated at least for the parameters not complying 5804 with the 80th percentile. In case of non-compliance of the subsequent sample(s) 5805 the identity of the waste is no longer proofed and a new basic characterization 5806 has to be performed. 5807

The results of the identity checks must be documented in line with requirements 5808 for the certificates of assessment. 5809

Retain samples of all laboratory samples must be made and kept until the re-5810 view of the external monitoring - but at least 6 months for WDF and at least for 5811 12 months for WDF-products (minimum volume requirements must be taken 5812 into account). 5813

5814

Transitional provisions for WDF-products

Input control - WDF

Identity checks - WDF

Retain samples: WDF and WDF-products



External monitoring by authorised specialists or professional institutions63 5815 must be carried out at least once a year and reports in accordance with the 5816 certificate of assessment must be created for each individual examination. 5817 The external monitoring involves in particular64: 5818

verification of certificates of review for completeness and accuracy, 5819 sampling and analysis of each type of waste > 1500 tonnes/y at least once 5820 a year (exemptions for certain waste categories granted), 5821

analysis of reserve samples (each type of waste, randomly selected sam-5822 ples) 5823

if XRF is used for analysis: verification of the calibration of the XRF meas-5824 urements by chemical analyses (XRF is not allowed for external monitoring) 5825

review of the results of the identity checks. 5826

The compliance with the limit values must be assessed in accordance with sec-5827 tion 1.7 Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance (limit values as listed for WDF). 5828

External monitoring by an authorised specialist or a professional institution 5829 must be carried out at least once a year. The external monitoring involves in 5830 particular: 5831

verification of certificates of review for completeness and accuracy, 5832 sampling and analysis of a randomly chosen sub-specimen of 150 t of each 5833 of the WDF-products (exemptions for certain waste categories granted). 5834 Documentation in accordance with the certificate of assessment on each in-5835 dividual examination. 5836

analysis of at least one randomly selected reserve sample per WDF-product 5837 and reporting in accordance with the certificate of assessment. 5838

If the individual measurement result for one or several parameters exceeds the 5839 limit for the 80th percentile, a subsequent qualified sample has to be produced 5840 and examined at least for these parameters. 5841

If the subsequent testing result does not comply with the limit value for the 80th 5842 percentile or in case of detected deviations from the requirements of the Aus-5843 trian Waste Incineration Ordinance during external monitoring the Federal Min-5844 ister for agriculture and forestry, environment and water management must be 5845 informed without delay. 5846

5847

7.4.2 Belgium (Flanders) 5848

In Belgium, the Public Waste Agency of Flanders (OVAM) and the Flemish 5849 Institute for Technological Research (VITO) elaborated specifications giving 5850 end-of-waste criteria for waste oil (OVAM 2010). According to this study, the 5851 following end-of-waste criteria were determined which must be met by the 5852 waste oils before they can be used as a (product) fuel in the shipping and the 5853 (glass) horticulture: 5854

63 If all examinations of WDF are carried out by an authorised specialist or a specialist institution

(and not by the owner or producer of WDF), no external surveillance is necessary. 64 If all examinations of WDF are carried out by an accredited testing laboratory according to

ÖVE/EN ISO/IEC 17025 sampling and analysis of each type of waste > 1500 tonnes/y and analysis of reserve samples is not necessary.

External monitoring for WDF

External monitoring for WDF-products

Study on end-of-waste criteria for waste oil



The waste oils used as input for the production of fuel must meet the following 5855 criteria: 5856

Only waste oils, such as set out in the environmental policy agreement for 5857 waste oil are eligible. 5858

The PCB content must be less than 50 ppm. 5859

If the manager of an installation can demonstrate that the desired input other 5860 than waste oil (as defined in the environmental policy agreement for waste oils) 5861 is in accordance is with the composition of waste lubricating oil (as given in 5862 Table 108), this input can be allowed. 5863

The treatment process that is used for waste oils to create a fuel must include at 5864 least the following three components: 5865

Filtration unit for the separation of solids, 5866 Dewatering unit, 5867 Distillation unit for separating the bituminous fraction (chain length > C20) 5868 from the fuel fraction (chain length C8–C20). 5869

The final product must meet at least the following composition requirements: 5870

S-content < 1.0 m%; 5871 Cl-content of < 250 ppm; 5872 (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sn, V) < 25 ppm 5873 PCB < 1 ppm. 5874

The proposed composition represents absolute limit values. If lower levels can 5875 be achieved, in particular for sulphur, this may have an effect on the range of 5876 application proposed in the following paragraph. 5877

The range of application of the produced fuel, after having met criteria 1 to 3, is 5878 limited: 5879

For (glass) horticulture: 5880 o to replace heavy fuel oil. 5881 o In case that the S-content of re-refined waste oils can be reduced to 5882

0.1%, this fuel can be used to replace gasoil/diesel oil. 5883 For inland shipping: 5884

o Re-refined waste oils can be used as a blend to reduce the viscosity 5885 of the fuels that are used. The use of blends in fuels to obtain the de-5886 sired specifications is a common practice in the shipping industry. Re-5887 refined waste oils cannot be used to replace gasoil/diesel oil, because 5888 of its high S-content. 5889

o If the S-content of re-refined waste oils is reduced to 0.1%, this fuel 5890 can be used to replace traditional fuels used in inland shipping. 5891

In the maritime sector, 5892 o re-refined waste oils can be used as a substitute for distillation marine 5893

fuels, 5894 o or as a blend to produce the desired quality residue navy fuel. 5895

The following table provides an overview of the scope of re-refined waste oils 5896 with corresponding composition conditions as set out in this study. These terms 5897

Requirements: Waste oils

Requirements: Treatment process

Requirements: Final product

Requirements: Limited range of application



are in addition to the already existing product standards and limit values that are 5898 in force. 5899

Table 108: Overview of the composition of waste lubricating oil, based on literature data 5900 (OVAM 2010) 5901

Waste Oil Parameter Unit

Min. Max.

Al ppm* 0.50 45 (758)

As ppm 0.12 17

Ba ppm 1 480 (3906)

Ca ppm 0.02 3000

Cd ppm 0.10 5

Co ppm 0.25 15

Cu ppm 6 117 (280)

Cr ppm 1 28

Fe ppm 41 655 (2401)

Mg ppm 8 1600

Mo ppm 4.90 20

Mn ppm 3 50

Ni ppm 0.60 20

Pb ppm 2.90 21676

Si ppm 30 120

Sn ppm 1.10 5.80

V ppm 1 35

Zn ppm 0.65 1787

Water % (weight) 0.17 4.3

Sediment % (weight) 0.08 1.27

S % (weight) 0.17 1.2 (40.44)

Cl % (weight) 0.018 1.03

Halogens (sum) ppm 0.018 500

P ppm 81 1550 (32277)

Light Hydrocarbons % (weight) 10 10

PAK ppm 300 1000

PCB/PCT ppm 0.045 2.5

Solvent % (weight) 0.26 4

*) 1 ppm (in weight) = 1 mg/kg = 0,001 g/kg = 0,000001 kg/kg = 0,0001 ‰ = 0,00001 % 5902 5903

5904

7.4.3 Finland 5905

The Finnish Standards Association SFS has published the national standard 5906 “SFS 5875: Solid recovered fuel - Quality control system”. 5907

5908

5909



This standard defines the procedure and requirements, by which the quality of 5910 recovered fuel, produced for the purpose of energy production from source-5911 separated waste, can be controlled and reported unambiguously. 5912

The standard covers the whole chain of supply from the source-separation of 5913 wastes to the delivery of recovered fuel. This standard does not concern un-5914 treated wood wastes, like bark, sawdust and forestry residues. 5915

Table 109: Quality classes for SRF in Finland (ERFO) 5916

Quality classes Parameter Unit

I II III

Chlorine Weight-% < 0,15 < 0,5 < 1,5

Sulphur Weight-% < 0,2 < 0,3 < 0,5

Nitrogen Weight-% < 1,0 < 1,5 < 2,5

Potassium and Sodium Weight-% < 0,2 < 0,4 < 0,5

Aluminium (metallic) Weight-% - 1) - 2) - 3)

Mercury mg/kg < 0,1 < 0,2 < 0,5

Cadmium mg/kg < 1,0 < 4,0 < 5,0 1) Metallic aluminium is not allowed, but accepted within the limits of reporting precision 5917 2) Metallic aluminium is minimized by source-separation and by the fuel production process 5918 3) Metallic aluminium content is agreed separately. 5919 5920

5921

7.4.4 France 5922

In 2008, ADEME (French Environment and Energy Management Agency) has 5923 issued complementary specifications on solid biofuels. Based on the 5924 EN 14961’s classification system, ADEME proposes a subdivision of treated 5925 wood into two classes by specifying groups of origin as well as limit values for 5926 nitrogen, chlorine, heavy metals, organic halogens and boron. According to 5927 EN 14961 no heavy metals or organic halogens are allowed in treated wood. 5928

Table 110: Proposed subdivision of treated wood (ADEME, 2008) 5929

Wood waste

CEN TC 335 untreated treated apart from CEN/TC 335

references energy wood

not containing additives

with only minor additives excluded

definition without any chemical con-taminants

treated wood, without other chemical components

treatment with fin-ish or conserva-tion agents (low concentration)

mixtures with other materials, contaminated products, contain-ing flame-retardants and/or other relevant amount of chemical additives

relevant ex-amples

solid wood chip trays, wooden beam

chip trays (mela-mine resin), pallets treated with Anti-Blue (fungicide)

treated wood (impregnation or flame-retardants)

SRF specifications

Specifications for wood waste complementary to EN 14961



Wood waste

CEN TC 335 untreated treated apart from CEN/TC 335

traceability/ composition

by type of prod-ucts and mix-tures thereof

by kind and quantity of adhesives

by kind and con-centration of adhesives, fin-ish and conserva-tion

no information available or partly missing

parameters natural content of nitrogen and chlorine

Nitrogen content ≤15%, natural chlo-rine content

Nitrogen content ≤15%, heavy metals (HM) ≤1000ppm;Organo-halogenes ≤10ppm; Boron ≤1000ppm.

Nitrogen content >15%, heavy met-als (HM) >1000ppm; Or-gano-halogenes >10ppm; Boron >1000ppm.

5930

5931

7.4.5 Netherlands 5932

A number of NTAs (Dutch Technical Agreement) were developed for “sec-5933 ondaire brandstoffen” (secondary fuels), which is a term that includes 5934 biofuels and SRF. As there are: 5935

NTA 8200:2003 Best practise list for biomass fuel and ash analysis 5936 This NTA gives recommendations on: available methods for sampling, sam-5937 ple preparation and analysis; - fields of application of the method (types of 5938 biomass);- alternative methods and method adjustments; - relevant interna-5939 tional standards; noticed bottle necks. 5940

NTA 8201:2003 Solid recovered fuels and biomass Quality assurance (in 5941 Dutch) 5942 This NTA covers the quality of secondary fuels. It was initially targeted at 5943 manufacturers and suppliers of secondary fuels, but is also useful for users of 5944 secondary fuels, governments, inspection bodies and laboratories. It de-5945 scribes how the quality secondary fuels can be secured. 5946

NTA 8202:2003 Solid recovered fuels and biomass - Sampling and sample 5947 preparation 5948 This NTA refers to the sampling and sample preparation of secondary fuels. 5949 It was initially targeted at manufacturers, suppliers and consumers of secon-5950 dary fuels, but is also useful for authorities, inspection bodies and laborato-5951 ries. It describes how the sampling and sample preparation of secondary fu-5952 els, depending on site-specific conditions must be performed. This NTA ap-5953 plies only to solid secondary fuels. 5954

NTA 8203:2003 Solid recovered fuels and biomass Specification and classi-5955 fication 5956 This NTA refers to the specification and classification of solid secondary fu-5957 els. It was primarily aimed at buyers and suppliers of solid secondary fuels 5958 but is also useful for authorities and inspection organizations. It describes 5959 Specification and classification of secondary fuels. 5960

NTA 8204:2003 Solid recovered fuels and biomass - Determination of bio-5961 mass content 5962 This NTA refers to the determination of the content of solid biomass in solid 5963

Standards for biofuels and SRF



secondary fuels. It is primarily aimed at laboratories, manufacturers, suppliers 5964 and customers of solid secondary fuels, but is also useful for authorities and 5965 inspection organizations. It describes how to determine the biomass content 5966 of solid secondary fuels. 5967

Actually in the course of the year 2011 all NTAs mentioned here will be re-5968 placed by the CEN-standards. 5969

5970

5971

7.4.6 Italy 5972

The Italian standardization organization UNI has provided a series of standards 5973 dealing with RDF (CDR - Combustibile Derivato dai Rifiuti). 5974

The UNI 9903 consists of 14 parts out of which 7 parts are already withdrawn. 5975

The following parts of the UNI 9903 are currently still valid: 5976 Part 1 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels - Specifications and classification 5977 Part 2 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels (RDF). Terms and definitions. 5978 Part 3 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels. Fundamental indications for sys-5979 tematic sampling of fuels. 5980

Part 4 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels. Size determination. 5981 Part 12 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels. Preparation of fuel samples for 5982 metal analysis. 5983

Part 13 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels (RDF) - Determination of metals - 5984 Methods by atomic absorption spectrophotometry 5985

Part 14 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels (RDF). Determination of glass 5986 content. 5987

The standard defines two classes of RDF: 5988 Normal quality RDF (CDR) 5989 High quality RDF (CDR-Q) 5990

Table 111: Specifications for RDF according UNI 9903 (MENGHETTI F., 2007) 5991

Property Unit Normal quality ("RDF qualitá normale")

Enhanced quality ("RDF qualitá elevata")

Water content % (ar) max. 25 max. 18

LHV MJ/kg (ar) min. 15 min. 20

Ash content % (d) max. 20 max. 15

Total Chlorine % (ar) max. 0.9 max. 0.7

Sulphur % (ar) max. 0.6 max. 0.3

Pb1) mg/kg (d) max. 200 max. 100

Cr mg/kg (d) max. 100 max. 70

Cu2) mg/kg (d) max. 100 max. 50

Mn mg/kg (d) max. 400 max. 200

Ni mg/kg (d) max. 40 max. 30

As mg/kg (d) max. 9 max. 5

Cd+Hg mg/kg (d) max. 7 --

Standards for RDF



Property Unit Normal quality ("RDF qualitá normale")

Enhanced quality ("RDF qualitá elevata")

Cd mg/kg (d) -- max. 3

Hg mg/kg (d) -- max. 1

Glass content % (d) * *

Fe % (d) * *

Fluorine % (d) * *

Al % (d) * *

Sn % (d) * *

Zn % (d) * *

Appearance * *

Size mm * *

Ash melting behavior

○C * *

* No acceptance limit, but recommended to be indicated 5992 1) Volatile fraction 5993 2) Soluble compounds 5994

As the Standard UNI 9903 is referred to in the decree DM 05/02/98 of the minis-5995 ter of the environment together with the ministers of health, industry, commerce 5996 and crafts and agricultural policies, it is legally binding (D.M. AMBIENTE DEL 5997 5.2.1998, 1998). 5998

5999

6000

7.4.7 Slovakia 6001

The Slovak Standards Institute (SUTN) has published 2 standards dealing 6002 with the application of waste oils as fuels (both only available in Slovak lan-6003 guage), which have become legally binding by way of Slovakian Decree 6004 362/2010 of August 12th 2010, based upon the Law on Air Emissions (Zákon 6005 137/2010 Z. z. o ovzduší). 6006

STN 65 6690: Waste oil: 6007 The standard specifies the conditions for the management of mineral, semi-6008 synthetic and synthetic waste oils. Waste oils are divided into categories in 6009 terms of their use for recovery, reprocessing or incineration. It specifies the 6010 quality of tests and other details related to the handling. 6011

STN 65 6691: Oil products. Fuel oils derived from used oils. Requirements 6012 and test methods: 6013 This standard specifies the quality parameters for liquid fuels based on waste 6014 oils for heat production. 6015

6016

6017

7.4.8 Sweden 6018

The Swedish standardization institute (SIS) has published the standard “SS 6019 155438: Motor fuels - Biogas as fuel for high-speed Otto engines” which 6020 specifies requirements for biogas as a fuel. 6021

Legally binding EOW criteria

National standard for biogas



The following table gives an overview on some of the specifications of the 6022 SS 155438. 6023

Table 112: Specifications for biogas according to SS 155438 (DVGW, 2009) 6024

Property Unit Biogas type A

Biogas type B

Wobbe number MJ/Nm³ 44,7-46,4 43,9-47,3

Methane content Vol% 96-98 95-99

Dew point at highest storage pressure °C t-5 t-5

Water content (max) mg/Nm³ 32 32

Sum CO2, N2, O2 (max) Vol% 4 5

O2 (max) Vol% 1 1

Sum CO2, N2, O2 (max) mg/Nm³ 23 23

nitrogen compounds (max) (without N2, calculated as NH3)

mg/Nm³ 20 20

Size of particles (max) µm 1 1

6025

6026

7.4.1 United Kingdom 6027

In the United Kingdom, DEFRA, the WELSH ASSEMBLY GOVERNMENT (WAG) and 6028 the NORTHERN IRELAND ENVIRONMENT AGENCY (NIEA) have published a quality 6029 protocol on processed fuel oil (PFO). 6030

The document distinguishes between distillate oil equivalent (e.g. gas-oil) and 6031 residual oil equivalent (e.g. heavy fuel oil, HFO) classes of PFO. 6032

A waste lubricating oil (WLO) derived fuel that meets all the given criteria for a 6033 distillate oil equivalent can be sold or supplied for use in any application where 6034 virgin oil use is allowed and appropriate. Specifications are given in the follow-6035 ing two tables. 6036

Table 113: Specification for a distillate oil equivalent (DEFRA 2001) 6037

Property Unit Limit

Kinematic viscosity mm2/sec To be agreed between supplier/user

Carbon residue (micro) [10% (v/v) distillation bottoms] (max)

% (m/m) 0.30

Distillation: Recovery at 250 ○C (max) % (v/v) 65

Distillation: Recovery at 350 ○C (max) % (v/v) 85

Ash (max) % (m/m) 0.01

Flash Point (min) ○C 56

Water content (max) mg/kg 200

Sediment (max) mg/l 24

Sulfur (max) % (m/m) 0.10

Copper corrosion (3h at 100 ○C) (max) 1

Cold filter plugging point (max) (○C )

Summer (March 16th – Sept. 30th) -4



Property Unit Limit

Winter (Oct. 1st – March 15th) -12

Strong acid number zero

Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) content (max)

% (v/v) 5

Total halogens (as Chlorine) (max) mg/kg 5

PCB`s (max) mg/kg 5

Mercury (max) mg/kg 5

Lead (max) mg/kg 5

Nickel (max) mg/kg 5

Chromium (max) mg/kg 5

Copper (max) mg/kg 5

Zinc (max) mg/kg 5

Arsenic (max) mg/kg 5

Cadmium (max) mg/kg 5

Thallium (max) mg/kg 5

Antimony (max) mg/kg 5

Cobalt (max) mg/kg 5

Manganese (max) mg/kg 5

Vanadium (max) mg/kg 5 6038

Table 114: Specification for a residual oil equivalent (UK 2001) 6039

Property Units Limit

Kinematic viscosity mm2/sec To be agreed between supplier/user

Carbon residue (max) Class E % (m/m) 15.0

Carbon residue (max) Class F % (m/m) 18.0

Carbon residue (max) Class G % (m/m) 20.0

Sulfated Ash (max) % (m/m) 0.20

Flash Point (min) ○C 66.0

Water content (max) Class E % (v/v) 0.5

Water content (max) Class F % (v/v) 0.75

Water content (max) Class G % (v/v) 1.0

Sediment (max) Class E % (m/m) 0.10

Sediment (max) Class F % (m/m) 0.15

Sediment (max) Class G % (m/m) 0.15

Sulphur (max) % (m/m) 1.0

Strong acid number zero

Total halogens (as Chlorine) (max) mg/kg 150

PCB`s (max) mg/kg 5

Mercury (max) mg/kg 5

Lead mg/kg 25

Nickel mg/kg 5

Chromium mg/kg 5



Property Units Limit

Copper mg/kg 40

Zinc mg/kg 300

Arsenic mg/kg 5

Cadmium mg/kg 5

Thallium mg/kg 5

Antimony mg/kg 5

Cobalt mg/kg 5

Manganese mg/kg 5

Vanadium mg/kg 5 6040

6041

7.5 Voluntary / Commercial Agreements 6042

7.5.1 Austria 6043

The Austrian Guideline ÖVGW G33 is one example for biogas quality guide-6044 lines. Similar guidelines exist in all Member States that feed biogas into their na-6045 tional gas grids or use it for transport purposes, such as the Netherlands, Swe-6046 den, France, Italy and Germany, as well as Switzerland and Norway 6047 (WELLINGER 2011b). 6048

Guideline ÖVGW G33 defines quality standards for the feeding of biogas from 6049 regenerative processes into the gas networks of gas network operators. These 6050 limit value are effective additional to the guideline ÖVGW G31, which defines 6051 quality standards for the feeding of natural gas into the gas networks of gas 6052 network operators. 6053

Table 115: Quality criteria for the feeding of natural gas into the gas networks of gas 6054 network operators (ÖVGW G31) 6055

Parameter Unit Limit value

Wobbe index kWh/m³ 13,3-15,7

Gross calorific value kWh/m³ 10,7-12,8

Relative density 0,55-0,65

Hydrocarbons: Condensation point

°C maximum 0°C at operating pressure

Water: condensation point °C maximum -8°C at a pressure of 40 bar

Oxygen (O2) % Vol. < 0,5

Carbon dioxide (CO2) % Vol. < 2

Nitrogen (N2) % Vol. < 5

Hydrogen (H2) % Vol. < 4

Total sulphur mg S/m³ (in the long run) 10

mg S/m³ (average) 30

Mercaptane Sulphur mg S/m³ < 6

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) mg S/m³ < 5

ÖVWG G31, G33 Gas and Biogas




Carbon oxide sulphide (COS) mg/m³ < 5

Halogen compounds mg/m³ 0

Ammonia (NH3) - technical free

Solid and liquid compounds - technical free

No further components that might endanger safety in operation and stability of grid.

6056

Table 116: Quality standards for the feeding of biogas from regenerative processes into 6057 the gas networks in addition to standard ÖVGW G31 (ÖVGW G33) 6058


Methane (CH4) %Mol 9665

Total silicon (siloxane, silane) mg/m³ 10

6059

7.5.2 Bulgaria 6060

The Bulgarian authorities’ expert explained that in cement factories Bulgaria 6061 have their own specifications for WDFs. No concrete data was submitted or 6062 found during research. 6063

6064

7.5.3 Germany 6065

The RAL - German Institute for Quality Assurance and Certification is an or-6066 ganization that provides so called RAL Quality Marks66 on various product 6067 groups or service categories. 6068

Quality Marks are intended to label products and services that are manufac-6069 tured or provided according to highly specified quality criteria. RAL determines 6070 the quality requirements for the individual Quality Marks in an approval proce-6071 dure together with manufacturers and suppliers, the trade and consumers, test-6072 ing institutes and associations. 6073

Quality Marks are based upon performance-specific quality criteria tailored to 6074 the individual product or service that fulfils all important and meaningful re-6075 quirements for the particular quality assurance process. They are published by 6076 RAL and accessible to anybody. The Quality Marks are awarded to manufac-6077 turers and service providers by the RAL approved Quality Assurance Associa-6078 tions who must themselves fulfil the individually specified and strict Quality As-6079 surance and Test Specifications. 6080

There are currently 160 Quality Marks. In the field of waste-derives fuels there 6081 are two RAL Quality Marks: 6082

65 Other contents of methane than 96 %Mol are allowed provided that the biogas complies with all

other limit values of ÖVGW G 31 and a gross calorific value of min. 10.7 kWh/m³ can be reached. Feeding of landfill gas and sewer gas into the gas networks is not permitted according to ÖVGW 33. Nevertheless, there is one example plant in Austria feeding sewage sludge de-rived biogas into the gas grid (cf. Chapter 6.2).

66 German: “RAL Gütezeichen”

WDF specifications in cement industry



RAL-GZ 724 for secondary fuels67 6083 It describes requirements and test methods for waste-derived fuels regard-6084 ing heavy metal content and the use of WDFs in the cement industry and in 6085 power plants. 6086

It also defines requirements for self-monitoring and external-monitoring on 6087 one-time as well as periodic basis. 6088

It is awarded to SRF producers which comply with the specifications and 6089 requirements by guaranteeing constant fuel quality. 6090

Table 117: Metal contents that have to be complied (RAL-GZ 724) 6091

Heavy metal content1) Property Unit

Median 80th Percentile

Cd mg/kg (d) 4 9

Hg mg/kg (d) 0.6 1.2

Tl mg/kg (d) 1 2

As mg/kg (d) 5 13

Co mg/kg (d) 6 12

Ni mg/kg (d) 252) 803) 502) 1603)

Sb mg/kg (d) 50 120

Pb mg/kg (d) 702) 1903) 2002) 4003)

Cr mg/kg (d) 402) 1253) 1202) 2503)

Cu mg/kg (d) 2002) 4003) 5002)4) 1,0003)4)

Mn mg/kg (d) 502) 2503) 1002) 5003)

V mg/kg (d) 10 25

Sn mg/kg (d) 30 70

1) The above mentioned heavy metal contents are valid for the high calorific fractions from 6092 municipal waste with a calorific value NCV (d) of ≥ 16 MJ/kg and for production specific waste 6093 with a calorific value NCV (d) of ≥ 20 MJ/kg. For calorific values falling below, the above 6094 mentioned values need to be lowered accordingly, an increase is not allowed. 6095

2) For solid recovered fuels from production specific waste. 6096 3) For solid recovered fuels from high caloric fraction of municipal waste 6097 4) Limit violations caused by inhomogeneous material in individual cases allowed. 6098 6099

The following parameters have to be recorded: 6100 Water content 6101 Calorific value 6102 Ash content 6103 chlorine content 6104

6105

RAL-GZ 428 for recycled wood waste68 6106 The RAL-GZ 428 defines requirements on recycled waste wood for different 6107 purposes. For the usage of recycled waste wood as a WDF, 3 groups are de-6108 fined. 6109

67 German: “Sekundärbrennstoffe” 68 German: “Recyclingholz”

RAL-GZ 724 Secondary fuels

RAL-GZ 428 Wood waste



6110

RAL-GZ 428/3 for recycled energy wood 6111

Table 118: Limit values for impurities in recycled energy wood (RAL-GZ 428) 6112

Category Max. content of impurities %

Crushed 5

Wood chips 3

Sawings 2

Pellets 2

Briquettes 3

6113

Table 119: Limit values for heavy metals in recycled energy wood (RAL-GZ 428) 6114

Property Limit value in mg/kg (d)

As 2

Pb 30

Cd 2

Cr 30

Cu 20

Hg 0,4

Cl 600

F 100

PCP 3

Creosote No suspicious smell or colour

S 400*

N 6000*

* Only for Pellets and briquettes 6115 6116

RAL-GZ 428/5 for recycling fuels and recycling wood according to the 6117 German Ordinance on Biomass69 6118

Table 120: Limit values for impurities in recycling fuels and recycling wood according 6119 to the German ordinance on bio mass (RAL-GZ 428) 6120

Category Max. content of impurities %

Precrushed 5

Wood chips 3

Sawings 2

Table 121: Limit values for various parameters in recycling fuels and recycling wood 6121 according to the German ordinance on bio mass (RAL-GZ 428) 6122

Parameter Limit value in mg/kg (d)

Hg 1

69 German: “Biomasseverordnung”

RAL-GZ 428/3 Energy wood

RAL-GZ 428/5 Fuels and wood according to Biomass Ordinance



PCB or PCT 50

6123

6124

RAL-GZ 428/6: waste-derived fuels mainly composed of waste wood (> 6125 50% wood) 6126

It defines a classification based on commercial size and packing: 6127 o Coarse 6128 o Wood chips 6129 o Sawings 6130

It excludes various types of waste wood from usage: 6131 o Kyanized70 waste wood 6132 o PCB waste wood according to the German ordinance on waste 6133

wood (Altholzverordnung) 6134 o Biologically digested waste wood 6135

6136

The DVWG (German Technical and Scientific Association for Gas and Water) 6137 provides technical rules on gas and water in Germany. In the field of gas and 6138 biogas, the technical rules G 260 “Gas quality”71 and G 262 “Use of gases de-6139 rived from renewable sources in public gas supply”72 set specifications for the 6140 feeding of gas and biogas into public gas distribution systems (DVGW 2009). 6141

6142

6143

7.5.4 Sweden 6144

Specifications for recovered fuels used in Swedish cement plants were pub-6145 lished in 2003. 6146

Table 122: Specification for recovered fuels used in cement plants in Sweden (EC 2003) 6147

Property Criteria

Specialbränsle A Lattbränsle

Calorific value 23.9–31.4 MJ/kg 25.1–31.4 MJ/kg

Flash point < 21°C < 21°C

Specific density at 15°C 0.9–1.1 kg/dm3 0.80–0.95 kg/dm3

Viscosity Pumpable 1–5 cSt at 50°C

Ash content 5–10 % 0.6–0.8 %

Water < 30 % < 10 %

Cl < 1 % < 1 %

S N/A < 0.5 %

Cr < 300 ppm < 30 ppm

V N/A < 50 ppm

70 Impregnated with a solution of mercuric chloride 71 German: „Gasbeschaffenheit“ 72 German: „Nutzung von Gasen aus regenerativen Quellen in der öffentlichen Gasversorgung“

RAL-GZ 428/6 WDF mainly from wood waste

DVWG G260, G262 Gas and Biogas

Specifications for recovered fuels in cement plants



Property Criteria

Specialbränsle A Lattbränsle

Z N/A < 300 ppm

Zn < 2000 ppm N/A

Cd < 10 ppm < 5 ppm

Pb < 350 ppm < 100 ppm

Ni N/A < 10 ppm

Hg N/A < 5 ppm

PCB N/A < 5 ppm

6148

6149

7.6 Comparison to conventional fuels 6150

7.6.1 Solid fuels 6151

7.6.1.1 Coal and lignite 6152

The quality and chemical composition of coal depends mainly on its type (e.g. 6153 brown coal or stone coal) and its origin. 6154

The following table gives an overview of typical specifications of brown coal and 6155 stone coal as used in two Austrian power plants. 6156

Table 123: Lignite and hard coal analysis according to UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2003) 6157

Property Unit Lignite (Mean/interval)

Hard coal (Mean/interval)

LHV kJ/kg 9,899 26,616

Carbon % (ar) 28 70.70

Hydrogen % (ar) 2 4.42

Oxygen % (ar) 11 5.16

Nitrogen % (ar) 0.3 1.32

Sulphur % (ar) 1 0.54

Water content % (ar) 37 8.49

Ash % (ar) 20 9.30

Chlorine % (ar) 0.001–0.002 0.06–0.12

Fluorine % (ar) 0.01–0.02 0.007–0.01

As mg/kg (d) 10-25 3–5

Cd mg/kg (d) 0.08-0.12 < 0.3

Cr mg/kg (d) 39.1 26–43

Cu mg/kg (d) 16.0 18–34

Hg mg/kg (d) 0.28 < 0.1

Ni mg/kg (d) 40.5 20–36

Pb mg/kg (d) 5-15 12–16

Se mg/kg (d) 0.99 n.d.*

V mg/kg (d) 41.3 23–41

Zn mg/kg (d) 26.1 24–31



*) n.d: no data given 6158 6159

Compared to the classes specified in CEN/TC 343 (cf. Table 100), the LHV of 6160 class 1 is in the range of hard coal whereas the class 4 LHV is in the range of 6161 lignite. 6162

The chlorine content for class 1 is above respectively in the upper range if com-6163 pared to hard coal, for class 4 very high compared to lignite. 6164

The mercury content for both classes (1 and 4) is ten times higher than for hard 6165 coal or lignite respectively. Other metals (e.g. Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu…) as well as 6166 As are not described in CEN/TS 15359:2006. 6167

6168

7.6.1.2 Wood 6169

The heating value (LHV) of wood lies generally in a range of ca. 15-19 MJ/kg. 6170 The LHV depends mainly on the type of wood and on its water content. 6171

The chemical composition of natural wood is mainly depending on the wood 6172 type and origin. The chemical composition of waste wood depends in addition 6173 on the kind of its usage and pre-treatment (preservatives, coatings, etc.). 6174

Table 124: Guidance values for natural wood and waste wood (AMT DER 6175 STEIERMÄRKISCHEN LANDESREGIERUNG 2004) 6176

Property Unit Guidance value natural wood

Guidance value waste wood

Cl mg/kg 100 300

F mg/kg 10 30

B mg/kg 15 30

As mg/kg 0.8 2

Cd mg/kg 0.5 >0.5

Pb mg/kg 3 >3

Cu mg/kg 5 20

Hg mg/kg 0.05 0.4

PCP mg/kg 1 2

HCH mg/kg 0.25 0.5

B(a)p mg/kg 0.05 0.1

6177

6178

7.6.2 Liquid fuels 6179

7.6.2.1 Diesel and Biodiesel 6180

As the following table shows, the requirements for Diesel and Biodiesel (irre-6181 spective of its origin) for the use as automotive fuel are in similar or equal for 6182 some properties. There are however different specifications for density, viscos-6183 ity, flash point, ash content, water content and oxidation stability. 6184

Comparison to CEN/TS 15359:2006



Table 125: Requirements for Biodiesel according to EN 14214 and Diesel according to 6185 EN 590 6186

Bio Diesel (FAME) according to EN 14214

Diesel according to EN 590

Property Unit Min Max Min Max

Density at 15°C kg/m³ 860 900 820 845

Viscosity at 40°C mm²/s 3.5 5 2 4.5

Flash point °C > 101 - > 55 -

Sulphur content mg/kg - 10 - 10

Tar remnant (at 10% distillation remnant)

% (m/m) - 0.3 - 0.3

Cetane number - 51 - 51 -

Ash content % (m/m) - 0.02 - 0.01

Water content mg/kg - 500 - 200

Total contamination mg/kg - 24 - 24

Copper band corrosion (3 hours at 50 °C)

rating Class 1 Class 1

Oxidation stability, 110°C hours 6 - 20 -

Cold filter plugging point (CFPP)

°C depending on climatic conditions

depending on climatic conditions

6187



8 LEGAL SITUATION 6188

6189

8.1 European Union 6190

8.1.1 European Legislation 6191

8.1.1.1 Waste Framework Directive 6192

The waste law throughout Europe is determined by the Laws of the European 6193 Union. On one hand, waste is a good and therefore subjected to the prohibition 6194 of quantitative restrictions between Member States governed by Article 34 ff of 6195 the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). On the other 6196 hand, the waste management (i.e. collection, transport, recovery and disposal 6197 of waste, including the supervision of such operations and after-care of disposal 6198 sites as well as actions taken as a dealer or broker of waste) lies within the 6199 span of the free movement of services. Within this framework of the Treaties, 6200 the European Council issued as early as 1975 a Directive on waste which then 6201 was based on the subsidiary competence clause of Article 235 of the Treaty es-6202 tablishing the European Community (TEC; now Article 352 TFEU). 6203

Nowadays, the legal basis for the European and the national waste laws is the 6204 Waste Framework Directive73 (WFD), which is grounded on the competence 6205 clause of the antecessor of Article 192 TFEU (). 6206

Subject matter and scope of the WFD are measures to protect the environment 6207 and human health by preventing or reducing the adverse impacts of the genera-6208 tion and management of waste and by reducing overall impacts of resource use 6209 and improving the efficiency of such use. The WFD covers not each and every 6210 waste. For example, gaseous effluents emitted into the atmosphere, land (in 6211 situ) as well as waste already governed by other (more specialized) directives 6212 are excluded. 6213

One of the core rules of the WFD is to apply a waste hierarchy as a priority or-6214 der in waste prevention and management legislation/policy throughout Europe. 6215 Focusing on the study at hand, there are three aspects that have to be high-6216 lighted in more detail: the definition of waste, of by-products, and the end-of-6217 waste status. 6218

With respect to Article 3 of the WFD, “waste” means any substance or object 6219 which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard. The waste holder 6220 is either the waste producer or a natural or legal person who is in possession of 6221 the waste. To put it in other words: Each and every person who possesses 6222 waste and intends to or discards the latter underlies the provisions of the WFD. 6223 If the waste owner is required to discard the waste e.g. due to its hazardous po-6224 tential, he underlies the provisions of the WFD as well, as the waste owner’s in-6225 tention is irrelevant. 6226

6227

6228

73 Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on

waste and repealing certain directives

Most recently: Directive 2008/98/EC

Subject matter and scope

Waste hierarchy

Definition of waste: Intention or requirement to discard



According to Article 5 of the WFD, a substance or object resulting from a 6229 production process, the primary aim of which is not the production of that 6230 item, may be regarded as not being waste within the meaning of the WFD 6231 but as being a by-product if the following conditions are met: 6232

The further use of the substance or object is certain. 6233 The substance or object can be used directly without any further processing 6234 other than normal industrial practice. 6235

The substance or object is produced as an integral part of a production 6236 process. 6237

The further use is not against product, environmental or health protection 6238 requirements. 6239

The inclusion of by-product rules into the WFD is the result of a series of ECJ-6240 rulings on the distinction between waste and non-waste. The Commission in 6241 2010, moreover, issued a Communication to the Council and the European Par-6242 liament on the interpretative communication on waste and by-products, sum-6243 ming up the leading court cases and amending it with its own legal opinion on 6244 this. Although leaving out any explicit connection to this communication or court 6245 cases, the main ideas of these legal documents have clearly influenced the Par-6246 liament and the Council when rendering the WFD in the current version (cf. re-6247 cital 22). 6248

In 2008, a legal framework on the end-of-waste status was newly introduced 6249 into the WFD. With respect to Article 6 of the WFD, certain specified waste 6250 shall cease to be waste within the meaning of the WFD when it has undergone 6251 a recovery or recycling process and complies with specific criteria to be devel-6252 oped in accordance with the following conditions: 6253

The substance or object is commonly used for specific purposes. 6254 A market or demand exists for such a substance or object. 6255 The substance or object fulfils the technical requirements for the specific 6256 purpose and meets the existing legislation and standards applicable to prod-6257 ucts. 6258

The use of the substance or object will not lead to overall adverse environ-6259 mental or human health impacts. 6260

The end-of-waste rule allows a system within which the Commission can (in 6261 accordance with the regulatory procedure with scrutiny referred to Article 39 6262 Para 2 of the WFD) issue legal documents laying down these criteria. The 6263 WFD itself foresees that at least for aggregates, paper, glass, metal, tyres and 6264 textiles such end-of-waste documents shall be produced. 6265

In the meantime an end-of-waste Regulation74 was issued by the Commission 6266 establishing criteria that determine whether certain types of scrap metals cease 6267 to be waste under the WFD. 6268

In case such criteria for the end-of-waste status have not been set at com-6269 munity level, Member States may decide case-by-case whether certain 6270 waste has ceased to be waste, taking into account the applicable case law. 6271

Whereas there are softer requirements defined and no legally binding norms on 6272 community level needed to decide on by-products, Member States’ authorities 6273

74 Council Regulation (EU) No 333/2011 of 31 March 2011

Definition of by-products

End-of-waste status

WFD foresees EOW documents

In absence of EC regulations: MS decide case-by-case



may decide about the end-of-waste status only when no applicable Council 6274 Regulation exists. 6275

6276

8.1.1.2 Incineration as Waste: Waste Incineration Directive (WID) 6277

As long as an incinerated waste-derived fuel is regarded as waste, the strict en-6278 vironmental regulations of the WID have to be followed. 6279

The aim of the WID is to prevent or to limit as far as practicable negative effects 6280 of the incineration and co-incineration of waste on the environment, in particular 6281 pollution by emissions into air, soil, surface water and groundwater, and the re-6282 sulting risks to human health.,. 6283

The WID covers incineration and co-incineration plants burning hazardous and 6284 non-hazardous waste. Plants treating only the following wastes are excluded 6285 from the scope: 6286

vegetable waste from agriculture and forestry, 6287 vegetable waste from the food processing industry, if the heat generated is 6288 recovered, 6289

fibrous vegetable waste from virgin pulp production and from production of 6290 paper from pulp, if it is co-incinerated at the place of production and the heat 6291 generated is recovered, 6292

wood waste with the exception of wood waste which may contain halo-6293 genated organic com-pounds or heavy metals as a result of treatment with 6294 wood-preservatives or coating, and which includes in particular such wood 6295 waste originating from construction and demolition waste, 6296

cork waste, 6297 radioactive waste, 6298 animal carcasses as regulated by Directive 90/667/EEC (veterinary rules 6299 for the disposal and processing of animal waste) without prejudice to its fu-6300 ture amendments, 6301

waste resulting from the exploration for, and the exploitation of, oil and gas 6302 resources from off-shore installations and incinerated on board the installa-6303 tion; 6304

Also excluded from the scope are experimental plants used for research, devel-6305 opment and testing in order to improve the incineration process and which treat 6306 less than 50 tonnes of waste per year. 6307

Article 5 of the WID describes standards for the delivery and reception of waste 6308 which the operator has to fulfil in order to prevent or to limit as far as practicable 6309 negative effects on the environment. 6310

Article 4 (5) WID foresees that the permit granted by the competent authority to 6311 an incineration or co-incineration plant using hazardous waste shall specify the 6312 minimum and maximum mass flows of those hazardous wastes, their lowest 6313 and maximum calorific values and their maximum contents of pollutants, e.g. 6314 PCB, PCP, chlorine, fluorine, sulphur, heavy metals. 6315

The WID also contains detailed regulations concerning the operating conditions 6316 of the waste incineration or co-incineration plant itself: 6317

Scope and exlusions

Delivery and reception of waste

Input specifications for hazardous waste defined in the permit

Operating Conditions



Incineration plants shall be designed, equipped, built and operated in such a 6318 way that the gas resulting from the process is, after the last injection of combus-6319 tion air, raised in a controlled and homogeneous fashion and even under the 6320 most unfavourable conditions, to a temperature of 850 °C, as measured near 6321 the inner wall or at another representative point of the combustion chamber as 6322 authorised by the competent authority, for two seconds. If hazardous wastes 6323 with a content of more than 1 % of halogenated organic substances, expressed 6324 as chlorine, are incinerated, the temperature has to be raised to 1100 °C for at 6325 least two seconds. 6326

Article 7 of the WID appoints air emission limit values differentiating between 6327 incineration and co-incineration plants (i.e. cement kilns, large combustion 6328 plants and other co-incineration plants). 6329

Furthermore, the WID appoints emission limit values for discharges of waste 6330 water from the cleaning of exhaust gases. 6331

Incineration plants shall be operated in order to achieve a level of incinera-6332 tion such that the slag and bottom ashes Total Organic Carbon (TOC) con-6333 tent is less than 3 % or their loss on ignition is less than 5 % of the dry 6334 weight of the material. 6335

6336

8.1.1.3 Incineration as Non-Waste: REACH and the LCP-Directive 6337

The regulations of the WID described above apply only to the incineration of 6338 waste. If the waste-derived fuel ceases to be waste, a number of other laws can 6339 be immediately applicable, of which the European REACH Regulation and the 6340 LCP Directive are the most relevant ones in terms of Community legislation. 6341

6342

REACH 6343

REACH is the European Union’s system that deals with the Registration, 6344 Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemical Substances75 and en-6345 tered into force on June 1st, 2007. 6346

REACH regulates the treatment of substances, mixtures and specific articles. 6347 All obligations correspond to single substances only but not to finished (or half-6348 finished) products. REACH includes each and any chemical substance regard-6349 less of being classified as dangerous or not dangerous. 6350 If a substance is waste it is by law excluded from the scope of REACH. But 6351 REACH can be nevertheless relevant for wastes, especially with regard to 6352 the end-of-waste status. The recycling of waste can lead to the origination of 6353 a substance that applies to REACH. It is possible that this substance is listed in 6354 Annex XVII as totally prohibited which as a result means that this waste can 6355 never be brought back in the product cycle due to REACH. If the recycled waste 6356 applies to REACH without being (totally) prohibited, specific obligations as de-6357 scribed below have to be fulfilled. 6358

75 Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and the Council of 18 December

2006

Air emission limit values

Water emission limit values

Limited TOC content in solid residues

Scope of REACH

Waste excluded from REACH scope



As soon as a material ceases to be waste, REACH requirements apply in prin-6359 ciple in the same way as to other material. In the Guidance on waste and re-6360 covered substances published by ECHA it is clearly stated that all forms of re-6361 covery, including mechanical processing, are considered as a manufacturing 6362 process whenever, after having undergone one or several recovery steps, they 6363 result in the generation of one or several substances as such or in a mixture or 6364 in an article that have ceased to be waste76. 6365

For companies manufacturing substances and mixtures by treating waste in or-6366 der to reach end-of-waste it is essential to identify their products accordingly to 6367 be able to assess the duties and tasks under REACH. 6368

REACH foresees a number of exemptions granted conditionally. Basically every 6369 exemption to be considered for any substance or mixture can also be consid-6370 ered for recycled substances or mixtures e.g. naturally occurring substances, 6371 compost. However, there is a special exemption for recovered substances in 6372 Art. 2(7) d of REACH from which recovery operators may be able to benefit un-6373 der certain conditions in many cases. If the substance recovered has been reg-6374 istered by any company before under REACH, there is no need to register the 6375 recovered substance, if the identity of the recovered substance is the same as 6376 the identity of the registered substance and if the information contained in the 6377 safety data sheet is available to the company undertaking the recovery. It is im-6378 portant to note that this exemption relies on the condition that the same sub-6379 stance has been registered before. As many of the recovered substances are 6380 not registered till now, it has been necessary for recovery operators to pre-6381 register the recovered substances. Although the pre-registration period has al-6382 ready passed there is still the possibility to benefit from late pre-registration for 6383 companies recovering substances for the first time (see Art. 28(6) of REACH). 6384

Even though most of the recovered substances will not be subject for registra-6385 tion, there are a number of duties under REACH (and also CLP) which compa-6386 nies undertaking the recovery have to be aware of where applicable. Examples 6387 are 6388

providing a safety data sheet, 6389 applying for an authorisation, 6390 considering restrictions or 6391 classifying and labelling of substances and mixtures. 6392

For all mentioned duties and tasks it is of prime importance for concerned com-6393 panies to identify the substances which are recovered in their processes. In 6394 practise this basic task demanding technical knowledge as well as understand-6395 ing of the legal requirements is a serious challenge for recovery operators. 6396

6397

76 General information: http://echa.europa.eu/home_en.asp Guidance on waste and recovered substances:

http://guidance.echa.europa.eu/docs/guidance_document/waste_recovered_en.htm?time=1308554642 Guidance on registration: http://guidance.echa.europa.eu/docs/guidance_document/registration_en.pdf?vers=31_01_11

Practical implications of end-of-waste status under REACH



6398 LCP Directive 2001/80/EC 6399

The LCP Directive applies to combustion plants with a rated thermal input of ≥ 6400 50 MW of solid (fossil fuel, biomass), liquid or gaseous fuel. Waste is explicitly 6401 excluded from the term “fuel” for the purpose of the Directive. 6402

The Large Combustion Plants (LCP) Directive is therefore relevant for the burn-6403 ing of waste-derived fuels that are considered non-waste. With effect from 1 6404 January 2016, the LCP Directive will be repealed and replaced by the Indus-trial 6405 Emissions Directive (IED). 6406

For combustion plants with a rated thermal input of less than 50 MW, there are 6407 no EU-wide legal requirements defined. These installations may be regulated 6408 under the respective national legislation of the 27 Member States. 6409

6410

“Fuel” for the purpose of the Directive means any solid, liquid or gaseous 6411 combustible material used to fire the combustion plant. Waste is explicitly ex-6412 cluded from the term “fuel” for the purpose of the Directive. 6413

The reduction of emissions to air is the main aim of regulations regarding the 6414 incineration of fuels in LCP plants. Nevertheless, there are only three air pollut-6415 ants regulated under the PCP Directive, i.e. NOx, SOx and particulate emis-6416 sions (dust), whereas the WID regulates these three air pollutants plus numer-6417 ous other air pollutants). 6418

Emission limit values for discharges of waste water from the cleaning of ex-6419 haust gases are not regulated by the LCP Directive. 6420

Contrary to the WID, the LCP Directive does not regulate operating condi-6421 tions with regard to pollutant (PCDD/F) formation, such as minimum flue gas 6422 temperatures or minimum retention times during which the flue gas has to be 6423 kept at these temperatures. 6424

A more detailed comparison of the regulations of the WID and the LCP Di-6425 rective with regard to the incineration of waste-derived fuels is given in 6426 Chapter 9 and in Annex 8. 6427

6428

6429

8.1.2 European Case Law 6430

The main focus of this study lies on the end-of-waste status for certain materi-6431 als. As the legal basis for defining when waste ceases to be waste was included 6432 into the WFD not sooner than 2008, there cannot be any relevant decision of 6433 the ECJ on the interpretation of Article 6 of the WFD by now (July 2011). Never-6434 theless, some decisions of the courts regarding the definition of waste or by-6435 product contain useful indications that can, on one hand, be applied to or 6436 adapted for the interpretation of the new end-of-waste rule and on the other 6437 hand allows some kind of outlook to where the future jurisdiction on end-of-6438 waste status could be like. 6439

In the subsequent chapters five decisions of the European Court of Justice 6440 (ECJ) are being discussed. In the first part of the decision’s discussion the main 6441 facts including the relevant question(s) are being abstracted. In the second part 6442

Only combustion plants ≥ 50 MW

Definition of “Fuel”

Air emission limit values only for dust, SOx, NOx

No water emission limit values

No regulations on operating conditions

Annex 8



of the decision’s discussion the findings of the decision have been abstracted. 6443 Questions that are not relevant for this study are not mentioned. The complete 6444 wording of the questions brought to the ECJ can be found in Annex 7 to this 6445 chapter. 6446

An overview of the main findings of the European Court of Justice in these court 6447 cases is given in Table 16. More detailed information on the court cases is 6448 given in Annex 7. 6449

6450

8.1.2.1 ARCO Chemie77 6451

By two orders The Nederlandse Raad van State (Council of State, The Nether-6452 lands) raised to the ECJ in each case two questions for a preliminary ruling un-6453 der Article 177 of the EC Treaty (now Article 234 EC) on the interpretation of 6454 Council Directive 75/442/EEC of 15 July 1975 on waste, as amended by Coun-6455 cil Directive 91/156/EEC of 18 March 1991. Those questions arose in the con-6456 text of appeals lodged against administrative decisions concerning substances 6457 (destined to be used as fuel in the cement industry or to produce electric en-6458 ergy). The national Court was in doubt whether those substances constitute raw 6459 materials or waste within the meaning of the Directive. (Even though it is a deci-6460 sion on the definition of discarding, it contains indications for the end-of-waste 6461 status.) 6462

The ECJ stated that the mere fact that a substance undergoes an operation 6463 which may lead to recovery does not lead to classification as waste. Whether a 6464 substance is waste or not has to be determined in the light of all circumstances 6465 with special regards to the meaning of the Directive and the effectiveness of the 6466 Directive. Other facts that may be regarded as evidence for classification as 6467 waste are: 6468

Use of fuel is a common method of recovering waste; 6469 Fact that substances are commonly regarded as waste; 6470 Substance used as fuel is the residue of the manufacturing process of an-6471 other substance; 6472

No use for that substance other than disposal; 6473 Composition of the substance is not suitable for the use made of it; 6474 Special environmental precautions must be taken when it is used. 6475

The findings of the “leading case ARCO” were quoted in several subsequent 6476 decisions regarding the classification whether a substance is waste or not. 6477

The main statement (was) is that the mere fact that a substance undergoes an 6478 operation which may lead to recovery does not lead to classification as waste. It 6479 is rather necessary to consider the meaning of the Directive and “other facts” to 6480 answer the question. All circumstances have to be considered. 6481

6482

77ECJ, joint cases C-418/97, C-419/97

Annex 7

Facts of the case

“Leading case”

Main statement



8.1.2.2 Palin Granit Oy78 6483

In this preliminary ruling procedure the ECJ had to deal with questions that 6484 were raised in appeal proceedings challenging the grant of an environmental 6485 licence. Palin Granit Oy applied for an environmental licence for a granite 6486 quarry. The application included a plan for dealing with the leftover stone and 6487 mentioned the possibility of recovering that stone by using it as gravel or filling 6488 material. The stone residues were stored on an adjacent site. Besides four 6489 other sub-questions the main question was whether leftover stone resulting 6490 from stone quarrying is waste. Although this is a decision on by-products, it con-6491 tains indications for end-of-waste status. 6492

Leftover stone resulting from stone quarrying which is stored for an indefinite 6493 length of time to await possible use must be classified as waste, if the holder 6494 discards or intends to discard that leftover stone. Nevertheless the ECJ pointed 6495 out that the fact that the substance is being reused without further processing 6496 matters for the determination as “waste”. Another relevant factor for the likeli-6497 hood of the reuse is the financial advantage of this practice. If there is a finan-6498 cial advantage in doing so, the likelihood of reuse is high. Other conditions such 6499 as the place of storage of leftover stone, its composition, or the fact that the 6500 stones do not pose any real risk to human health or environment are irrelevant 6501 criteria for determining whether stone is to be regarded as waste or not. 6502

6503

8.1.2.3 Mayer Parry79 6504

This preliminary ruling procedure applies to Directive 94/62 on packaging 6505 and packaging waste. In this decision the ECJ had to answer the question 6506 whether the term "recycling" within the meaning of Article 3 Para 7 of Direc-6507 tive 94/62 includes the reprocessing of metal packaging waste when it has been 6508 transformed into a secondary raw material. Mayer Parry is a company which 6509 specialized in the treatment of scrap metal so as to render it suitable for use by 6510 steelmakers for the purpose of producing steel. Mayer Perry sells the treated 6511 scrap which meets the specifications of Grade 3B material to steelmakers, who 6512 use it to produce ingots, sheets or coils of steel. 6513

Grade 3B material is a mixture which, apart from ferrous elements, contains 6514 impurities (ranging from 3% to 7% according to the various parties), such as 6515 paint and oil, non-metallic materials and some chemical elements, which remain 6516 to be removed when the material is used to produce steel. Grade 3B material 6517 cannot therefore be used directly for the manufacture of new metal packaging. 6518 Thus, the answer to the key question of this study must be found within the 6519 meaning of Article 3 Para 7 of Directive 94/62. An interpretation indicates that 6520 “recycling“ does not include the reprocessing of metal packaging waste if it is 6521 transformed into a secondary raw material such as 3B material. “Recycling” re-6522 fers to the reprocessing of such waste if it is used to produce ingots, sheets, or 6523 coils of steel. 6524

6525

78 ECJ, case C-9/00 79 ECJ, case C-444/00

Facts of the case

Main statement

Facts of the case

Main statement



8.1.2.4 Lahti Energia Oy I80 6526

Lahti Energia applied to the Ympäristölupavirasto for an environmental permit 6527 with respect to the activities of its gas and power plants. The permit concerns a 6528 complex with two separate plants on the same site: A gasification plant produc-6529 ing gas from waste and a power plant that incinerates the purified gas. In the 6530 appeal proceeding, the Korkein hallintooikeus (Supreme Administrative Court) 6531 besides two other questions referred the question to the ECJ whether the defini-6532 tion of “waste” in Article 3 Para 1 of Directive 2000/76 also covers gaseous sub-6533 stances. 6534

The definition of “waste” in Article 3 Para 1 of Directive 2000/76 does not cover 6535 gaseous substances81. The ECJ stated that even a literal interpretation of that 6536 provision was sufficient for a finding that only waste in solid or liquid form was 6537 covered by Directive 2000/76 and there was therefore no need to examine in 6538 addition whether the definition of “waste” in Directive 75/442 itself covered 6539 waste in gaseous form. 6540

6541

8.1.2.5 Lahti Energia Oy II82 6542

The two other questions of Lahti I have been questions on the definition of the 6543 plant: The ECJ stated that the definition of “incineration plant” in Article 3 Para 4 6544 of Directive 2000/76 relates to any technical unit and equipment in which waste 6545 is thermally treated on condition that the substances resulting from the use of 6546 the thermal treatment process are subsequently incinerated. A gasification plant 6547 whose objective is to obtain products in gaseous form, in this case purified gas, 6548 by thermally treating waste must be classified as a “co-incineration plant” within 6549 the meaning of Article 3 Para 5 of Directive 2000/76 and a power plant which 6550 uses as an additional fuel, in substitution for fossil fuels used for the most part in 6551 its production activities, a purified gas obtained by the co-incineration of waste 6552 in a gasification plant does not fall within the scope of that Directive. 6553

The national Court called upon the parties to submit their observations. At that 6554 point, Lahti Energia filed to the Court that it was no longer implementing the 6555 planned process of gas purification from the thermal treatment of waste in its 6556 gasification plant. Therefore, the National Court referred once again within the 6557 same proceeding a question to the ECJ whether a combustion as an additional 6558 fuel in the boiler of a power plant of gas generated in a gasification plant has to 6559 be regarded as an operation within the meaning of Article 3 of Directive 6560 2000/76/EC if the gas conducted for combustion is not purified after the gasifi-6561 cation process. 6562

The answer to the question described above is that a power plant which re-6563 places fossil fuels with gas is to be regarded as a “co-incineration plant” (ac-6564 cording to Article 3 Para 5 of Directive 2000/76) jointly with the gasification 6565 plant. This applies if the gas which is obtained by thermal treatment of waste is 6566 not being purified within the gasification plant. 6567

6568

80 ECJ, case C-317/07 81 see earlier comment: the WID definition is not the same as in the WFD 82 ECJ, case C-209/09

Facts of the case

Main statement

Facts of the case

Main statement



8.1.2.6 Niselli83 6569

In this decision from 2004 the Tribunale di Terni (Italy) raised two questions 6570 to the ECJ on the definition of waste. The question in dispute in the national 6571 main proceeding was if certain scrap metal was waste or not. 6572

The ECJ answered to the questions raised repeating the findings of the lead-6573 ing cases described above: ARCO Chemie, Palin Granit Oy and Mayer 6574 Perry. Although there is no new finding in this decision it shows that the ECJ 6575 continues its jurisdiction of the former years. 6576

6577

8.2 National Legislation and Case Law – Overview 6578

Some European Member States are currently still working on the transposition 6579 of the WFD into national legislation. Nevertheless, there are a number of Mem-6580 ber States where legally binding end-of-waste regulations and/or jurisdiction 6581 concerning end-of-waste already existed before the WFD entered into force. 6582

Based on telephone interviews and/or questionnaires sent to administrative rep-6583 resentatives in all EU-27 Member States as well as input provided by NH 6584 Niederhuber Hager Lawyers, an overview of selected aspects of legislation and 6585 jurisdiction for end-of-waste is given in Table 126. 6586

Table 126: Legal situation on Member State level (Source: Interviews & questionnaires 6587 with administrative representatives in EU-27, April-July 2011; investigations by 6588 UMWELTBUNDESAMT and NH NIEDERHUBER HAGER RECHTSANWÄLTE) 6589

Legislation & Case Law on Member State Level Member State

Source of Information (if not specified differently)84

Legally bind-ing EOW regulation before the WFD (2008/98/EC)

Court cases concerning EOW

EOW regu-lations for WDFs that go beyond WFD re-quire-ments

Input re-quirements for (co-) incineration of non-haz. waste85

BE-Flanders OVAM NO n.s.* NO NO

BE-Wallonia SPW no reply to questionnaire

BE-Brussels IBGE no reply to questionnaire

Bulgaria MOEW NO NO NO NO

Czech Republic MIN. ENV. NO NO NO NO

Cyprus MIN. ENV. no reply to questionnaire

Denmark MIN. ENV. no reply to questionnaire

Estonia MIN. ENV. YES YES NO NO86

Ireland EPA NO n.s. NO NO

France ADEME NO n.s. NO NO

83 ECJ, case C-457/02 84 All sources cited as “NAME (MEMBER STATE) (2011)” 85 This column describes legally binding input requirements regulating e.g. the contents of heavy

metals, chlorine or other pollutants in the waste input. Input requirements on permit level and individual specifications for waste acceptance, as they are usually applied for e.g. cement kilns or large combustion plants co-incinerating waste, are not comprised in this column.

86 No legally binding input requirements for (co-)incineration of non-hazardous waste but internal standards of cement industry

Facts of the case

Main statement



Legislation & Case Law on Member State Level Member State

Source of Information (if not specified differently)84

Legally bind-ing EOW regulation before the WFD (2008/98/EC)

Court cases concerning EOW

EOW regu-lations for WDFs that go beyond WFD re-quire-ments

Input re-quirements for (co-) incineration of non-haz. waste85

Germany UBA NO87 YES88 NO89 NO

Greece MIN. ENV. NO NO n.s. n.s.

Italy ISPRAM-BIENTE

NO NO NO n.s.

Latvia LVGMC NO n.s. NO NO

Lithuania MIN. ENV. NO NO NO NO

Luxembourg ADMIN.ENV. YES NO NO NO

Hungary MIN. ENV. NO NO NO n.s.

Malta MIN. ENV. no reply to questionnaire

Netherlands NL AGENCY NO YES88 NO NO

Austria 88 YES YES YES YES

Poland CIEP no reply to questionnaire

Portugal EPA no reply to questionnaire

Romania MIN. ENV.88 NO NO NO89 NO

Slovakia EPA90,88 YES91 NO NO89 n.s.

Slovenia EPA no reply to questionnaire

Spain MIN. ENV. NO n.s. NO NO

Finland MIN. ENV. NO n.s. NO NO

Sweden EPA NO n.s. NO NO

United Kingdom DEFRA88 NO YES n.s. n.s.

*) n.s: not specified 6590 6591

6592

87 No legally binding EOW regulation before the WDF, but individual EOW permits granted by au-

thorities on Länder (federal states) level, but not for WDF. 88 Own investigations by the authors (Umweltbundesamt, NH Niederhuber Hager Rechtsanwälte),

interviews with MS' authorities 89 National transposition of the WFD is currently (July 2011) under discussion. 90 No reply to questionnaire 91 By decree of August 2010, there exists a legally binding EOW regulation for waste oil (cf. pages

154 and 154). As the WFD has to be transposed into national law up to now (July 2011), the na-tional EOW regulation existed before the WFD’s entry into force.



8.3 Austria 6593

8.3.1 Legislation 6594

In Austria there have been laws on waste before joining the European Union. 6595 Currently the Austrian waste-related provisions can be found in the Austrian 6596 Waste Act 200292 which is federal law and, thus, is applicable to all circum-6597 stances in Austria. In transformation of the WFD, section 5 Para 1 of the Aus-6598 trian Waste Act 2002 contains a rule for the end-of-waste status. The second 6599 paragraph of this article contains an authorisation for the Austrian Minister for 6600 Environment to decree regulations for the end-of-waste status of certain waste 6601 materials. Based on this authorisation by now two regulations were decreed that 6602 contain criteria for the end-of-waste status: The Compost Regulation and the 6603 Waste Incineration Regulation. Whereas the Compost Regulation lies not in the 6604 core focus of this study it seems helpful to have a closer look at the general 6605 end-of-waste rule in the Austrian Waste Act 2002 and on the waste incineration 6606 regulation. 6607

End-of-waste rule 6608

Section 5 Para 1 of the Austrian Waste Act 2002 states that as far as there 6609 is no Austria Regulation on the end-of-waste for certain waste this waste is 6610 waste in the meaning of the law remains waste as long as the substances 6611 obtained from the waste are used directly as substitutes of resources or prod-6612 ucts made from primary resources. There are no more specific criteria on the 6613 Austrian end-of-waste-rule that according to the considerations of the legislative 6614 buggy end-of-waste status shall be reached when the criteria of Article 6 of the 6615 WFD are met. 6616

According to the introductory pages of the Austrian Waste Act 200293, the in-6617 troduction of an end-of-waste regulation into Austrian legislation was pre-6618 dominantly motivated by sustainability and conservation of resources: 6619 “Against the background of economic growth and increasing waste arising in 6620 spite of continual positive development in the area of closed-loop waste 6621 management, one of the major challenges is the ecologically sound and sus-6622 tainable use of the waste. By means of the extensive amendment at hand to the 6623 Austrian Waste Act, based upon comprehensive considerations, the chance 6624 shall be seized that waste management shall increasingly be guided by the 6625 principles of sustainability (…)”. 6626

Substitute fuel products under the AVV94 6627

The 2010 amendment of the AVV (Waste Incineration Ordinance) facilitates the 6628 option to allot for the end-of-waste status of substitute fuels (§ 18a). Substitute 6629 fuel products are substitute fuels that meet the specifications of Annex 9 AVV 6630 whose end-of-waste status has been notified to the minister for the environment 6631 on the base of a valid judgemental certificate (§ 3 Z 19). 6632

92 BGBl. I Nr. 102/2002 idF BGBl. I Nr. 9/2011 93 http://www.lebensministerium.at/article/articleview/26604/1/6968 94 BGBl. II Nr. 389/2002 idF BGBl. II Nr. 476/2010

Austrian end-of-waste rule

Motivation: Ecologically sound and sustainable use of waste as a resource



6633 Excluded from the end-of-waste status for substitute fuels are: 6634

Hazardous waste and 6635 Waste which is dangerous within medical institutions95. 6636

It is crucial to fulfil the requirements of Annex 9 AVV, which provides tables con-6637 taining contaminant threshold values (median and 80-percentile values) for 6638 substitute fuel products of wood and other substitute fuel products (cf. Chapter 6639 7.4.1). 6640

A valid judgemental certification congruent to the requirements of Annex 9 AVV 6641 has to be submitted to the minister for the environment. This document can be 6642 issued by the waste producer or the waste collector. The judgemental certificate 6643 has to be submitted electronically starting from the 1st of January 2005 (§ 18a 6644 Abs. 1). 6645

According to Annex 9 Chapter 1.5 of the Austrian Waste Incineration Ordi-6646 nance, substitute fuel products may be incinerated only 6647

n installations with a rated thermal input of ≥ 50 kW that comply with an air 6648 emission limit value for dust of 20 mg/m3 (as half-hourly average), or 6649

in installations that are within the scope of the Waste Incineration Ordi-6650 nance. 6651

6652

Levels of Jurisdiction 6653

There are three Supreme Courts in Austria with different responsibilities. The 6654 Austrian Supreme Court of Justice (Oberster Gerichtshof, OGH) is competent in 6655 civil and criminal law. The Constitutional Court of Austria (Verfas-6656 sungsgerichtshof, VfGH) is competent in all administrative proceedings affecting 6657 fundamental rights whereas the Federal Administrative Court (Verwaltungs-6658 gerichtshof, VwGH) is concerned with administrative proceedings that do not af-6659 fect fundamental rights. The by far highest number of administrative proceed-6660 ings regarding waste-law find their way to VwGH. which is, therefore, the most 6661 important institution for the interpretation of waste-law in Austria. 6662

The aim of the jurisdiction of the VwGH is the supervision of the legality of the 6663 administration (cf. Walter/Mayer/Kucsko-Stadlmayer, Bundesverfassungsrecht, 6664 451). Benchmark for the VwGH is only the legality of administrative proceedings 6665 but not the usefulness or the efficiency (cf. Öhlinger, Verfassungsrecht, 275). To 6666 put it in a nutshell the VwGH is besides the legislator the most important institu-6667 tion for administrative law in general and waste-law in particular and its interpre-6668 tation of waste-law contributes to the development of the latter. 6669

Figure 59 gives an overview of the Austrian levels of jurisdiction and possible 6670 procedures applied for the assessment of end-of-waste. 6671

95 According to the Austrian Technical Standard ÖNORM S 2104 (“Waste from medical institu-

tions”)

Condition for the use of end-of-waste substitute fuels



6672

Figure 59: Austrian levels of jurisdiction and procedures for the assessment of end-of-6673 waste (Source: NH NIEDERHUBER HAGER RECHTSANWÄLTE) 6674

6675

8.3.2 Case Law 6676

8.3.2.1 Tungsten scrap96 6677

In a declaratory proceeding regarding filter residues from tungsten produc-6678 tion the appellant demanded the declaration that those residues were not 6679 waste. The authority’s decision was based on the argumentation that those 6680 metallic residues were generally waste. A declaratory proceeding can only 6681 come to the demanded conclusion that the residues were not waste if end-of-6682 waste status is existent. 6683

In this “leading case”, the Federal Administrative Court pointed out that only 6684 allowed usage or recovery can lead to end-of-waste status. The environ-6685 mental risk of a substance derived from waste does not necessarily mean an 6686 obstacle for qualification as product. The comparison of the environmental 6687 risk of a substance with comparable raw material or a comparable primary 6688 product is rather decisive. If the environmental risk of a product for subject of 6689 protection of waste-law is higher than a comparable raw material or a com-6690 parable primary product, end-of-waste status cannot occur. For the classifi-6691 cation of the end-of-waste status it is furthermore decisive that the product is 6692 marketable. The product can be an intermediate product. It is not necessary 6693 that the product is an end-product. Packaging can be a criterion for an al-6694 lowed usage or recovery if the packaging avoids the dispersion of environ-6695 mental risks derived from the product. 6696

6697

96 German: “Wolfram-Schrott”; VwGH 4.7.2001, 99/07/0177

Facts of the case

Findings of the Court Leading case: Contains criteria for end-of-waste status



8.3.2.2 Waste compost97 6698

The appellant produces compost that contains waste materials. This compost 6699 should be used as layer of methane oxidation, for the construction of bio-filters 6700 and recultivation. In the appellant´s opinion his compost is not waste. 6701

The Federal Administrative Court points out that the substance (waste compost) 6702 can be classified as product only if the substance is harmless for the intended 6703 use. Under this prevailing circumstance the usage is an allowed usage or re-6704 covery within the terms of the law. The usage of the compost was subject of 6705 scientific studies and it is therefore not proven yet if it is harmless for the in-6706 tended use. 6707

6708

8.3.2.3 Dry granulate98 6709

This case was another case regarding the question whether a certain substance 6710 is waste. The prosecuted board argued that dry granulate material derived from 6711 sewage sludge (i.e. waste) was waste. 6712

The Federal Administrative Court repeated findings from the leading case “Wolf-6713 ramschrott”. New was the finding that the fabrication of a product can be crucial 6714 for the genesis of the product and furthermore the end-of-waste status. It is 6715 therefore not important for the end-of-waste status that the product is used. 6716

6717

8.3.2.4 “ASA-Calor”99 6718

This decision is also based on a process regarding the question whether a cer-6719 tain substance is waste or not. The appellant produces fuel from waste-derived 6720 from plastic material production (i.e. powdery waste from grinding of acrylic 6721 glass, polyethylene foils, compound foils). In the authority’s opinion this sub-6722 stance is waste. 6723

The intended use (in case of fuel: incineration) is not required for the end-of-6724 waste status. The fabrication of a product is sufficient for the allowed recovery 6725 (= incineration) which leads to the end-of-waste-status by definition of the law. 6726 Therefore this decision repeated the recent jurisdiction and expresses that the 6727 material should not be classified as waste. 6728

6729

8.3.2.5 Excavation material 100 6730

In this case the Federal Administrative Court had to decide whether excavated 6731 material from a construction site used for land restoration in a gravel pit was 6732 waste. 6733

Due to the new legal situation (Austrian Waste Act 2002) the case law changes, 6734 especially the point of time changes at which the end-of-waste status occurs. 6735 End-of-waste status occurs now at the point of time of the immediate use of the 6736 waste. Previous steps of recovery cannot effectuate end-of-waste status. 6737

97 German: “Müllkompost”; VwGH, 25.6.2001, 2000/07/0280 98 German: “Trockengranulat”; VwGH 13.12.2001, 2001/07/0028 99 VwGH 25.7.2002, 2001/07/0043 100 German: “Aushubmaterial”; VwGH 28.4.2005, 2003/07/0017

Facts of the case

Facts of the case

Facts of the case

Facts of the case



8.3.2.6 Fill material101 6738

This recent decision deals with fill material (waste) that was used to lift the 6739 ground level of an industrial plant in order to protect it from flooding. The lift-6740 ing of the ground level was officially permitted. 6741

The VwGH pointed out that it is possible that the (permitted) use of the fill 6742 material can lead to the end-of-waste status of a certain waste. However the 6743 relevance of this decision is that also the recent jurisdiction follows the 6744 (older) jurisdiction depicted above. 6745

6746

6747

8.4 Germany 6748


In Germany, the main legislation on waste management, the Kreislauf-6750 wirtschafts- und Abfallgesetz102 (KrW-/AbfG), does not yet contain a specific 6751 end-of-waste provision. However, based on the new European Waste Frame-6752 work Directive 2008/98/EC and its end-of-waste definition in Article 6, the KrW / 6753 AbfG is currently subject to major amendments, also dealing with the end-of-6754 waste question. 6755

The first draft law of the new Closed Substance Cycle Management Act (Kreis-6756 laufwirtschaftsgesetz, KrWG) provided by the German Government on March 6757 30th 2011 contains in its section 5 Para 1 a specific end-of-waste definition ac-6758 cording to Article 6 of the WFD. 6759

Para 2 enables the German government to enact ordinances which – in accor-6760 dance with the requirements of paragraph 1 – determine specific criteria accord-6761 ing to which certain substances or objects lose their status as waste. In addi-6762 tion, requirements for the safety of human beings and the environment shall be 6763 stipulated, in particular limit values for pollutants. According to the legislative 6764 reasoning this provision is essential as there is a considerable need for deter-6765 mining the end-of-waste status in specific national matters, if a European regu-6766 lation has not been issued. 6767

The government suggestion for an end-of-waste definition predominantly adopts 6768 the wording of the end-of-waste definition of the European Waste Directive. In 6769 the course of the legislative procedure the German Federal Council (Bundesrat) 6770 submitted several amendments to the draft law of the government, however, 6771 accepted the above mentioned end-of-waste definition in its statement dated 27 6772 May 2011 without any amendments. On 10 June 2011 the German Parliament 6773 (Bundestag) has referred the draft law to the committee for environment and the 6774 committee for internal affairs for their statements. Depending on the outcome of 6775 the committee procedure and the additional statement of the German govern-6776 ment a mediation committee procedure may be required. Nevertheless, the in-6777 volved parties aim at finally enacting the Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz at the end of 6778 the year. 6779

101 German: “Schüttmaterial”; VwGH 28.4.2011, 2007/07/0079, not published yet 102 Engl. “Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act”

Facts of the case

Main statement: Jurisdiction continues



In addition to the national legislative procedure the German government notified 6780 the main provisions of the KrWG on March 30th 2011 to the European Commis-6781 sion. Within a period of three month, the European Commission has the possi-6782 bility to raise objections. 6783

6784

8.4.2 Case Law 6785

The following case law regarding the end-of-waste status is based on the cur-6786 rent legal status in Germany, i.e. the KrW-/AbfG which does not contain a spe-6787 cial end-of-waste regulation. Although some of the decisions described below 6788 only deal with the differentiation between by-product and waste, the Courts’ 6789 considerations give indications for the interpretation of the end-of-waste status. 6790

6791

8.4.2.1 Waste paper103 6792

In this case the Court had to decide whether or not unsorted waste paper that 6793 has been collected by a waste management company for removal purposes can 6794 already be qualified as product and no longer as waste. 6795

The Court comes to the conclusion that the unsorted waste paper still has to be 6796 regarded as waste although it is generally usable for certain purposes, e.g. the 6797 production of cardboards, without further sorting. However, prior to such use the 6798 waste paper has to be converted to fibre pulp/cleaned fibre substance and thus, 6799 with the collection and transportation of the waste paper the recovery process 6800 has not been fully completed. The waste paper can be qualified as secondary 6801 raw material/product with the production of the fibre pulp at the earliest. 6802

6803

8.4.2.2 Solvent distillate104 6804

Contentious point was the qualification of solvent distillate derived from lacquer 6805 production which is used as combustible in an incineration plant. The authorities 6806 considered the solvent distillate as waste and obliged the producing enterprise 6807 to furnish proof of the final waste recovery. 6808

The Court found that the solvent distillate is to be considered as by-product, at 6809 the production of which the production process – among others – aimed. In this 6810 context the Court emphasizes that a substance cannot be automatically quali-6811 fied as waste if it runs through a recovery or removal process mentioned in An-6812 nex II of the KrW-/AbfG. It is important to evaluate the intended use of the sub-6813 stance in accordance with the waste definition in section 3 of the KrW-/AbfG 6814 and the relevant European case law. The Court qualified the solvent distillate as 6815 by-product for its high heating value (comparable to the one of light fuel oil). 6816 Furthermore, it does not require any further processing prior to its use as com-6817 bustible. In the Court’s view, the saving of fuel costs constitutes a considerable 6818 benefit of the by-product and, therefore, a market value. 6819

6820

103 German: “Altpapier”; Higher Regional Court Düsseldorf (OLG Düsseldorf), resolution of 27 Oc-

tober 2004, VII Verg 41/04 104 German: “Lösemitteldestillat”; Higher Administrative Court of North Rhine-Westphalia (OVG

Münster), decision of 17 August 2005, 8 A 1598/04

Facts of the case

Main findings: EOW for waste paper with production of fibre pulp at the earliest

Facts of the Case

Main statement: Solvent distillate needing no further processing prior to incineration is a by-product



8.4.2.3 Sewage sludge compost105 6821

In this case the Court had to deal with the qualification of sewage sludge 6822 compost which is produced from sewage sludge, garden and park waste and 6823 – in minor extent – animal by-products. The sewage sludge compost is used for 6824 recultivation purposes. The authorities qualified the sewage sludge compost as 6825 waste and obliged the plaintiff to furnish proof of the final waste recovery. 6826

The Federal Administrative Court pointed out that the sewage sludge com-6827 post is still to be qualified as waste and, as a consequence, is to be moni-6828 tored. The composting of the above mentioned substances cannot be con-6829 sidered as completed recovery process. The Court thereby confirmed its ju-6830 risdiction according to which substances of a recovery process are still con-6831 sidered as waste as long as the recovery process is not completely finished. 6832 This also requires the recovery to be proper and safe. Given the contami-6833 nant content of the sewage sludge compost even after composting, the sew-6834 age sludge compost loses its waste status only with the last step of the re-6835 covery process, i.e. the deposition on the ground. Nevertheless, the Court 6836 also states that a substance which is result of a recovery process can al-6837 ready be regarded as product if its characteristics are identical or compara-6838 ble to the characteristics of the substituted primary raw material. 6839

6840

8.4.2.4 Frying fat106 6841

In this case the plaintiff owned a heating plant in which he incinerated used 6842 chip fat for electricity generation. The authorities prohibited the plaintiff’s ac-6843 tivities by stating that the used chip fat has to be qualified as waste and there-6844 fore the plant is considered as a waste incineration plant which needs a special 6845 operating permit. The plaintiff is of the opinion that the used chip fat which is 6846 collected and sedimented in filter drums can – because of the sedimentation – 6847 already be regarded as product. 6848

The Court comes to the conclusion that the used chip fat has to be consid-6849 ered as waste. The mere sedimentation procedure does not result in the 6850 used chip fat losing its status as waste. Moreover, the sedimentation proc-6851 ess can only be regarded as pre-treatment. Under these circumstances the 6852 recovery process is not completed until the final combustion of the chip fat. 6853

The Federal Administrative Court (BVerwG) did not approve the appeal, how-6854 ever, confirmed the decision of the Higher Administrative Court in its resolution 6855 of 14 August 2007 (7 B 42/07). 6856

6857

8.4.2.5 Resin oil107 6858

The Court had to decide whether a certain inhomogeneous compound of 6859 various solvents and off-specification batches – the so-called resin oil – has 6860 to be considered as waste, by-product or production residue. The resin oil is 6861

105 German: “Klärschlammkompost”; Federal Administrative Court (BVerwG), decision of 14 De-

cember 2006, 7 C 4/06 106 German: “Frittierfett”; Higher Administrative Court of Rhineland-Palatinate (OVG Koblenz), deci-

sion of 23 May 2007, 1 A 11463/06 107 German: “Harzöl”; Higher Administrative Court of Hesse (VGH Kassel), decision of 22 October

2008, 6 UE 2250/07

Facts of the case

Main findings: Remains waste as long as the recovery process is not completely finished.Recovered substance can be regarded as product if comparable to substituted primary material.

Facts of the case

Main findings: Recovery process not completed until combustion takes place

Facts of the Case



used as combustible. The authorities were of the opinion that the resin oil has to 6862 be qualified as waste. 6863

The Court points out that the resin oil can neither be regarded as waste nor as 6864 by-product. A qualification as by-product is not possible as the actual production 6865 process does not aim at producing the resin oil. However, a qualification as 6866 waste was also excluded. Production residues are not automatically considered 6867 as waste but in accordance with the European case law lose their status as 6868 waste if the entire re-use of the substance is – without any additional treatment 6869 – not only possible but certain. As regards the resin oil this is the case. 6870

In its resolution of 4 September 2009 (7 B 8/09) the Federal Administrative 6871 Court (BVerwG) did not approve the appeal. 6872

6873

8.4.2.6 “Kronocarb”108 6874

In this case the Federal Administrative Court had to decide whether a sub-6875 stance called “Kronocarb” has to be considered as waste or by-product. “Krono-6876 carb” is generated within the production of titanium dioxide and is used as addi-6877 tive for the construction industry and as combustible for energy generation. 6878

The Court comes to the conclusion that “Kronocarb” has to be considered as 6879 waste. The Court refers to the waste definition in section 3 of the KrW-/AbfG 6880 and emphasizes the importance of the intended use109 for the determination of 6881 whether or not a substance can be regarded as waste. In this respect, “Krono-6882 carb” is generated within the production of titanium dioxide but the production 6883 process does not directly aim at producing “Kronocarb”. As regards the question 6884 of whether or not “Kronocarb” can be considered as by-product, the Administra-6885 tive Court refers to the by-product definition of the European Waste Directive 6886 2008/98/EC and rejects the qualification as by-product (use of the substance is 6887 uncertain: no existing market, no positive market price). 6888

The plaintiff has appealed against this judgement. However, the Higher Admin-6889 istrative Court has not yet reached a decision. 6890

6891

6892

8.5 Czech Republic 6893


The Waste Act110 is the core act regarding waste law. In 2010, the Waste 6895 Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) has been implemented into this Act and con-6896 tains thus already a definition of end-of-waste according to Article 6 of the WFD. 6897

The Ministry of Environment together with the Ministry of Industry and Trade 6898 can stipulate (by decree) specific criteria for waste ceasing to qualify as waste. 6899 Until now no criteria have been set. According to available information from the 6900

108 Administrative Court Cologne (VG Köln), decision of 10 September 2009, 13 K 2418/07 109 German „Zweckbestimmung“ 110 No 185/2001

Main findings: Not waste if the entire re-use without any additional treatment is not only possible but certain.

Facts of the case

Main findings: Waste, because use is uncertain, no market/no positive market price exist.



Czech Ministry of Environment, there are no decrees planned yet. The Ministry 6901 will wait until the European Commission stipulates specific criteria. 6902

6903

8.5.2 Case Law 6904

8.5.2.1 Used tyres111 6905

This decision dealt with imported used tyres from Germany. 6906

Applicant asked the court to decide that used tyres do not qualify as waste, 6907 but as raw material. During the proceeding, the applicant confirmed that im-6908 ported used tyres are not suitable for further use for the original purpose for 6909 which they have been designated. Therefore, the Court decided that the 6910 used tyres qualify as waste. In the reasoning the Court explained that for 6911 qualifying a substance as waste or not, it is not relevant whether it is an ob-6912 ject that already has absolutely no use or can be still modified and used (but for 6913 other than its original purpose). Waste used as raw material to produce any 6914 other material is still to be considered waste. 6915

6916

8.5.2.2 Movable waste112 6917

In this decision the applicant argued that the waste holder has the right to 6918 decide whether to dispose of the movable thing as waste or as product in 6919 commercial relationships. 6920

The Court stated that getting rid of waste is always when the holder sells a 6921 movable thing mentioned in Annex 1 to the waste act, for the purpose of use or 6922 removal in accordance with law or when the holder sells it to a person author-6923 ised for collecting and purchasing waste, regardless of the form of the transfer. 6924 A person gets rid of waste even when he/she removes the movable thing all 6925 alone. 6926

The Court further noted that a person entitled to collect waste cannot dis-6927 pose of and treat a movable object, which was discarded by the previous 6928 holder as waste, without additional processing as a product. If a movable ob-6929 ject should be used for some other than the original purpose, it is necessary 6930 to retain the regime of waste law, which means, that it is necessary to dispose 6931 with the movable according to the waste act in such an event. 6932

The Court refused to apply in this case the act on technical requirements of 6933 products. In this particular case the movable things could not be considered as 6934 a product, because they are of a waste according to the Art. 36 of the Waste 6935 Act. Purchasing such a movable thing, which is to be in the regime of the Waste 6936 Act, from a natural person is not possible. 6937

6938

6939

111 Decision of the Municipal Court in Prague (Operation of waste facilities according to the waste

act) of 28.11.2008 (6 Ca 78/2006-54) 112 Decision of the Municipal Court in Prague, 30.6.2008 (5 Ca 96/2006-28)

Facts of the case

Main findings: Waste used as raw material to produce any other material is still waste.

Facts of the case

Main statement: Additional processing needed



8.6 Netherlands 6940

8.6.1.1 Icopower B.V.113 6941

Icopower B.V. collects commercial waste that consists mainly of waste paper 6942 and cardboard, untreated wood, plastics and textiles. By pre-sorting, shredding 6943 and removal of ferrous metals, energy pellets are produced from this mixed 6944 waste. In June 2001, the Dutch Ministry for Building, Spatial Planning and Envi-6945 ronment (MINVROM) brought in administrative appeal against the export of 6946 40,000 tonnes of this material to Söderenergia AB in Sweden, followed by Ico-6947 power’s appeal to the Dutch Council of State (Raad van State). 6948

Referring to the ECJ ARCO Chemie cases114 (cf. Chapter 8.1.2.1), the Dutch 6949 State Council rendered the judgement that the fact that a material is after treat-6950 ment equivalent to a raw material, has the same properties and can be used in 6951 the same way as a raw material, if the same environmental precautions are 6952 taken, can be an indication that the material is not waste. The energy pellets 6953 that Icopower sells as a fuel are made from waste. But taking into consideration 6954 the strict acceptance requirements, control and treatment of the commercial 6955 waste as well as the heating value of the energy pellets, the energy pellets can-6956 not be regarded as the same waste in another form. 6957

The Dutch Council of State is strictly orientated to the case-law of the ECJ es-6958 pecially to ARCO. 6959

6960

8.7 United Kingdom 6961

The Environment Agency (DEFRA), the UK’s main competent authority respon-6962 sible for the implementation of the Waste Framework Directive, including its 6963 definition of waste, originally took the view that where waste is to be used as a 6964 fuel it did not cease to be waste until it was burned and energy recovered from 6965 it. This view was the subject of a legal challenge by a company producing fuel 6966 from waste lubricating oil (cf. 8.7.1.2). In 2007 the UK Court of Appeal was 6967 asked to consider whether it was possible for waste lubricating oil which was to 6968 be used as fuel to cease to be waste before it was burned (DEFRA 2011). 6969

The decisions „OSS“ and “Cemfuel (Castle Cement)” demonstrate the orienta-6970 tion of the national courts to the case-law of the ECJ. At the same time the de-6971 cision “OSS” points out that the case-law of the ECJ is not coherent and enough 6972 precise to solve any legal problem. Therefore, the case-law of the ECJ is used 6973 as a “guideline” leaving the national courts with the responsibility to interpret the 6974 case in the sense of the ECJ. For legal certainty the Court recommends the leg-6975 islator to decree a legally binding rule. 6976

6977

113 Raad van State, Netherlands, Case no. 200103485/1 of April 3rd 2002 114 ECJ, joint cases C-418/97, C-419/97

Facts of the case

Main findings: Properties and use after treatment equivalent to raw material is indication for non-waste status.



8.7.1.1 “Cemfuel”115 6978

“Cemfuel” is a substitute liquid fuel produced by Solvent Resource Manage-6979 ment Ltd, an affiliated company of Castle Cement, the applicant of this court 6980 case. It was developed in the early 1990’s, and produced using mainly solvents 6981 and other liquids derived from waste sources, e.g. waste oil. The specification 6982 for “Cemfuel” includes minimum calorific values and maximum values for metals 6983 and other compounds, varying according to the cement kiln in which Cemfuel is 6984 used. 6985

In this application, Castle Cement raised the issue whether the burning of 6986 “Cemfuel” amounts to the incineration of “hazardous waste”, as the Environ-6987 ment Agency (DEFRA) has concluded, or to the burning of a non-waste fuel, as 6988 Castle contends. 6989

Referring to the ECJ ARCO Chemie cases (cf. 8.1.2.1), the High Court of 6990 Justice came to the conclusion that “Cemfuel” is a hazardous waste, and 6991 has rightly been treated as such by the Environment Agency. The applica-6992 tion failed. 6993

8.7.1.2 OSS Group Ltd.116,117 6994

The business of OSS is the collection of waste lubricating and fuel oil from 6995 places such as garages and workshops, and its conversion into marketable 6996 fuel oil. The issue is when the material ceases to be “waste” for the purposes 6997 of the Waste Framework Directive, i.e. at the completion of the process of 6998 preparing it for use as fuel (as argued by OSS), or when it is actually burnt (as 6999 argued by the Environment Agency DEFRA). 7000

The Appeal Court concluded that waste lubricating oil was no different from 7001 any other waste and that it might cease to be waste if it had been completely 7002 recovered. The Appeal Court considered the point at which complete recov-7003 ery would occur taking account of case law established by the ECJ118 on the 7004 definition of waste in Article 1(1)(a) of the then Waste Framework Directive 7005 (2006/12/EC). 7006

In its judgment, the Appeal Court set the following three-part test: 7007 “It should be enough that the holder has converted the waste material into a 7008 distinct, marketable product, 7009

which can be used in exactly the same way as an ordinary fuel, 7010 and with no worse environmental effects.” 7011

Although the Appeal Court case was about waste lubricating oil being used as 7012 fuel, the UK considers, according to DEFRA 2011, that the three-part test it sets 7013 out can be used to determine whether other types of waste have ceased to be 7014 waste before being burned as fuel. 7015

115 High Court of Justice, Queems Bench Division, Administrative Court, Case no. CO/2635/2000

of March 22nd 2001. http://www.groundwork.org.za/Cement/Cemfuel%20Judgement.pdf (extracted 04.07.2011)

116 Supreme Court of Judicature, Court of Appeal (Civil Division), on Appeal from QBD, Administra-tive Court, Case no. C1/2006/2545 of June 28th 2007

117 DEFRA (2011): Personal information by Mr. John MacIntyre, Waste Framework Directive Unit, DEFRA Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK, June 2011

118 ARCO Chemie, Palin Granit Oy, Mayer Perry, Niselli (cf.Chapter 8.1.2)

Facts of the case

Main findings: Cemfuel is hazardous waste

Facts of the case

Main findings: End-of-waste occurs when completely recovered.

Three-part test



The Appeal Court suggested that the UK Government and the Environment 7016 Agency should provide practical guidance on this issue. The outcome was the 7017 development of the end-of-waste protocol for End-of-Waste for Processed Fuel 7018 Oil (PFO)119. This protocol is now in operation following notification in draft to 7019 the European Commission in compliance with the Technical Standards Direc-7020 tive (98/34/EC; cf. Chapter 7). 7021

7022

7023

8.8 Estonia 7024

In Estonia there was a national legally binding end-of-waste regulation applied 7025 before the Waste Framework Directive’s (2008/98/EC) entry into force. Some 7026 waste types where considered as products after recycling operations, although 7027 it was not clearly regulated in the Waste Act. Examples are certain fractions of 7028 oil-shale ash, treated oil-shale waste-rock as constructions materials, cement 7029 dust and ashes from wood and peat as fertilizers under the Fertilizers Act 7030 (ESTONIAN MIN. ENV. 2011). 7031

7032

7033

8.9 Luxembourg 7034

Before the Waste Framework Directive’s (2008/98/EC) entry into force, the na-7035 tional Waste Management Law of June 17th 1994, which is at present under re-7036 vision, regulated end-of-waste criteria. Waste-derived fuels (WDFs) could reach 7037 EOW according to this regulation. Article 3 of this law defines the term “waste”. 7038 One of the definitions related to end-of-waste criteria is that waste remains 7039 waste until it is reintroduced into the economic circuit. A waste-derived fuel is no 7040 longer waste when it fulfils valid standards for common fuel. Furthermore, the 7041 law defines further criteria for the plant that produces the WDF, e.g. operational 7042 conditions, emission limit values (based on the respective legal regulations) or 7043 control procedures to be included in the plants permit (ADMIN. ENV. 2011). 7044

7045

7046

8.10 Slovakia 7047

Most of the relevant waste legislation in Slovakia can be found in the Waste 7048 Act120. The new WFD is not implemented into Slovak legislation yet (July 2011). 7049 For this reason Slovak Law does not have any definition of end-of-waste. The 7050 implementation of the WFD in Slovakian national law is planned for the end of 7051 the year 2011. 7052

No jurisdiction can be found to the end-of-waste status in Slovakia. 7053

119 “Processed Fuel Oil (PFO): End-of-waste criteria for the production and use of processed fuel

oil from waste lubricating oils”, http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/business/topics/waste/116133.aspx (cf. Chapter 7.4.1)

120 No. 223/2001

Guidance on end-of-waste by DEFRA

No implementation of the WFD yet



Decree121 no. 362/2010 of 12 August 2011 of the (then) Slovak ministry of 7054 Soil Management, Environment and Regional Development, regarding the 7055 quality standards of fuels and record of fuels, contains some provisions re-7056 garding end-of-waste for waste oil. Regenerated heating oil is defined as oil 7057 that complies with the TARIC code 2710 19 61 and was produced from waste 7058 oil. 7059

Regenerated heating oil can be put in circulation, if (cf. page 154): 7060

The incineration does not cause higher emissions than the incineration of 7061 fuel oil, 7062

it is produced from waste oil that complies with the Slovak Technical Norm 7063 (STN) 65 6690 on waste oil, 7064

it complies with the quality standards of the Slovak Technical Norm (STN) 7065 65 6691 for petrol products." 7066

7067

7068

7069

121 Based upon the Law on Air Emissions (Zákon 137/2010 Z. z. o ovzduší)

Legally binding EOW regulation for waste oil



9 CONSIDERATIONS ON ENVIRONMENT AND 7070 HEALTH IMPACT 7071

9.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of WDFs 7072

WDFs have, depending on their origin and on the treatment effected, qualities 7073 varying within broad ranges. Data for the different WDFs within the scope of the 7074 study is given in Annex 1 (“Technical Data Sheets”). These properties result in 7075 environmental and health impacts. 7076

The lower heating values (LHVs) of the WDFs within the scope of the study are 7077 within a broad range. Some WDFs, such as edible oil and fat, waste plastics 7078 and animal fat, in general have high heating values (>15 MJ/kg). Others, e.g. 7079 biowaste or liquid waste concentrates, are characterised by low calorific values 7080 (0-5 MJ/kg). Other WDFs show strongly varying LHVs, e.g. waste plastics from 7081 production residues, dried or dewatered industrial sewage sludge, waste oil and 7082 waste paper. 7083

The data on technical characterisation compiled in Annex 1 reveal highest chlo-7084 rine contents in PVC, obviously, but also in other waste plastics, waste tyres, 7085 edible oil and fat. Wood waste and waste paper typically have notably low chlo-7086 rine-contents. In general, dried or dewatered sewage sludge from industrial or 7087 municipal origin also reveals low contents of chlorine. Waste plastics from pro-7088 duction residues as well as from separately collected packaging waste differ a 7089 lot with regard to chlorine contents. 7090

The highest mercury contents within Annex 1 data can be found in pyrolysis 7091 products (obviously depending on the waste input to pyrolysis), waste plastics 7092 from separately collected packaging waste, RDF and dried or dewatered mu-7093 nicipal sewage sludge. Available information indicates low mercury contents in 7094 edible oil and fat as well as in waste tyres and waste rubber. Wide ranges were 7095 identified in data for waste textiles and dried or dewatered industrial sewage 7096 sludges. 7097

The following metals can be found in waste-derived fuels in varying concentra-7098 tions: 7099

Aluminium (Al) 7100 Antimony (Sb) 7101 Arsenic (As) 7102 Barium (Ba) 7103 Beryllium (Be) 7104 Cadmium (Cd) 7105 Chromium (Cr) 7106 Cobalt (Co) 7107 Copper (Cu) 7108 Iron (Fe) 7109 Lead (Pb) 7110 Manganese (Mn) 7111 Molybdenum (Mo) 7112

Annex 1

Lower heating value

Chlorine

Mercury

(Heavy) Metals



Nickel (Ni) 7113 Selenium (Se) 7114 Tellurium (Te) 7115 Thallium (Tl) 7116 Tin (Sn) 7117 Vanadium (V) 7118 Zinc (Zn) 7119

7120

Persistent organic pollutants may occur in certain waste streams used as WDF, 7121 e.g. waste oils. 7122

7123

The following substances can be present in waste-derived fuels and contrib-7124 ute to environmental and health impact, and are released mainly in their oxi-7125 dized forms or in the form of acid substances. 7126

Boron (B) 7127 Bromine (Br) 7128 Fluorine (F) 7129 Nitrogen (N) 7130 Phosphor (P) 7131 Sulphur (S) 7132

7133

7134

9.2 Environmental and Health Impact 7135

When the WDFs are incinerated, the pollutants contained in the WDFs are 7136 set free and can leave the incinerating installation with the flue gas, waste 7137 water or/and solid residues streams, mainly in their oxidized forms or in the 7138 form of newly formed substances. Waste water and flue gas are treated in 7139 order to fulfil the requirements and emission limit values defined by the applying 7140 legal framework. Pollutants not retained are released into water and air and de-7141 posited to soil and plants, where they can have a short and/or long-term effect. 7142

Health impact arises from intake of these substances e.g. by inhalation, skin 7143 contact or via the food chain, especially when pollutants accumulate in the 7144 human organism. 7145

Air pollutants arising from incineration are e.g. SO2, NOx, HCl or HF. They 7146 contribute to acid rain formation, acidification and eutrophication. When in-7147 haled, they can cause human respiratory symptoms and diseases. 7148

One important group of pollutants contained in many waste-derived fuels 7149 and which can affect human health are (heavy) metals. From a toxicological 7150 point of view, some (heavy) metals are classified as toxic, such as Pb, Cd, 7151 Cr(VI) and Hg. Others are carcinogenic, e.g. Cd and Cr(VI), or possibly carcino-7152 genic, e.g. Hg and Ni. Some of them accumulate in the human being, as e.g. Pb 7153 and Cd do, and cause chronic diseases. Others show strong irritating effects, 7154 e.g. Cr(VI), and some are mutagenic and/or teratogenic. 7155

Other substances

Release, Deposition, Accumulation

Health Impact

Acidification, Eutrophication

(Heavy) Metals



During incineration of WDFs, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), e.g. poly-7156 chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/F), are formed by re-7157 action of carbonaceous compounds and halogens contained in the incinerated 7158 waste. When getting into contact with human beings, POPs affect the endo-7159 crine, reproduction and immune system. 7160

The low heating values of some WDFs are of concern from an environmental 7161 point of view, as will result in decreased energy efficiency. 7162

7163

9.3 Incineration as Waste / as Non-waste 7164

If a WDF is incinerated as waste, the requirements of the Waste Incineration Di-7165 rective (WID) apply. 7166

If a waste/WDF ceases to be waste and is incinerated, the process is regulated 7167 under LCP Directive or IPPC Directive, respectively Industrial Emissions Direc-7168 tive (IED). 7169

For LCPs, the following overview on environmental impact is given: 7170

A summary of the most relevant differences between the two Directives apply-7171 ing to WDF incineration in LCPs (i.e. WID and LCP Directive) as waste or non-7172 waste is given in Table 127. More details, including a comparison of the differ-7173 ent air emission limit values for waste co-incineration in large combustion plants 7174 under the WID (i.e. incineration as waste) and under the LCP Directive (or IED 7175 Directive, respectively; i.e. incineration as non-waste) is given in Annex 8. 7176

Table 127: Summary of the most relevant differences between legal requirements for the 7177 WDF incineration as waste (WID) and non-waste (LCP) respectively 7178

Legal requirements Parameter

Incineration as waste Incineration as non-waste

Legal framework

WID (2000/76/EC)

LCP Directive (2001/80/EC)

Dust Dust

Gaseous and vaporous organic substances (VOC)

-

HCl -

HF -

SOx SOx

NOx NOx

Cd + Tl -

Hg -

Sum of Sb, As, Pb, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni and V

-

Air emission limit value

PCDD/F -

Total suspended solids -

Hg -

Cd -

Tl -

As -

Water emission limit value

Pb -


Heating value

LCPs: LCP Directive

Annex 8

Requirements of the WID and of the LCP Directive



Legal requirements Parameter

Incineration as waste Incineration as non-waste

Legal framework

WID (2000/76/EC)

LCP Directive (2001/80/EC)

Cr -

Cu -

Ni -

Zn -

PCDD/F -

7179

Additionally, the WID defines operating conditions, e.g.: 7180

In incineration plants, the slag and bottom ashes' Total Organic Carbon 7181 (TOC) content has to be less than 3 % or their loss on ignition is less than 7182 5 % of the dry weight of the material. 7183

The gas resulting from incineration has to be raised, after the last injection 7184 of combustion air, to a temperature of 850 °C for two seconds, or to 7185 1,100 °C respectively, if hazardous waste with a content of more than 1% 7186 halogenated organic substances, expressed as chlorine, is incinerated. 7187 This requirement aims at a reduction of PCDD/F formation during incinera-7188 tion. 7189

Further requirements (e.g. auxiliary burners, automatic stop of waste feed 7190 in case of temperature drop, no waste feed during start-up and close-down 7191 operation) serve to keep the required flue gas temperatures of 850 °C or 7192 1,100 °, respectively. 7193

The LCP Directive was amended into the Industrial Emissions Directive 7194 (IED). A comparison shows that the emission limit values stipulated in the 7195 LCP Directive were significantly amended for new122 and existing122 plants in 7196 the IED. Particularly the values for the emission of SO2 were decreased signifi-7197 cantly (for details, cf. Annex 8). 7198

As shown in Table 127, for the co-incineration of WDFs (as non-waste) and 7199 conventional fuels neither emission limit values for total organic carbon, hydro-7200 gen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, heavy metals, dioxins and furans nor half-7201 hourly emission limit values are stipulated for conventional combustion plants. 7202

The values shown for new and existing plants in terms of the IED are consistent 7203 with the values (Cproc) set out for plants co-incinerating waste according to WID. 7204 In the WID, for co-incineration, additionally dust emission limit values for plants 7205 with a rated thermal input below 50 MWth are given. 7206

Also under the WID, technical provisions (e.g. minimum incineration tem-7207 perature at a given residence time) are only stipulated for plants incinerat-7208 ing or co-incinerating waste (article 50 of the IED), but not for incineration 7209 of non-waste. 7210

Dust emissions are of significant environmental impact on their own and as a 7211 carrier of emissions of heavy metals and dioxins / furans (PCDD/F). Reduc-7212 ing dust emissions means therefore to address several environmental and 7213

122 different in date than for LCP Directive and IED

Industrial Emissions Directive (IED)

Dust emissions: Carriers of heavy metals and PCDD/F



health impacts. 7214

In contrast to this, the values stipulated for existing plants in the LCP Directive 7215 may still be applied until 2023, if a limited lifetime derogation has been granted. 7216 This may result in emission values that are more than 4 to 8 times higher than 7217 set out in the IED. 7218

Table 128 gives the dust emission limit values for an example of 5% waste co-7219 incineration in a coal-fired large combustion plant as waste (under WID) and as 7220 non-waste (under IED). Furthermore, the dust emission limit values of existing 7221 LCP plants using a limited lifetime derogation, which may be used until the year 7222 2023, is given. 7223

7224

Table 128: Comparison of dust emission limit values for coal fired co-incineration / com-7225 bustion plants as daily averages 7226

Dust ELVs for Co-incineration of 5% WDF in a Large Combustion Plant

As waste As non-waste

Rated Thermal Input [MWth]

WID: Existing Plants

[mg/Nm³] (6 % O2)

WID: New

Plants

[mg/Nm³] (6 % O2)

IED: Existing Plants

[mg/Nm³] (6 % O2)

IED: New

Plants

[mg/Nm³] (6 % O2)

LCP Directive:Existing Plants*

[mg/Nm³] (6 % O2)

< 50 49 49 – – –

50–100 29 20 30 20 100

100–300 25 20 25 20 100

300–500 20 10 20 10 100

> 500 20 10 20 10 50

*) with limited lifetime derogation (possible until the year 2023) 7227

For combustion plants smaller than 50 MW rated thermal input, no consistent 7228 requirements exist on EU Level. When the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) 7229 was drafted, decreasing the threshold value for LCPs from 50 MW to 20 MW 7230 rated thermal input was discussed, but in the end not performed. 7231

In order to reduce emissions of dust, heavy metals and PCDD/Fs, the Austrian 7232 Waste Incineration Ordinance (which transposes the Waste Incineration Direc-7233 tive and additionally contains an end-of-waste regulation for WDFs; cf. Chapter 7234 8.3), stipulates additional technical requirements for the incineration of WDFs 7235 that have reached end-of-waste status: Even when a WDF has ceased to be 7236 waste, incineration has to take place 7237

in an installation of ≥ 50 kW rated thermal input and 7238 complying with an dust emission limit to air of 20 mg/m³ (as half-hourly av-7239

erage limit value). 7240

By limiting dust emissions to air, the emissions of heavy metals (contained in 7241 the particulates) and of PCDD/F (which tend to get adsorbed to the particulates) 7242 can be controlled. Stipulating a minimum rated thermal input of end-of-waste 7243 WDF incineration shall guarantee appropriate incineration conditions and that 7244 the incinerating installation will be equipped with a well-performing de-dusting 7245 unit. 7246

LCP Limited Lifetime Derogation: Till 2023, LCP ELVs may be 4-8x higher than under IED

No EU-wide requirements for LCPs < 50 MW

Austria: Requirements for incineration of EOW-WDFs

Environmental consideration



7247



9.4 Environmental and Health Considerations - Overview 7248

The following table gives a summary of environment and health considera-7249 tions with regard to end-of-waste status for waste-derived fuels. The table also 7250 gives consideration on: 7251

Waste Hierarchy according to the WFD, 7252 Existing recycling targets for some WDFs, 7253 Traceability of Hazardous Waste according to Art. 17 WFD123. 7254

123 “Member States shall take the necessary action to ensure that the production, collection and

transportation of hazardous waste, as well as its storage and treatment, are carried out in condi-tions providing protection for the environment and human health in order to meet the provisions of Article 13, including action to ensure traceability from production to final destination and con-trol of hazardous waste in order to meet the requirements of Articles 35 and 36.”


Umweltbundesamt Vienna, August 2011

Table 129: Considerations on Environment and Health Impact 7255

WDF WFD Art. 6 (d): Environment & Health Impact

Incineration as WDF is opposed to Waste Hierarchy (according to WFD Article 4)

Opposed to EU Recycling Targets

Biogas a) If used as fuel or fed into NG grid: usually upgraded to 97-98% CH4 content. b) Otherwise, e.g. landfill gas: incinerated without upgrad-ing.

NO NO

Biodiesel No significant Environment & Health impact to be expected. NO NO

Bioethanol No significant Environment & Health impact to be expected. NO NO

Pyrolysis products: oil, tar, coke (gas is generally used for energy supply of the pyrolysis installation)

YES, pyrolysis oil / tar / solid residues usually contain haz-ardous components, e.g. benzene, toluene, xylene, PAH and other POPs. Depending on waste composition also halogenated organic substances and heavy metals present. Upgrade of liquid pyrolysis products via distilla-tion/rectification is technically possible, but very energy con-suming (environmental impact!).

NO NO

Gasification products: syngas (solid residue has no heating value)

Syngas contains considerable amounts of carbon monox-ide, but gases usually are not waste. If sound and optimized incineration of cleaned (removal of H2S, NH3, COS etc.) syngas takes place, no significant health impact has to be expected.

NO NO


NO, per definition non-hazardous. Nevertheless hazardous contamination is possible (e.g. via heavy metals from batter-ies or cables that could not be completely separated during mechanical treatment of MSW). Umweltbundesamt labora-tory analyses indicated that sufficiently good qualities can-not be produced from mixed non-haz. waste, that is able to fulfil standards and specifications for EOW. If incinerated as non-waste in plants outside the WID scope, higher air emissions have to be expected.

YES, partly: Material recovery of certain plastics con-tained in waste sources is technically feasible. Incineration may not support establishment of separate collection of waste streams (in particular paper and plastic) to be recycled (cf. WFD Article 11: target to es-tablish by 2015). National collection/source separation and recycling/recovery targets for MSW and/or particu-lar waste streams.

YES, partly: Recycling targets for waste from households in-cluding paper and plastic (cf. WFD Article 11: 50% by 2020)

Waste Oil Waste oil is always hazardous waste according to List of Waste, e.g. due to endangerment of water, flammability, carcinogenic properties (PCB, PAH content)

YES, partly: Material recovery is technically feasible (e.g. lubricant recycling)

NO

Edible oil and fat Non-hazardous YES, partly: Material recovery is technically feasible (e.g. use as animal food, bio-chemical industry (biode-gradable lubricants.))

NO

Waste solvents Waste solvents are always hazardous waste according to List of Waste, e.g. due to flammability, explosiveness, resi-dues of various components from industrial processes

YES, partly: Material recovery is technically feasible (e.g. solvent recycling via distillation).

NO


No entry in List of Waste. Environment impact depending on the substances con-tained in the liquid phase (water).

NO NO



WDF WFD Art. 6 (d): Environment & Health Impact

Incineration as WDF is opposed to Waste Hierarchy (according to WFD Article 4)

Opposed to EU Recycling Targets

Wood waste NO, most of it non-hazardous. YES, partly: 1.7% of total amount generated in 2008 is hazardous.

YES, partly: Material recovery is technically feasible (production of wood-based panels)

YES, partly: Recycling targets for packaging waste (cf. Pack-aging Directive, Article 6 (15% for wood by 2008)). Recycling targets for C&D waste (WFD Article 11 (70% by 2020).


Not hazardous. YES, partly: Material recovery is technically feasible (production of building materials, e.g. production of spe-cial floorings, asphalts).

YES, partly: Targets for waste streams containing waste tyres. Recycling targets for end-of-life vehicles, cf. ELV-Directive Article 7 (ELV reuse/recycling target 85% by 2015).

Waste plastics Most of it is non-hazardous. Mix of a wide variety of different materials. May contain chlorine (e.g. from PVC). Plastic can contain small amounts of heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, Sb (e.g. from catalyst residues, pigments). Some may contain bromine (flame inhibitor). Various other con-taminants may be present in post-consumer plastic, de-pending on former use. Contaminants partly released into the environment when incinerated, especially when not un-der the WID. Halogen content can be opposed to technical requirements of the plant (e.g. with regard to corrosion).

YES, partly: Material recovery is technically feasible (polymer recycling)

YES, partly: Recycling targets for waste from households incl. paper and plastic (cf. Art.11 WFD Article, 50% by 2020)). Recycling targets for packaging waste (cf. Packaging Direc-tive, Article 6 (22.5% for plastics by 2008)). Further targets for waste streams containing plastics: -recycling targets for end-of-life vehicles (cf. ELV-Directive Article 7 (reuse/recycling target for ELV 85% by 2015) -recycling targets for WEEE (cf. Art.7 WEEE) -recycling efficiencies for batteries & accumulators (cf. Batter-ies-Directive Article 12, recycling efficiency for processes: 50 to 75% by 2010).

Waste paper Most of it is non-hazardous. May contain POPs from printing ink and metals from pig-ments (printing industry).

YES, partly: Material recovery is technically feasible (paper recy-cling)

YES, partly: Recycling targets for waste from households in-cluding paper and plastic (cf. Art.11 WFD, 50% by 2020). Recycling targets for packaging waste (cf. Packaging Direc-tive, Article 6 (60% for paper and board by 2008))

Waste textiles Most of it is non-hazardous. Mix of a wide variety of different materials, some may con-tain flame inhibitors (bromine).

YES, partly: Material recycling is (technically) feasible (re-use of clothes, recycling of fibres)

NO

Biowaste (as in WFD), ligneous / woody share of biowaste

Not hazardous NO NO


Status as hazardous / non-hazardous is depending on cate-gory 1-3 according to Regulation (EC) No 1774/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 3 October 2002.Handling Meat and Bone Meal (MBM) may represent a risk to workers (dust exposition, possible BSE contamination).

YES, partly: Material recovery technically feasible (animal feed, feed-stock material in the chemical industry)

NO


Hazardous and non-hazardous. Low LHV. May contain mercury (Hg) which is difficult to control as an air emission.

NO NO


Non-hazardous. Low LHV. May contain mercury (Hg) which is difficult to control as an air emission.

YES, partly: (Future) material recovery (P) has to be considered (Mono-incineration)

NO

7256



10 CONSIDERATIONS ON SUITABILITY FOR END-7257 OF-WASTE 7258

The original WDF long-list comprises the following WDFs that are within the 7259 scope of the study: 7260

7261

Biogas, 7262 Gaseous output from gasification, 7263 Gaseous output from pyrolysis, 7264 Biodiesel, 7265 Bioethanol, 7266 Waste oil (mineral and synthetic), 7267 Edible oil and fat (vegetable oils, cooking oils), 7268 Waste solvents (halogenated and non-halogenated), 7269 Industrial liquid waste concentrates, 7270 Liquid pyrolysis output, 7271 Wood waste, 7272 Waste tyres and waste rubber, 7273 Waste plastics, 7274 Waste paper, 7275 Waste textiles, 7276 Biowaste (as in Directive 2008/98/EC), 7277 RDF (WDF derived from non-hazardous waste), 7278 Animal by-products and derived products, 7279 Dried/dewatered municipal sewage sludge, 7280 Dried/dewatered industrial sewage sludge, 7281 Solid pyrolysis output, 7282 Solid gasification output. 7283

7284 Based on the data collected in Chapters 4 to 9, the WDFs within the scope of 7285 the study (cf. Chapter 3 “Objectives and Scope”) were subject to a screening for 7286 suitability for end-of-waste, according to the criteria defined in Article 6 (1) of the 7287 Waste Framework Directive. 7288

The considerations of this screening are described below. 7289

7290

10.1 Art. 6 (1) a) WFD: Common Use of WDFs 7291

For reaching the end-of-waste status, Article 6 (1) a) WFD sets out the con-7292 dition that “the substance or object is commonly used for specific purposes”. 7293 In the given context, the specific purpose is energy recovery from WDF in-7294 cineration. 7295

Specific purpose: Energy recovery from WDF incineration


264

Most WDFs which are commonly used for energy recovery occur in a broad va-7296 riety of qualities that vary significantly from each other, depending on their com-7297 position, origin and treatment. The data compiled in Annex 1 show how broadly 7298 the chemical and physical properties of WDFs can vary within one category. As 7299 a consequence, some WDF fractions are incinerated in waste incineration 7300 plants only. 7301

WDFs within the scope that do not fulfil the condition of being commonly used 7302 for energy recovery are the following: 7303

Industrial liquid waste concentrates 7304

The term “industrial liquid waste concentrates” comprises predominantly aque-7305 ous solutions originating as “process water” from various industrial processes, 7306 e.g. mother liquors, washing water from purification of products, vapour con-7307 densates, quench water, waste water from exhaust air/flue gas clean-up, 7308 equipment cleaning or vacuum generation124. These process water streams 7309 usually do not come with significant heating values. They are either subject to 7310 waste water treatment or to chemical-physical treatment plants. They can be 7311 disposed of either by co-incineration (often in an energy boiler existing on-site) 7312 or by other processes especially designed for this application, as e.g. by wet 7313 oxidation. If disposed of externally, the waste producer has to pay for the re-7314 spective treatment. 7315

Biowaste (according to WFD) 7316

Biowaste, according to the Waste Framework Directive, means biodegradable 7317 garden and park waste, food and kitchen waste from households, restaurants, 7318 caterers and retail premises, and comparable waste from food processing 7319 plants. The only fraction of biowaste being available as a solid WDF is the 7320 screening overflow from composting plants and pre-treatment before anaerobic 7321 digestion plants. There is indication that those fractions in general have too high 7322 contents of impurities and too low energy contents to live up to common quality 7323 standards for WDF (cf. FRICKE ET AL., 2009). 7324

Solid gasification output 7325

Solid gasification output (i.e. ash or slag, depending on gasification tempera-7326 ture) has a remaining carbon content close to zero and no heating value, so it 7327 cannot be used as a fuel. 7328

7329

Thus, the WDF list is reduced to the following WDFs: 7330

Biogas, 7331 Gaseous output from gasification, 7332 Gaseous output from pyrolysis, 7333 Biodiesel, 7334

124 Black liquor is one industrial liquid waste concentrate that arises in big amounts, but it is gener-

ally being regarded as a biomass fuel. Besides, black liquor is usually incinerated on-site in special liquor boilers in order to cover the energy demand of the pulp & paper processes, at the same time recovering the inorganic compounds for recycling in the process, and usually not sold on the market (cf. condition of Art. 6 (1) b).

No fulfilment of criterion a)



Bioethanol, 7335 Waste oil (mineral and synthetic), 7336 Edible oil and fat (vegetable oils, cooking oils), 7337 Waste solvents (halogenated and non-halogenated), 7338 Liquid pyrolysis output, 7339 Wood waste, 7340 Waste tyres and waste rubber, 7341 Waste plastics, 7342 Waste paper, 7343 Waste textiles, 7344 RDF (WDF derived from non-hazardous waste), 7345 Animal by-products and derived products, 7346 Dried/dewatered municipal sewage sludge, 7347 Dried/dewatered industrial sewage sludge, 7348 Solid pyrolysis output, 7349

7350 The assessment of suitability continues by screening these remaining WDFs 7351 against Article 6 (1) b) WFD. 7352 7353

10.2 Art. 6 (1) b) WFD: Existing Market or Demand 7354

The second end-of-waste condition, according to Article 6 (1) b) WFD, is that “a 7355 market or demand exists for such a substance or object.” 7356

Indicators applied to assess the WDFs’ suitability according to this criterion 7357 are e.g.: 7358

Existence of data for the WDF in the European Foreign Trade Statistics 7359 (COMEXT database), 7360

A market price is being paid for the WDF. 7361

Also with regard to the market situation, the broadly varying chemical and 7362 physical properties are of considerable influence. Apart from the heating 7363 value (LHV), also the contaminant contents significantly influence if a market 7364 price is being paid for a WDF or if a gate fee has to be paid. 7365

7366

The following (remaining) WDFs of the list do not fulfil the criterion of an ex-7367 isting market or demand for the purpose of energy recovery: 7368

Pyrolysis products (gas, oil/tar, char/coke) 7369

For pyrolysis products, there are neither COMEXT data available nor is there an 7370 indication of positive market prices being paid. 7371

Pyrolysis being an exothermic reaction, the pyrolysis gas is usually incinerated 7372 on-site in order to cover the energy demand of the process. It is usually not 7373 traded. 7374

Indicators for assessment

Chemical/physical properties influence the market price

No fulfilment of criterion b)


266

Pyrolysis oil/tar consists of a broad variety of organic compounds, including car-7375 cinogenic substances such as benzene, toluene, xylene and condensed aro-7376 matic compounds, which may, depending on the waste input to the process, 7377 also come in their halogenated derivatives. Due to these properties, it has to be 7378 regarded as a hazardous waste. There is no indication of a positive market 7379 price for pyrolysis oil/tar. 7380

The solid pyrolysis output, char/coke, has usually traces of the liquid pyrolysis 7381 products adhering to it, thus also showing hazardous properties. There is no in-7382 dication of a positive market price for pyrolysis oil/tar. 7383

Gaseous gasification product (synthesis gas) 7384

No COMEXT data are available. Synthesis gas is usually incinerated either on-7385 site or in neighbouring plants, which often belong to the same owner or to affili-7386 ated companies. As the syngas transport between the gasification plant and the 7387 combustion installation has to be effected via pipeline, considerable invest-7388 ments for transport equipment and thus also long-term contracts are needed. 7389 So there is not a market existing that is comparable to a free market as it can be 7390 found for e.g. wood waste or waste plastics. 7391

Waste Paper 7392

Waste paper is traded in high quantities. COMEXT data are available. A market 7393 for “mixed bales” between a 15 € gate fee and up to 70-100 €/t positive market 7394 prices is reported. For energy recovery of rejects and fibre sludges, a gate fee 7395 of about 80 €/t has to be paid. It can be assumed that market prices are only 7396 paid for good qualities that can be recycled. Most waste paper is recycled, only 7397 bad qualities are being incinerated, for which no positive market prices are be-7398 ing reported. 7399

Waste Textiles 7400

COMEXT data are available. The waste textiles market depends on the markets 7401 for primary fibres and new clothes. There is a positive market price of about 7402 100 €/t for unsorted waste textiles suited for reuse, but after sorting about 90% 7403 of the sorting output is sold for reuse or recycling. The sorting residues have vir-7404 tually no commercial value, and are landfilled or incinerated, gate fees being 7405 paid for incineration. 7406

Waste Tyres / Rubber 7407

There are COMEXT data available for waste tyres/rubber. Positive market 7408 prices are only reported for pre-treated rubber such as granulate that is recycled 7409 in e.g. in the building and construction sector. For tyres incinerated in cement 7410 kilns, a gate fee of about 20 €/t is reported. 7411

RDF 7412

RDF is the only WDF that is intentionally produced for energy use. There are no 7413 COMEXT data available, but there is indication that trade takes place, also be-7414 tween Member States’ borders, e.g. in Austria or in the Netherlands. Although 7415 there are singular examples for positive market prices being reported for Solid 7416 Recovered Fuel (SRF; e.g. for Germany, Poland, Northern Europe) when being 7417 used in cement kilns or in the steel industry, the predominant practice is to pay 7418



gate fees, that range from 0-35 €/t for LHVs > 18 MJ/kg to 40-70 €/t for LHVs < 7419 18 MJ/kg. 7420

Municipal Sewage Sludge 7421

No COMEXT data are available. Municipal sewage sludge is traded only locally 7422 and only in limited amounts. For incineration, gate fees of 25-60 €/t are re-7423 ported. 7424

Industrial Sewage Sludge 7425

COMEXT data are available. For incineration, gate fees of 25-60 €/t are re-7426 ported. 7427

7428

The following (remaining) WDFs of the list do fulfil the criterion of 7429 an existing market or demand for the purpose of energy recovery: 7430 Biogas, Biodiesel, Bioethanol and Animal Fat. 7431

7432

Waste oil, edible oil and fat, Waste Solvents, Wood Waste, Waste Plas-7433 tics and Meat and Bone Meal (MBM) fulfil the criterion of Art. 6 (1) b) WFD 7434 only partly, because there are positive market prices as well as gate fees re-7435 ported for their incineration. 7436

After the second screening step, the WDF list is reduced to the following 7437 WDFs:Biogas, 7438

Biodiesel, 7439 Bioethanol, 7440 Waste oil (mineral and synthetic), 7441 Edible oil and fat (vegetable oils, cooking oils), 7442 Waste solvents (halogenated and non-halogenated), 7443 Wood waste, 7444 Waste plastics, 7445 Animal by-products and derived products. 7446

7447 These remaining WDFs have been assessed for suitability for end-of-waste ac-7448 cording to Article 6 (1) c) WFD. 7449

Fulfilment of criterion b)

Partial fulfilment of criterion b)


268

7450

10.3 Art. 6 (1) c) WFD: Fulfilment of Technical Requirements, 7451 Legislation, Standards 7452

Article 6 (1) c) WFD defines as a criterion for end-of-waste that “the substance 7453 or object fulfils the technical requirements for the specific purposes and meets 7454 the existing legislation and standards applicable to products.” 7455

Indicators used for assessment are e.g.: 7456

Existence of technical requirements and WDFs’ compatibility with them, 7457 Existence of relevant specifications / standards and WDFs’ compatibility 7458

with them, 7459 Existence of relevant legislation / jurisdiction. 7460

Biogas, Biodiesel, Bioethanol 7461

Biogas, biodiesel and bioethanol, if produced and upgraded/cleaned in order to 7462 fulfil product standards, fulfil the criterion of Art. 6 (1) c) WFD. (Biodiesel is pro-7463 duced only to a very small amount of estimated 5% from waste substrates. For 7464 bioethanol, the waste share in the substrate can be regarded to be close to 7465 zero.) 7466

Animal Fat 7467

Usually, category 1 animal fat is incinerated in dedicated plants, i.e. on-site in 7468 the energy boilers of the rendering industry. There is indication that individual 7469 end-of-waste notifications are granted to the operators for this purpose, so that 7470 incineration does not take place within the scope of the WID. 7471

Trade may take place only between installations of the rendering industry, i.e. to 7472 another dedicated plant. Due to this restriction to dedicated plants, as there is 7473 no general specification as a WDF, the criterion is regarded to be only partly ful-7474 filled. 7475

Meat and Bone Meal 7476

Meat and bone meal is co-incinerated as a WDF e.g. in cement kilns or in large 7477 combustion plants of the thermal power sector. As the co-incineration is limited 7478 to only small percentages due to the chemical properties of the MBM and to 7479 technical requirements of the co-incineration facility, the criterion is regarded to 7480 be only partly fulfilled. 7481

Waste oil, Edible oil and fat, Waste solvents, Wood waste, Waste Plastics 7482

For these WDFs, the criterion is regarded to be only partly fulfilled, as these 7483 WDFs come in a broad variety of qualities (cf. Annex 1 “Technical data sheets”) 7484 and thus only selected fractions of these WDFs are suitable to reach end-of-7485 waste status as a waste-derived fuel. 7486

After the third screening step, the WDF list is the same as after the second 7487 screening step. These remaining WDFs are subjected to assessment for suit-7488 ability for end-of-waste according to Article 6 (1) d) WFD, regarding environ-7489 mental and health impact. 7490

Indicators used for assessment

Fulfilment of criterion c)

Partial fulfilment of criterion c)





7491

10.4 Art. 6 (1) d) WFD: No Adverse Environmental or Human 7492 Health Impacts 7493

According to Article 6 (1) d) WFD, suitability for end-of-waste as a fuel is given, 7494 if “the use of the substance or object will not lead to overall adverse environ-7495 mental or human health impacts”. In order to assess this, the considerations 7496 described in Chapter 9 are applied to the remaining WDFs. 7497

A special risk for “end-of-waste” declaration is, that “end-of-waste” WDFs 7498 may go to small plants with comparable low standards for dust emissions 7499 and almost no standards for metal emissions and other air pollutants, while 7500 for larger plants it can be stated that LCP standards are for the next twelve 7501 years weaker than WID standards and some IPPC plants may by means of 7502 “end-of-waste” fall out of the scope of WID. Additionally, pollution of soil via 7503 waste has to be considered. 7504

Waste Oil, Waste Solvents 7505 Waste oil and waste solvents being hazardous wastes according to the List 7506 of Waste, e.g. due to endangerment of water, flammability, carcinogenic 7507 properties (PCB, PAH content), chlorine and metal content. Furthermore, the 7508 traceability of hazardous waste that is stipulated by Article 17 of the Waste 7509 Framework Directive would not be given any more in case of reaching the end-7510 of-waste status. 7511

Meat and bone meal (MBM) 7512 Meat and bone meal contains high amounts of halogens that would be re-7513 leased to the environment if incineration took place in a plant outside WID 7514 scope, as HCl is an air pollutant that is regulated under the WID, but not un-7515 der legal regulations applying to incineration as a non-waste, as e.g. the LCP 7516 Directive. Furthermore, the phosphorus content in MBM can lead to the forma-7517 tion of highly toxic phosphine (PH3), if the solid incineration residues get in con-7518 tact with water. Besides, category 1 MBM represents a risk to workers when be-7519 ing handled. 7520

7521

10.5 Results: WDFs that seem suitable for EOW as a WDF 7522

With the stepwise methodological approach applied, the following conclusions 7523 are derived from the assessment of the data gathered: 7524

According to available data on waste stream composition and ex-7525 isting standards for WDFs, the waste type is not sufficient to make 7526 a decision on its suitability for WDF or even more for end-of-waste. 7527 Considering the release of emission to the environment via air, 7528

water and residues (land) from pre-treatment and co-incineration processes, a 7529 wide number of parameters has to be considered for each waste type when 7530 judging on suitability for WDF and further on end-of-waste. 7531

For the following WDFs, product and end-of-waste standards/specification 7532 already exist and will be developed further in the future: 7533

Biogas, 7534

Emission parameters

No fulfilment of criterion d)

No fulfilment of criterion d)

Suitability for EOW depends on strict quality criteria

Standard for bio-fuels already exist


270

Biodiesel (only about 5% waste-derived share), 7535 Bioethanol (waste-derived share close to zero). 7536

For the following WDFs investigated in this study, the development of criteria for 7537 end-of-waste status seems possible: 7538

Wood waste, 7539 Waste plastics, 7540 Animal fat, 7541 Edible oil and fat. 7542

An overview on the considerations applied for assessment of the WDFs’ suit-7543 ability for end-of-waste as a fuel is given in Table 129 (Considerations on envi-7544 ronmental and health impact) and in Table 130 (considerations regarding the 7545 criteria defined in Article 6 (a-c) WFD). The screening process applied is de-7546 scribed in Figure 60. 7547

Development of EOW criteria seems possible



7548

Figure 60: Considerations for the suitability for end-of-waste of the WDFs within the project scope according 7549 to Article 6 WFD 7550


272 Umweltbundesamt Vienna,

Table 130: Considerations on Suitability for End-of-Waste 7551

WFD Art. 6 (a) "The substance or object is commonly used for specific purposes*"

WFD Art. 6 (b): "A market or demand exists for such a substance or ob-ject."

WFD Art. 6 (c): "The substance or object fulfils the technical requirements for the specific purposes and meets the existing legisla-tion and standards applicable to products."

WDF

*) Purpose: WDF for incineration Indicators: Trade takes place (e.g. COMEXT data). Incinerators pay for the WDF.

Indicators: Legislation / Jurisdiction concerning "waste" or "EOW as WDF" exist. Specifications / standards for EOW as WDF exist.

Biogas Waste share in product is low (ca. 15% of "other biogas", i.e. total biogas production minus sewage gas and landfill gas, is waste-derived)

No COMEXT data available. Energy Statistics show no trade between MS + external trade. Traded locally for mobility purposes (e.g. AT) and in some countries fed into the natural gas grid (e.g. AT, DE, SE). Market prices are paid (2010/2011): Car fuel (upgraded to Biomethane): 0.9 €/kg. Electricity from biogas: 0.081 to 0.31 €/kWhel. Long-term delivery contracts for AD plants.

NO. Biogas is a product, if cleaned according to specification (if in-cineration in a plant: LCP, not WID). National standards on MS level, e.g. ÖVGW G31 and G33 (AT)

Biodiesel Waste share in product is low (ca. 5% waste-derived share in biodiesel production)

COMEXT data are available. Also traded locally for mobility purposes. Market prices are paid (2010): Car fuel: 0.92 to 1.17 €/litre. Spot market, volatile prices, depending on crude oil and on substrate (primarily virgin vegetable oil) market.

NO. Biodiesel is a product, if cleaned according to specification (if incineration in a plant: LCP, not WID). European standards: EN 14213, EN 14214

Bioethanol Bioethanol is no WDF, as the waste share in the product’s substrate is negligible (cf. GAUPMANN 2009)

No COMEXT data available. Energy Statistics show trade be-tween MS + external. Traded also for mobility purposes. Market prices are paid: Car fuel E5 (2010): 0.85 to 1.08 €/litre. Car fuel E10 (2011): 0.95 to 1.32 €/litre. Spot market, prices linked to crude oil and substrate (maize, wheat, sugar beet…) prices. Waste as substrate is not relevant.

NO. Bioethanol is a product, if cleaned according to specification (if incineration in a plant: LCP, not WID). European standard: EN 15376

Pyrolysis products: oil, tar, coke (gas is generally used for energy supply of the pyrolysis installation)

No, not commonly used as WDF.

No COMEXT data available. Gas usually used for energy supply of the pyrolysis plant (en-dothermic process). No indication for positive market prices for oil, tar coke.

No legislation / jurisdiction. No EOW specifications /standards exist.

Gasification products: syngas(solid residue has no heating value)

Yes, but syngas is rather incinerated on-site or in neighbour-ing plants (cf. Lahti court case).

No COMEXT data available. YES, partly sold to neighbouring plants, often interlaced company structures. But no trade on a market, as syngas de-livery is effected via pipelines & long-term contracts.






WDF




Yes. JRC 2010: RDFs production is already well established in DE, AT, FI, IT, NL, SE, BE, UK.

No COMEXT data available, but there is indication from inter-views that trade takes place, also across MS borders (e.g. in NL, AT). Gate fees have to be paid (2009): LHV < 18 MJ/kg: -20 to -80 €/t. LHV > 18 MJ/kg: 0 to -35 €/t. Singular examples for positive market prices for SRF (Ger-many, Poland, Northern Europe) for use in the cement and steel industries. SRF production costs (2010/2011): 40-70 €/t. SRF transport costs (2010/2011): 20-40 €/t. Market is linked to gate fees for waste incineration plants (MSWI) and landfill sites. JRC 2010: Prices unstable. Predominantly domestic market will become more international, though constrained by trans-port costs. Increasing competition and increasing trade is ex-pected to stabilise prices for solid recovered fuels at accept-able levels.

Icopower case (NL, 14.03.2003): Energy pellets are not waste. No EOW specifications /standards exist.

Waste Oil Yes COMEXT data are available. Low qualities: Gate fees ~ -100 €/t. High qualities: Market price 50 to 200 €/t. Spot market, prices linked to crude oil. JRC 2010: The demand for recovered fuel oil has increased and this trend is expected to continue.

High Court of Justice, Queens Bench Division, Administrative Court, Case no. CO/2635/2000 of March 22nd 2001 (UK): "Cemfuel is hazardous waste." Supreme Court of Judicature, Court of Appeal (Civil Division), on Appeal from QBD, Administrative Court, Case no. C1/2006/2545 of June 28th 2007 (UK): "EOW (for waste oil/lubricant used as combustible) occurs only when completely recovered, i.e. incinerated." STN 65 6690 & 65 6691 Slovakia: Decree of the Ministry of Environment No 362/2010, referring to national standards STN 656690 and STN 656691: legally binding EOW specification for waste oil Quality protocol on processed fuel oil (UK; published by DEFRA)) Study "End-of-waste criteria voor afgewerkte olie (BE -Flanders; published by OVAM)", proposing EOW criteria for waste oils as a fuel in shipping and in (glass) horticulture.






WDF



Edible oil and fat YES, but only in smaller amounts, as energy use takes place mainly via biodiesel production (cf. EC 2007).

COMEXT data are available. Market price: 600 to 850 €/t (2010). Spot market, linked to crude oil and virgin vegetable oil mar-ket prices.

Higher Administrative Court of Rhineland-Palatinate (OVG Koblenz), decision of 23 May 2007, 1 A 11463/06 (GE): "The mere sedimentation procedure does not result in the used chip fat losing its status as waste. Moreover, the sedimentation process can only be regarded as pre-treatment. Under these circumstances the recovery process is not completed until the final combustion of the frying fat." No EOW specifications /standards exist.

Waste solvents Yes COMEXT data are available, Gate fee: 0 to -446 €/t (2003). Market prices in cement industry: 0 to 60 €/t JRC 2010: Prices for purified solvents are linked to world market prices for primary products (e.g. methanol). The prices are very volatile. Prices for energy recovery of solvents vary significantly depending on the calorific value and the quality of solvents in general.

Higher Administrative Court of North Rhine-Westphalia (OVG Münster), decision of 17 August 2005, 8 A 1598/04 (GE): "The Court qualified the solvent distillate as by-product for its high heating value and as it does not require any further processing prior to its use as combustible" Higher Administrative Court of Hesse (VGH Kassel), decision of 22 October 2008, 6 UE 2250/07 (GE): "Resin oil is neither waste nor by-product, but production residue. It is not waste, if the entire re-use without any additional treatment is not only possible but certain." High Court of Justice, Queens Bench Division, Administrative Court, Case no. CO/2635/2000 of March 22nd 2001: "Cemfuel is hazardous waste." No EOW specifications /standards exist.

Industrial liquid waste con-centrates

No COMEXT data are available. No indication for positive market prices (in general aqueous solutions with no relevant LHV).


Wood waste Yes. Incineration promoted by RES Directive and ETS Directive.

COMEXT data are available. Traded in high amounts. Market (2010/2011): Market prices for high-grade: 9 to 20 €/t. Gate fees for low-grade: -10 to -25 €/t. Short-term contracts as well as spot market. JRC 2010: The waste wood market is more and more inter-nationalized. A growing competition between wood recycling as material and recovery as energy is leading to increasing market prices. Furthermore, seasonal and quality variations are also factors affecting the price.

No legislation / jurisdiction. Legally binding EOW criteria in the Austrian Waste Incineration Ordinance (EOW specifications also for WDFs in general)





WDF




Yes COMEXT data are available. Gate fee cement kilns: ~ 20 €/t (2008).

Municipal Court in Prague, 28.11.2008 (CZ): "Used tyres qual-ify as waste. Waste used as raw material to produce any other material is still to be considered waste." No EOW specifications /standards exist.

Waste plastics Yes COMEXT data are available. Traded in high quantities. Market prices for high-grade (2002-2011): Min. prices: 250 to 450 €/t. Max. prices: 450 to 650 €/t. Gate fee for “thermal fraction” (plastic fraction recovered in MT and MBT plants): - 80 €/t. Market linked to crude oil prices. JRC 2010: The price index has almost doubled during the last 5 years and due to the rising prices of crude oil another strong increase in prices for plastics is expected.

VwGH 25.7.2002, 2001/07/0043 (AT): "Asa Calor", i.e. fuel from plastic material production waste - EOW) No EOW specifications /standards exist.

Waste paper Yes. COMEXT data are available. High quantities traded, but material recovery is included. Market for “Mixed bales”: Between gate fee –15 €/t and price +20 €/t (2009; prices most of the time positive since 2001). Market prices 70 to 100 €/t (2011). Gate fees for energy recovery of rejects and fibre sludges of about -80 €/t. JRC 2010: international market and expected to grow (and prices) during the next decade. Potentials are in the new MS. Further investments will be made in several MS into research for innovative recycling technologies as well as material utili-zation of residual materials.

Higher Regional Court Düsseldorf (OLG Düsseldorf), resolution of 27 October 2004, VII Verg 41/04 (GE): "unsorted waste pa-per still has to be regarded as waste although it is generally usable for certain purposes; the waste paper can be qualified as secondary raw material/product with the production of the fi-bre pulp at the earliest" No EOW specifications /standards exist.

Waste textiles Yes, but incinerated only in low quantities (e.g. carpets). COMEXT data are available. Market price for unsorted waste textiles at sorting plant 100 €/t. (After sorting, ~90% are reused or recycled). Gate fee has to be paid for incineration of sorting residues. Market depends on the markets for primary fibres and new clothes.







WDF



Biowaste (as in WFD), ligne-ous/woody share of biowaste

Yes, but only in low quantities. No trade statistics data. No indication for relevant market. No market for incineration, as normally not incinerated.



Yes, but restricted due to technical requirements. COMEXT data exist. Animal Fat: Market price for category 1 Animal Fat (incineration in ap-proved plant: 150 to 189 €/t. Meat and Bone Meal (MBM): Gate fee (2003): -74 to -124 €/t (during BSE crisis). Market price (2008): +4 to +20 €/t.

No legislation / jurisdiction. No EOW specifications /standards exist. There is indication of national EOW permits for animal fat (if in-cinerated on-site).


Yes. COMEXT data are available. Gate fee (2008): -25 to -60 €/t



Yes. No COMEXT data available Traded only locally and only in limited amounts. Gate fee (2008): -25 to -60 €/t

VwGH 13.12.2001, 2001/07/0028 (AT): "Dry granulate pro-duced from sewage sludge is waste." No EOW specifications /standards exist.

7552


ABBREVIATIONS 7553

ar ........................as received 7554

BRAM .................Brennstoff aus Müll (Fuel from Waste) 7555

BRAP..................Brennstoff aus Papier und Pappe (Fuel from Paper and Board) 7556

BSE ....................Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy 7557

CDR....................Combustibile Derivato dai Rifiuti (RDF) 7558

CDR-Q................Combustibile Derivato dai Rifiuti, high-quality (high-quality RDF) 7559

CJD ....................Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease 7560

COMEXT ............Statistical database for external trade and trade among the Member 7561 States of the European Union 7562

d .........................dry 7563

DM......................dry matter 7564

EBS ....................Ersatzbrennstoff (substitute fuel) 7565

ELV.....................a) Emission limit value 7566 b) End-of-life vehicle 7567

EOW...................End-of-waste 7568

ETBE ..................Ethyl tert-butyl ether 7569

EU-ETS ..............European Emission Trading Scheme 7570

EWC ...................European Waste Catalogue 7571

FAME .................Fatty acid methyl ester 7572

FTS..................... Foreign Trade Statistics 7573

GCV....................Gross calorific value (=HHV) 7574

HFO....................heavy fuel oil 7575

HHV....................Higher heating value (=GCV) 7576

IEA......................International Energy Agency 7577

IED .....................Industrial Emissions Directive 7578

IPPC ...................Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control 7579

LCP ....................Large combustion plant 7580

LCV ....................Lower heating value (=NCV) 7581

LOW ...................List of Waste 7582

MBM ...................Meat and Bone Meal 7583

MSW...................Municipal solid waste 7584

MSWI..................Municipal solid waste incinerator 7585

MTBE .................Methyl tert-butyl ether 7586



NACE ................. Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Com-7587 munity (French: “Nomenclature statistique des activités économiques 7588 dans la Communauté européenne”) 7589

NCV ................... Net calorific value (=LHV) 7590

OECD................. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 7591

PCDD/F.............. Polychlorinated dioxins and furans 7592

PDF.................... Packaging Derived Fuel 7593

PEF .................... Processed Engineered Fuel 7594

PFO.................... Processed fuel oil 7595

RDF.................... Refuse-derived fuel 7596

REF.................... Recovered Fuel 7597

RME ................... Rapeseed methyl ester 7598

SLF .................... Solid recovered fuel 7599

SME ................... Soybean methyl ester 7600

SLF .................... Substitute Liquid Fuel 7601

SRF.................... Secondary Recovered Fuel 7602

TSE .................... Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy 7603

WDF................... Waste-derived fuel 7604

WID .................... Waste Incineration Directive 7605

WLO................... Waste lubricant oil 7606

7607

7608


GLOSSARY 7609

Autoproducer Thermal Power Stations: 7610 Plants that generate electricity and/or heat, wholly or partly for their own use as 7611 an activity which supports their primary activity. They may be privately or publicly 7612 owned. 7613

District Heating Plants: 7614 Plants which are designed to produce heat only, when all or part of the heat is 7615 sold to third parties. The quantities of fuel consumed for the production of heat 7616 which is not sold will remain in the figures for the final consumption of fuels by the 7617 relevant sector of economic activity. 7618

Endothermic: 7619 Releasing energy. 7620

Exothermic: 7621 Consuming energy. 7622

Final Energy Consumption: 7623 The final energy consumption is equal to the total energy consumption in industry, 7624 transport and other sectors (commercial and public services, residential, agricul-7625 ture/forestry/fishing). It can be calculated by the gross inland consumption minus 7626 the transformation sector, the Energy sector, distribution losses and statistical dif-7627 ferences. 7628

Gross Inland Consumption: 7629 The energy amount that is necessary to satisfy the demand. The gross inland 7630 consumption is calculated by the indigenous production plus imports minus ex-7631 ports adjusted by stock changes. 7632

Primary Sector: 7633 The primary sector of the economy is one of the three economic sectors. It com-7634 prises agriculture, fishing, and extraction such as mining. 7635

Public Thermal Power Stations: 7636 Plants that generate electricity and/or heat for sale to third parties, as their pri-7637 mary activity. They may be privately or publicly owned. Note that the sale need 7638 not take place through the public grid. 7639

Secondary Sector: 7640 The secondary sector of the economy is one of the three economic sectors. It is 7641 also known as the manufacturing sector. 7642

Tertiary Sector: 7643 The tertiary sector of the economy is one of the three economic sectors. It is also 7644 known as the service sector or the service industry. 7645

7646

7647

7648

7649



LITERATURE 7650

ADEME (2008): Référentiel 2008-2-CIB for by products from wood industry. 7651 http://www2.ademe.fr/servlet/KBaseShow?sort=-7652 1&cid=96&m=3&catid=13462 7653

ADEME – Agence de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l’Enérgie (Environment and 7654 Energy Agency, France) (2009): Etat de l’art de la valorisation énergétique des 7655 déchets non dangereux en cimenteries – Situation actuelle, enjeux et perspecti-7656 ves (State of the art of the use of non-hazardous waste in cement plants - Current 7657 situation, stakes and perspectives.) Revised final report, Angers, December 2009. 7658 www2.ademe.fr (extracted 12.07.2011) 7659

ADEME - Agence de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l’Enérgie (Environment and 7660 Energy Agency, France) (2011): Personal information by Mme. Elisabeth Ponce-7661 let, May 2011. 7662

ADMIN. ENV. (LUXEMBOURG) - Administration de l Environment (2009): Prüfung der Um-7663 weltauswirkungen des Abfallwirtschaftsplanes. Luxembourg, 2009. 7664

ADMIN. ENV. (LUXEMBOURG) - Administration de l'Environnement (2011): Personal informa-7665 tion by Mr. Patrick Thyes, Administration de l'environnement, Luxembourg, May 7666 2011. 7667

AEA – AEA Energy and Environment (2008): Advice on the Economic and Environ-7668 mental Impacts of Government Support for Biodiesel Production from Tallow. Re-7669 port to the Department of Transport, Issue Number 1a, ED05914. Didcot, April 4th 7670 2008. 7671 http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/7672 environment/rtfo/tallow/tallowfinalresport.pdf (extracted 12.07.2011) 7673

AEA – Austrian Energy Agency (2010): Schilcher, K.; Schmidl, J.: Study on Biomass 7674 Trade in Austria. 4biomass Project Report, Vienna, 2010. 7675 http://www.4biomass.eu/document/file/Austria_final.pdf (extracted 23.06.2011). 7676

ALWAST (2007): Alwast, H.: Ersatzbrennstoffmarkt-Entwicklung in Deutschland – Men-7677 gen, Preise, Markttendenzen. 19. Kasseler Abfallforum und Bioenergieforum, 7678 Kassel, Germany, May 3rd 2007. 7679

AMT DER BURGENLÄNDISCHEN LANDESREGIERUNG (AUSTRIA) (2006): Landes-7680 Abfallwirtschaftsplan Burgenland 2002 – Fortschreibung 2006. 7681

AMT DER OBERÖSTERREICHISCHEN LANDESREGIERUNG (AUSTRIA) (2009): Abfallbericht 2008. 7682

AMT DER OBERÖSTERREICHISCHEN LANDESREGIERUNG (2010): Information on sewage slud-7683 ge arising and treatment in the province of Upper Austria in the year 2009. 7684 http://www.land-oberoesterreich.gv.at/cps/rde/xchg/SID-23908053-7685 DD892B93/ooe/hs.xsl/23534_DEU_HTML.htm (extracted 12.07.2011) 7686

AMT DER STEIERMÄRKISCHEN LANDESREGIERUNG (AUSTRIA) (2004): Altholzsituation in der 7687 Steiermark, 2004, Bericht. 7688 http://www.abfallwirtschaft.steiermark.at/cms/dokumente/10127247_4334717689 9/35f4992a/006a-internetversion.pdf (extracted 05.07.2011). 7690


ARLT (2003): Arlt, A.: Systemanalytischer Vergleich zur Herstellung von Ersatzbrennstof-7691 fen aus biogenen Abfällen am Beispiel von kommunalem Klärschlamm, Bioabfall 7692 und Grünabfall. PhD Thesis, University of Stuttgart, December 2003. 7693 http://www.itas.fzk.de/deu/lit/2003/arlt03a.pdf (extracted 13.07.2011) 7694

AVFALL SVERIGE (2008): www.avfallsverige.se 7695

BALA (2011): Bala, H. (www.methapur.at): Personal information, June 15th 2011. 7696

BASTIDE & THEOBALD (2010): Bastide, G.; Theobald, O.: IEA Bioenergy Task 37, Country 7697 Report France, s’Hertogenbosch, November 2010. http://www.iea-7698 biogas.net/publicationsreports.htm. 7699

BBC – British Broadcasting Corporation (2011): BSE and CJD – Crisis Chronology. 7700 http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/health/2000/bse/1997.stm 7701 (extracted 23.06.2011). 7702

BGFE – Berufsgenossenschaft für Feinmechanik und Elektrotechnik (2003): Phosphin in 7703 Müllverbrennungsanlagen. Informationen für die Sicherheitsfachkraft 1/03, Köln, 7704 2003. http://www.bgetem.de/bilder/pdf/infosifa_1-03.pdf (extracted 23.06.2011) 7705

BILITEWSKI, B.; HÄRDTLE, G. & MAREK, K. (2000): Abfallwirtschaft – Handbuch für Praxis 7706 und Lehre. Springer, Berlin, 2000. 7707

BITTERMANN (2011): Personal information by Mr. Werner Bittermann, Statistik Austria, 7708 February 2011. 7709

BMWA (2007): Technische Grundlagen für die Beurteilung von Biogasanlagen. Vienna. 7710 http://www.bmwfj.gv.at/Unternehmen/gewerbetechnik/Documents/Biogasan7711 lagen.pdf 7712

BRAUN (2010): Braun, R.: Country Report Austria. IEA Bioenergy Task 37, 26.05.2010, 7713 http://www.iea-biogas.net/_content/publications/member-country-7714 reports.html 7715

BREF CEMENT (2010): Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Ce-7716 ment, Lime and Magnesium Oxide Manufacturing Industries. European Commis-7717 sion, IPPC Bureau. Seville, May 2010. 7718

BREF CWW (2003): Common Waste Water and Waste Gas Treatment/Management 7719 Systems in the Chemical Sector. European Commission, IPPC Bureau, Seville. 7720 February 2003. 7721

BREF IRON & STEEL (2010): Draft Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for 7722 Iron and Steel Production. European Commission, IPPC Bureau. Seville, October 7723 2010. 7724

BREF NME (2009): Draft Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for the 7725 Non-Ferrous Metals Industries. European Commission, IPPC Bureau. Seville, 7726 July 2009. 7727

BREF WI (2006): Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for the Waste In-7728 cineration. European Commission, IPPC Bureau. Seville, August 2006. 7729

BREF WTI (2006): IPPC Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for the 7730 Waste Treatments Industries. European Commission, IPPC Bureau. Seville, Au-7731 gust 2006. 7732

BMLFUW – Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Wa-7733 ter Management (2003): Gewässerschutzbericht 2002. 7734



BMLFUW – Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Wa-7735 ter Management (2006): Federal Waste Management Plan 2006. Wien, 2006. 7736

BMLFUW – Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Wa-7737 ter Management (2006): Grech, H.: Studie Papierindustrie Abfallverbrennung. 7738 Wien, 2006. 7739

BMLFUW - Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Wa-7740 ter Management (2006): Federal Waste Management Plan 2006. Wien, 2006. 7741

BMLFUW– Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Water 7742 Management 2008: Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Envi-7743 ronment and Water Management: Die Bestandsaufnahme der Abfallwirtschaft in 7744 Österreich. Statusbericht 2008. Wien, 2008. 7745

BMLFUW– Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and Water 7746 Management 2008: Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Envi-7747 ronment and Water Management (2008): Richtlinie für Ersatzbrennstoffe. (Guide-7748 line for Waste Fuels). March, 2008. 7749

BMLFUW 2010: Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Environment and 7750 Water Management: Die Bestandsaufnahme der Abfallwirtschaft in Österreich. 7751 Statusbericht 2009. Wien, 2010. 7752

BUWAL – Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft (Federal Agency for Environ-7753 ment, Forestry and Landscape, Switzerland) (1999): Umweltverträgliche Entsor-7754 gung von Altspeiseöl. Bern. 7755 www.bafu.admin.ch/dokumentation/03393/03395/index.html? 7756

BVDM – Bundesverband Druck und Medien (Federal Association Print and Media, Ger-7757 many) (2011): Online information. 7758 http://www.bvdm-online.de/uwlexikon/a/altpapiersorten.html (extracted 7759 13.07.2011) 7760

BVSE 2010: Bundesverband Sekundärrohstoffe und Entsorgung e.V. (Germany): Er-7761 satzbrennstoffe: Marktbericht 2009/2010, Bonn, 2010. 7762 http://www.bvse.de/20/4197/Ersatzbrennstoffe:%20Marktbericht%202009/207763 10 (extracted 04.03.2011). 7764

CALLEGARI (2002): Callegari, Ch.: Direkte energetische Verwertung von Altspeisefett. 7765 ÖWAV-Seminar “Altspeisefettsammlung und Verwertung”, Wels, April 2002. 7766 http://www.abwasserverband.com/xoffi_files/file_20_301.pdf (extracted 7767 10.07.2011). 7768

CARMEN – C.A.R.M.E.N. Centrales Agrar-Rohstoff-Marketing und Entwicklungs-Netzwerk 7769 e.V. (2005): Vorschlag für Strategien für den Betrieb einer Biogasanlage. Straub-7770 ing, Germany, April 2004. 7771 http://www.carmen-ev.de/dt/hintergrund/biogas/strategienvorschlag.pdf 7772 (extracted 23.06.2011) 7773

CEMBUREAU 2006-2010: www.cembureau.eu 7774

CEMBUREAU – The European Cement Association (2008): Activity Report 2007. Brussels, 7775 2008. 7776 http://www.cembureau.eu/sites/default/files/documents/Activity_Report_2007777 7.pdf. 7778


CEMBUREAU – The European Cement Association (2009): Sustainable cement production 7779 – Co-processing of alternative fuels and raw materials in the European cement 7780 industry. Brussels, 2009. 7781 http://www.cembureau.eu/sites/default/files/Sustainable%20cement%20prod7782 uction%20Brochure.pdf (extracted 10.03.2011)?. 7783

CEN EN 643 – European Standard 643 (2001): Paper and board – European list of 7784 standard grades of recovered paper and board. December 2001. 7785

CEN/TS 15359. Solid recovered fuels – Quality management systems – Particular re-7786 quirements for their application to the production of solid recovered fuels. 2006-7787 07. (EN 15358:2011-03). 7788

CEN/TS 15400. Solid recovered fuels – Determination of calorific value. 2006-12. (EN 7789 15411:2011-03). 7790

CEN/TS 15407. Solid recovered fuels – Methods for the determination of carbon ©, hy-7791 drogen (H) and nitrogen (N) content. 2006-12. (EN 15407:2011-03). 7792

CEN/TS 15411. Solid recovered fuels – Methods for the determination of the content of 7793 trace elements (As, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Tl, V and 7794 Zn). 2006-12. (prEN 15411:2010-01). 7795

CEN/TS 15359. Solid recovered fuels – Specifications and classes. 2006-07-01. (draft 7796 prEN 15359:2009-05). 7797

CEN/TS 15442. Solid recovered fuels – Methods for sampling. 2007-01. (EN 7798 15442:2011-03). 7799

CEN/TS 15443. Solid recovered fuels – Methods for the preparation of the laboratory 7800 sample. 2007-01. (EN 15443:2011-03). 7801

CEWEP (2010): Landfill taxes and bans. March 2010. 7802 http://www.cewep.eu/storage/med/media/data/taxes/293_CEWEP_-7803 _LandfillTaxesbans_February2010_final-7804 website.pdf?fCMS=60a9a1372cc004a7d6ec2808c0797dd0. 7805

CHEMIN – Gesellschaft für chemische und mineralogische Untersuchungen mbH (2002): 7806 Spiegel, W.; Jordan, R.; Müller, W.; Gruber, K.; Heuss-Assbichler, S.: Phosphin 7807 bei der Verbrennung phosphorhaltiger Abfälle. Presentation held at VDI-Seminar 7808 “Klärschlamm/Tiermehl/Biogene Abfälle”, Bad Homburg, Germany, 14.–7809 15.04.2002. http://www.chemin.de/Publikationen/PDF/vo-9-0.pdf (extracted 7810 23.06.2011). 7811

CIEP (POLAND) - Chief Inspectorate of Environmental Protection 7812

COMMUNITIES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT (2008): North West of England Plan – Regional 7813 Spatial Strategy to 2021”. London. 7814

CZ Biom – Czech Biomass Association (2011): Tluka, P.; Stupavský, V.: Study on Bio-7815 mass Trade in the Czech Republic. 4biomass Project Report, January 2011. 7816 http://www.4biomass.eu/document/file/Trade_study_Czech_Republic.pdf 7817 (extracted 23.06.2011). 7818

DARTEE (2009): Dartee, M.: Biodegradable & Bio-based Plastics - Market Introduction & 7819 Framework. 4th European Bioplastics Conference, November 10th-11th 2009, Ber-7820 lin. 7821



DEFRA - Environment Agency (UK) (2001): Quality Protocol, Processed Fuel Oil (PFO) 7822 End-of-waste criteria for the production and use of processed fuel oil from waste 7823 lubricating oils 7824 http://www.environmentagency.gov.uk/static/documents/Business/W524_Processed_7825 Fuel_Oil_%28PFO%29_FINAL_-_February_11.pdf (extracted 30.06.2011). 7826

DEFRA - Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (UK) (2007): Waste Strat-7827 egy for England 2007”. Norwich. 7828

DEFRA - Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (UK) (2008): Waste Wood 7829 as a Biomass Fuel -Market Information Report.” DEFRA Waste Infrastructure De-7830 livery Programme. London, April 2008. www.defra.gov.uk. 7831

DEFRA - Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (UK) (2009a-2009e): 7832 Arias-Garcia, A.; Gleeson, J.: Solid Recovered Fuel Regional Assessments. Bris-7833 tol, January 2009. http://defra.gov.uk/ 7834 (2009a): Coventry and Derbyshire. 7835 (2009b): West England and Dorset. 7836 (2009c): South and West London. 7837 (2009d): North London, Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire. 7838 (2009e): Hull and East Riding. 7839

DEFRA - Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (UK) (2011): Personal in-7840 formation by Mr. John MacIntyre, Department for Environment, Food and Rural 7841 Affairs (Defra), Waste Framework Directive Unit, UK, May 2011. 7842

D.M. AMBIENTE DEL 5.2.1998 – Decreto Ministeriale Ambiente del 5.2.1998 (Decree of the 7843 Ministry of Environment, Italy) (1998): Individuazione dei rifiuti non pericolosi sot-7844 toposti alle procedure semplificate di recupero ai sensi degli articoli 31 e 33 del 7845 decreto legislativo 5 febbraio 1997, n. 22. 7846

DÖRFLER (2010): Dörfler, Ch.: Bewertung der Industrieanlage EuroBioFuels AG zur Her-7847 stellung von Biodiesel am Standort Leobenerbrückenweg 206, A 8783 Gaishorn 7848 am See (Evaluation of the industry plant EuroBioFuelas AG for the production of 7849 biodiesel at the site Leobenerbrückenweg 206, A 8783 Gaishorn am See). Expert 7850 opinion by publicly certified expert Ch. Dörfler in connection with the insolvency of 7851 the EuroBioFuels AG plant. Oberndorf / Melk, Austria, December 16th 2010. 7852 http://www.biodieselanlage-insolvenz.at/download/Gutachten.pdf (extracted 7853 10.07.2011) 7854

DUMONT (2010): Dumont, M.: Country Update NL. IEA Bioenergy Task 37, Lille, 12-13 7855 November 2007. http://www.iea-biogas.net/_content/publications/member-7856 country-reports.html 7857

DUMAN & BOELS (2007): Duman, M.; Boels, L.: Waste to Energy – Assessment of Es-7858 sent's waste wood gasification process according to the Waste Incineration Direc-7859 tive and its implementation in the Netherlands. EDReC and Science Shops of 7860 Chemistry and Economics, Management & Organization, 2007. 7861

DVGW (2009): Biogasaufbereitung in Deutschland und Europa – ein Blick über den Tel-7862 lerrand. 7863 http://www.dvgw.de/uploads/media/ewp2009_01_biogasaufbereitung.pdf 7864 (extracted 05.07.2011). 7865


EC –European Commission (2002): Disposal and recycling routes for sewage sludge – 7866 Part 4: Economic report. ISBN 92-894-1801-X. Luxembourg, 2002 7867 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/sludge/pdf/sludge_disposal4.pdf 7868 (extracted 12.07.2011) 7869

EC - European Commission (2003): Gendebien, A. et al: Refuse Derived Fuel, Current 7870 Practice and Perspectives. (B4-3040/2000/306517/MAR/E3), Final Report, 2003. 7871

EC - European Commission (2003): Refuse derived fuel, current practice and 7872 perspectives (B4-3040/2000/306517/MAR/E3) Final Report; WRc Ref: CO5087-4. 7873 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/studies/pdf/rdf.pdf 7874 (extracted 30.06.2011). 7875

EC – European Commission (2005): Report on the national strategies for the reduction 7876 of biodegradable waste going to landfills pursuant to article 5(1) of Directive 7877 1999/31/EC on the Landfill of Waste {SEC(2005) 404}. Brussels. 7878

EC – European Commission (2006): Report from the commission to the council and the 7879 European Parliament on implementation of the community waste legislation Di-7880 rective 75/442/EEC on waste, Directive 91/689/EEC on hazardous waste, Direc-7881 tive 75/439/EEC on waste oils, Directive 86/278/EEC on sewage sludge, Directive 7882 94/62/EC on packaging and packaging waste and Directive 1999/31/EC on the 7883 landfill of waste for the period 2001–2003, SEC(2006)972. 7884

EC – European Commission (2007): Data gathering and impact assessment for a review 7885 and possible widening of the scope of the IPPC Directive in relation to waste 7886 treatment activities. Final Report. Fact sheet E2 – Pre-treatment of combustible 7887 waste for co-incineration. 7888

EC – European Commission (2007): Sander, K.; Tebert, Ch.; Schilling, St.; Jepsen, D.: 7889 Assessment of the application and possible development of community legislation 7890 for the control of waste incineration and co-incineration. Study by Ökopol on be-7891 half of the European Commission, Service Contract 7892 No.070501/2006/446211/MAR/C4. Hamburg, 2007. 7893 http://circa.europa.eu/Public/irc/env/ippc_rev/library?l=/waste_incineration/f7894 inal_report/oekopol_finalpdf/_EN_1.0_&a=d. 7895

EC – European Commission (2008): Komioti, N. et a.: ALF-CEMIND: Supporting the use 7896 of alternative fuels in the cement industry – Final publishable report. Project on 7897 behalf of DG TREN under the 6th Framework Programme, Contract No: 7898 TREN/05/FP6/EN/S07.54356/020118. Brussels, January 2008. http://alf-7899 cemind.com/docs/publications/Final_publishable_report.pdf (extracted 7900 13.07.2011) 7901

EC - European Commission (2011): Plastic waste: Redesign and Biodegradability. Sci-7902 ence for Environment Policy, DG Environment News Alert Service, Future Brief, 7903 Issue No. 1, Brussels, June 27th 2011. 7904 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/newsalert/pdf/FB1.pdf 7905 (extracted 13.07.2011) 7906

EC TSE/BSE: TSE/BSE (2011) – Chronological list of Community legislation on TSEs. 7907 http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/biosafety/tse_bse/chronological_list_tse_en.h7908 tm (extracted 23.06.2011). 7909

EEA - European Environment Agency (2009): Diverting waste from landfill. Effectiveness 7910 of waste-management policies in the European Union, Copenhagen, 2009. 7911



EEA - European Environment Agency (2010): State of Environment Report 2010 – Part 7912 C Country Assessments, Waste. Copenhagen, 2010. 7913 http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/countries/. 7914

EDER & KIRCHWEGER (2011): Eder, M.; Kirchweger, St.: Aufbereitung & Analyse von Da-7915 ten aus dem Arbeitskreis Biogas zu Kosten bestehender Biogasanlagen. Studie 7916 im Auftrag des Amtes der Niederösterreichischen Landesregie-7917 rung/Geschäftsstelle Energiewirtschaft, der Wirtschaftskammer Niederösterreich 7918 und der Niederösterreichische Landes-Landwirtschaftskammer. Wien, Jänner 7919 2011. 7920 http://www.wiso.boku.ac.at/fileadmin/_/H73/H733/pub/Biogas/2011_Studie_7921 Biogas_NOE__2010_.pdf 7922

EIONET - European Topic Center on Sustainable Consumption and Production (2009). 7923 Country fact sheets on waste policy – 2009 edition. 7924 http://scp.eionet.europa.eu/facts/factsheets_waste/2009_edition. 7925

EN 14213:2003 Heating fuels - Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) - Requirements and test 7926 methods 7927

EN 14214:2003 Automotive fuels - Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) for diesel engines - 7928 Requirements and test methods. 7929

EN 14961-1:2010 Solid biofuels - Fuel specifications and classes - Part 1: General re-7930 quirements; 7931

EN 15309. Characterization of waste and soil - Determination of elemental composition 7932 by X-ray fluorescence. EN 15309:2007-05. 7933

EN 15376:2011 Automotive fuels - Ethanol as a blending component for petrol - Re-7934 quirements and test methods 7935

ENERGIE-CONTROL GMBH (2009): http://www.e-control.at/ 7936

ENERGIE-CONTROL GMBH (2010): http://www.e-control.at/ 7937

EPA (IRELAND) – Irish Environmental Protection Agency (2008): National Hazardous 7938 Waste Management Plan 2008–2012. 7939

EPA (IRELAND) – Irish Environmental Protection Agency (2009): National Waste Plan 7940 2008. 7941

EPA (IRELAND) – Irish Environmental Protection Agency (2011): Personal information by 7942 Mr. Jonathan Derham, June 2011. 7943

EPA (PORTUGAL) – Portugal Environment Agency 7944

EPA (SLOVAKIA) – Environment Protection Agency (Slovakia) 7945

EPA (SLOVENIA) – Environment Protection Agency (Slovenia): Environmental Indicators 7946 in Slovenia. Waste and Material Flows. extracted 1.2.2010 7947 http://kazalci.arso.gov.si/kazalci/index_html?lang=1&Sku_id=5&Sku_naziv=7948 ODPADKI%20IN%20SNOVNI%20TOK&tip_skup=1 7949

EPA (SLOVENIA) – Environment Protection Agency (Slovenia) 7950

EPA (SWEDEN) – Swedish Environment Protection Agency (2005): A Strategy for Sus-7951 tainable Waste Management: Sweden’s Waste Plan. Stockholm, 2005. 7952


EPA (SWEDEN) – Swedish Environment Protection Agency (2010): 7953 http://www.swedishepa.se/en/In-English/Menu/Products-and-7954 waste/Waste/Waste-statistics-2010/Waste-as-fuel/. 7955

EPA (SWEDEN) (2011): Personal information by Mr. David Hansson, Swedish environ-7956 mental Protection Agency, Sweden, May 2011. 7957

ePURE – European Renewable Bioethanol Production (2011): Information on the Euro-7958 pean Bioethanol market. 7959 http://epure.org/theindustry/theproduct_renewable (extracted 26.06.2011). 7960

ERFO – European Recovered Fuel Organisation (2010): Straetmans, B.: SRF market 7961 views in Europe. International Workshop on Solid Recovered Fuel, Helsinki, May 7962 31st, 2010. 7963 http://erfo.info/fileadmin/user_upload/erfo/documents/presentations/helsink7964 i_2010/Bert_Straetmans.pdf (extracted 11.07.2011) 7965

ERFO – European Recovered Fuel Organisation (2011): Straetmans, B.: SRF Develop-7966 ment. 7th Annual EfW Conference, Waste to Energy 2011, London, February 16th-7967 17th, 2011. 7968

ERFO BREF “Waste Treatment“ Solid recovered fuels 7969 http://www.erfo.info/fileadmin/user_upload/erfo/documents/reports/IAR_BR7970 EF_Waste_Treatment_SRF_final.pdf. (extracted 30.06.2011). 7971

EEIC (ESTONIA) - Estonian Environment Information Center (2010): Waste Generation 7972 2008. 7973 http://www.keskkonnainfo.ee/failid/jaatmed/EWC_koond_2008_uus_veebi.p7974 df. (extracted 1.2.2010) 7975

ETHANOL TANKEN (2011): Price information in 7976 http://www.ethanol-tanken.com/index.php (extracted 26.06.2011). 7977

ETRMA - European Tyre & Rubber Manufacturers Association: www.etrma.org 7978

EUBIONET 3 (2010a): Solutions for biomass fuel market barriers and raw material avail-7979 ability. Information at: http://www.eubionet.net/default.asp?sivuID=25483 (ex-7980 tracted 12.03.2011) 7981

EUBIONET 3 (2011b): Biomass trade for the European market. Online information bro-7982 chure. Information at: http://www.eubionet.net/default.asp?sivuID=25483 (ex-7983 tracted 12.03.2011). 7984

EULA - European Lime Association (2006): www.eula.eu 7985

EUROPEAN PELLET COUNCIL (2011): Handbook for the Certification of Wood Pellets for 7986 Heating Purposes 7987 http://www.pelletcouncil.eu/cms/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/ENplus-7988 handbook-3.5.11.pdf (extracted 30.06.2011). 7989

EUROSTAT, COMEXT-Database (2011), extracted in January 2011. 7990

EUROSTAT, IEA and UNECE (2009): Renewables Annual Questionnaire 2008 and His-7991 torical Revisions, edited by Eurostat, IEA and UNECE, July 2009. 7992

EUROSTAT, WASTE STATISTICS (2011), extracted in February 2011. 7993

EUWID – Europäischer Wirtschaftsdienst Recycling (2011): Online data extraction from 7994 EUWID Recycling databank, www.euwid.de (extracted 11.03.2011) 7995

EUWID (2011): EU-Kommission prüft Deponierungsverbot. EUWID 13.2011, p.28 7996



FNADE – Fédération Nationale des Activités de la Dépollution et de l'Environnement 7997 (French Federation of Waste Management Services) (2010): Solid Recovered 7998 Fuels ((SRF) - Challenges facing the segment, findings and position of FNADE. 7999 http://www.fnade.org/sites/fnade/document/categorie.php/t_id/16892/c_id/178000 006 (extracted 13.07.2011) 8001

FRICKE, K., KUGELSTADT, O. & SCHWARZ, F. (2009): Feasibility of screening overflow from 8002 Composting plants for energy recovery. (cf. ChL) 8003

FRIEGE FENDEL 2010: Friege, H.; Fendel, A.: Competition Between Different Methods for 8004 Recovering Energy: from Waste Leading to Overcapacities. Presentation held at 8005 the ISWA (International Solid Waste Association) World Congress 2010, Novem-8006 ber 15th-18th, 2010, Hamburg. 8007 http://www.iswa.org/fileadmin/galleries/General%20Assembly%20and%20W8008 C%202010%2011%20Hamburg/Presentations/Friege.pdf 8009

GAUPMANN (2009): Setting the scene – Bioethanol production in the EU. RSB Consulta-8010 tion (Version Zero). Europe stakeholder outreach meeting. Brussels, 19 March 8011 2009. 8012

GERDES (2001): Gerdes, Ch.: Pyrolyse von Biomasse-Abfall: Thermochemische Konver-8013 sion mit dem Hamburger-Wirbelschichtverfahren. PhD Thesis, University Ham-8014 burg, 2001. 8015

HACKL & MAUSCHITZ (1995): Emissionen aus Anlagen der österreichischen Zementindust-8016 rie – Jahresreihe 1988-1993. Weitra / Vienna, 1995. 8017 http://www.zementindustrie.at/file_upl/hackl1.pdf 8018

HACKL & MAUSCHITZ (1997): Emissionen aus Anlagen der österreichischen Zementindust-8019 rie – Jahresreihe 1994-1996. Weitra / Vienna, 2003. 8020 http://www.zementindustrie.at/file_upl/hackl2.pdf 8021

HACKL & MAUSCHITZ (2001): Emissionen aus Anlagen der österreichischen Zementindust-8022 rie – Jahresreihe 1997-1999. Weitra / Vienna, 2003. 8023 http://www.zementindustrie.at/file_upl/emissionen_iii.pdf 8024

HACKL & MAUSCHITZ (2003): Emissionen aus Anlagen der österreichischen Zementindust-8025 rie – Jahresreihe 2000-2002. Weitra / Vienna, 2003. 8026 http://www.zement.at/file_upl/Hackl4_Web_Fertig2.pdf 8027

HACKL & MAUSCHITZ (2006): Emissionen aus Anlagen der österreichischen Zementindust-8028 rie – Jahresreihe 2003-2005. Weitra / Vienna, 2003. 8029 http://www.zementindustrie.at/file_upl/emissionen5a.pdf 8030

HANER & BARTL (2010): Haner, S.; Bartl, A.: Recovery of Apparel Waste. ISWA World 8031 Congress 2010, Hamburg, Germany, November 15th-18th 2010. 8032 http://www.iswa.org/uploads/tx_iswaknowledgebase/Haner_Bartl.pdf (ex-8033 tracted 14.07.2011) 8034

HARWOOD (2010): Harwood, O.: Country Report United Kingdom. IEA Bioenergy Task 8035 37, Country Report Finland, s’Hertogenbosch, November 2010. 8036

HARWOOD (2010): Harwood, O.: Country Report United Kingdom. IEA Bioenergy Task 8037 37, Country Report Finland, s’Hertogenbosch, November 2010. http://www.iea-8038 biogas.net/publicationsreports.htm. 8039


HOFFMAN & SCHINGNITZ (2009): Hoffman, G.; Schingnitz, D.: Ersatzbrennstoffe in 8040 Deutschland – Aufkommen, Verwertung, Qualtiätsanforderungen. Müllhandbuch 8041 2931, 2009. 8042

HENNIGES (2007): Henniges, O.: Wirtschaftlichkeit von Bioethanol – Produktion und Pro-8043 duktionskosten im nationalen und internationalen Vergleich (Profitability of bio-8044 ethanol – a national and international comparison of production and production 8045 costs). Agrarwirtschaft 56 (2007), Vol. 5/6, Bonn, 2007. 8046 http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/96749/2/4_Henniges.pdf (extracted 8047 26.06.2011). 8048

HUNGARIAN NATIONAL WNP 2003-2008: Appendix to the National Waste Management 8049 Plan for 2003-2008, Decision 110/2002. (XII. 12.) of the Hungarian Parliament on 8050 the National Waste Management Plan. Budapest, 2002. 8051

IBGE – Bruxelles Environnement, IBGE Institut Bruxellois de l'Environnement (Leefmi-8052 lieu Brussel, BIM Brussels Instituut voor Milieubeheer) 8053

IEA COUNTRY REPORT DENMARK (2010): IEA Bioenergy Task 37, Country Report Den-8054 mark, s’Hertogenbosch, November 2010. 8055

IRISH EPA (2010): Clean Technology Centre, Cork Institute of Technology (CTC) and 8056 EPS Consultants: Economic Study of Solvent Recycling and Treatment - Final 8057 Report. Contract No. NWPP-2009-34. Dublin, February 17th 2010. 8058 http://www.epa.ie/downloads/pubs/waste/haz/Solvents%20Economic%20St8059 udy%20Report.pdf (extracted 10.07.2011) 8060

ISPRAMBIENTE - Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricera Ambientale (2010): Rap-8061 porto Rifiuti Urbani, Roma. 8062

ISPRAMBIENTE - Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricera Ambientale (2011): Perso-8063 nal information by Mr. Federico Foschini, Institute for Environmental Protection 8064 and Research, Italy, June 2011. 8065

JRC – Joint Research Center (2010): Villanueva, A., Delgado, L. Luo, Z., Eder, P., Ca-8066 tarino, A. , Litten, D.: Study on the selection of waste streams for end-of-waste 8067 assessment. Seville, 2010. 8068

KRUPA-ZUCZEK ET AL. 2010: Krupa-Zuczek, K.; Wzorek, Z.; Staron, P.: Charac-teristic of 8069 meat waste and proposal of their thermal utilization. Waste Recycling XIV, 8070 Košice, Slovakia, December 2-3, 2010. 8071 http://wasteforum.cz/cisla/WF_4_2010.pdf 8072

LAFARGE PERLMOOSER (2007): Press Release, July 10th 2007. 8073 www.lafarge.at/uploads/tx_templavoila/PA_Loesemittelanlage_Werk_Retzne8074 i.pdf (10.02.2011). 8075

LAND VORARLBERG (2011): Biogas - Verbrennungstechnik, Lufthygiene, Emissionsgrenz-8076 werte (neueste Messergenisse). Bregenz, 2011. 8077 http://www.vorarlberg.gv.at/vorarlberg/umwelt_zukunft/umwelt/natur-8078 undumweltschutz/weitereinformationen/luftreinhaltung/archiv/biogas.htm 8079

LAND STEIERMARK (2011): Abfallbehandlung - Altspeiseöle und –fette. 8080 http://www.abfallwirtschaft.steiermark.at/cms/beitrag/10168752/4373966/ 8081



LAUSSMANN ET AL. (2010): Laussmann, C.; Enders, H.-J.; Giese, U.; Kitzler, A.-S.: 8082 Verbrennungsverhalten von Biopolymeren und energetische Nutzung (Incinerati-8083 on behaviour of biopolymers and energetic recovery). KGK - Kautschuk, Gummi, 8084 Kunststoffe, October 2010, Vol. 10/2010, p. 446-452. http://www.kgk-8085 rubberpoint.de/texte/anzeigen/1027/Verbrennungsverhalten-von-8086 Biopolymeren-und-energetische-Nutzung (extracted 13.07.2011) 8087

LFL - Bayerische Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft (Bavarian State Research Center for 8088 Agriculture). www.lfl.bayern.de 8089

LINZ AG (2010): Press information, Linz, June 29th 2010. 8090 https://www.linzag.at/portal/portal/linzag/linzag/linzag_1/presse_1/pressearc8091 hiv/pressemeldungen_2_p_4880/centerWindow?plaginit=1&action=1 (ex-8092 tracted 11.07.2011) 8093

LORBER et al. (2010): Lorber, K.E.; Sarc, R.; Pomberger, R.: Österreichische Erfahrungen 8094 zum Einsatz verschiedener Abfälle als Ersatzbrennstoffe (EBS) und mögliche 8095 Anwendungsprobleme. (Vorlesungsskriptum). 8096 http://www.iwa.tuwien.ac.at/htmd2264/lehre/AWS-Vorlesun 8097 gen/dipldiss/2010/Pr%C3%A4sentation%20EBS%20Prof%20Lorber.pdf and 8098 https://online.unileoben.ac.at/mu_online/voe_main2.getVollText?pDocumen8099 tNr=32836&pCurrPk=23022. 8100

LVGMC – Latvijas Vides, Ģeoloģijas un Meteoroloģijas Centrs (Latvian Environment, 8101 Geology and Meteorology Centre) (2011): Personal information by Ms. Ilze Doni-8102 na, May 2011. 8103

MÅRTENSSON 2010: Mårtensson, L. (Kristianstad University College): Biogas from Waste. 8104 Presentation held at Kathmandu University, Nepal, April 8th 2010. 8105

MAUSCHITZ (2008): Mauschitz, G.: Emissionen aus Anlagen der österreichischen Zement-8106 industrie – Berichtsjahr 2007. Vienna, April 2008. 8107

MENGHETTI F. (2007): Giornata studio su Rifiuti Pericolosi, Problematiche per il loro cor-8108 retto smaltimento Impianti di produzione CDR. 8109 http://documenti.chimicitoscana.it/documenti/Menghetti%20RP.pdf 8110 (extracted 30.06.2011). 8111

MIN. ENV. (CZECH REPUBLIC) – Ministry of Environment (Czech Republic) (2011): Personal 8112 information by Mr. Jaromír Manhart, June 2011. 8113

MIN. ENV. (CYPRUS) – Ministry of Environment (Cyprus) 8114

MIN. ENV. (DENMARK) – Ministry of Environment (Denmark) 8115

MIN. ENV. (ESTONIA) – Ministry of Environment (Estonia) (2011): Personal information by 8116 Mr. Peeter Eek, Ministry of the Environment, Waste Department, Estonia, May 8117 2011. 8118

MIN. ENV. (FINLAND) – Ministry of Environment (Finland) (2011): Personal information by 8119 Mr. Jarmo Muurman, Ministry of the Environment, Finland, June 2011. 8120

MIN. ENV. (GREECE) – Ministry of Environment (Greece) (2011): Personal information, 8121 May 2011. 8122

MIN. ENV. (HUNGARY) (2011): Personal information by Mr. Ágnes Kolozsiné dr. Ringel-8123 hann, Ministry of the Environment and Rural Development, Waste Management 8124 Department, Hungary, May 2011. 8125


MIN. ENV. (LATVIA) - VARAM & ZM, Ministry for Environment & Ministry for Agriculture 8126 (2005): National Waste Management Plan for 2006 – 2012. Latvia. 8127

MIN. ENV. (LITHUANIA) (2011): Personal information by Mr. Raimondas Bogdevičius, Min-8128 istry of Environment, Waste Department, Lithuania, May 2011. 8129

MIN. ENV. (LUXEMBOURG) - Ministère du Developpement durable et des Infrastructures 8130 (2010): Plan general de gestion des dechets. Luxembourg. 8131

MIN. ENV. (LUXEMBOURG) – Ministère du Developpement durable et des Infrastructures 8132 (2011): Personal information by Mr. Patrick Thyes, Administration de l'environne-8133 ment, May 2011. 8134

MIN. ENV. (MALTA) - Ministry for Resources and Rural Affairs (2009): The Waste Man-8135 agement Plan for the Maltese Island 2008-2012. 8136

MIN. ENV. (ROMANIA) - Ministry of Environment and Water Management (2004): National 8137 Waste Management Plan file: 06 Part II chapter.II.3 Alternatives revision. Roma-8138 nia. 8139

MIN. ENV. (ROMANIA) - Ministry of environment and water management Romania (2006): 8140 Regional waste management plan region 7 center. 8141

MIN. ENV. (ROMANIA) (2011): Personal information by Ms. Simona Ghita, Ministry of Envi-8142 ronment and Forests, Romania, June 2011. 8143

MIN. ENV. (SPAIN) (2011): Personal information by Ms. Ana Rodríguez Cruz, Ministry of 8144 Environment and Rural and Marine Affairs, Spain, May 2011. 8145

MINVROM (NL) - Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (2007): Na-8146 tional waste management plan 2002–2012. Part 2 Sector plans. Netherlands. 8147

MOEW (BULGARIA) - Ministry of Environment (Bulgaria) (2011): Personal information by 8148 Mr. Grigor Stoyanov, Ministry of the Environment, Waste Department, Bulgaria, 8149 June 2011. 8150

MURPHY (2010): Murphy, J. D.: IEA Bioenergy Task 37, Country Report Ireland, 8151 s’Hertogenbosch, November 2010. 8152 http://www.iea-biogas.net/_content/publications/member-country-8153 reports.html 8154

NETL/DOE - U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, En-8155 ergy Information Administration (2010): 2010 Worldwide Gasification Database. 8156 http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/coalpower/gasification/worlddatabase8157 /summary.html (extracted 06.03.2011) 8158

NL AGENCY – Agentschap NL, Ministerie van Economische Zaken, Landbouw en Innova-8159 tie (NL Agency, Ministry of Economics, Agriculture and Innovation) (2011): Per-8160 sonal information by Mr. Timo Gerlagh and Mr. Marco Kraakman, May 2011. 8161

NRW (2005): Leitfaden zur energetischen Verwertung von Abfällen in Zement-, Kalk- 8162 und Kraftwerken in Nordrhein-Westfalen (Guidelines for the energetic recovery of 8163 waste in the cement industry, lime industry and in power stations in North Rhine-8164 Westphalia). Ministerium für Umwelt und Naturschutz, Landwirtschaft und 8165 Verbraucherschutz des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen, 2005. 8166 http://www.umwelt.nrw.de/umwelt/abfall/energetische_verwertung/index.php 8167

NTA 8200:2003 Best practise list for biomass fuel and ash analysis 8168

NTA 8201:2003 Solid recovered fuels and biomass Quality assurance 8169



NTA 8202:2003 Solid recovered fuels and biomass - Sampling and sample preparation 8170

NTA 8203:2003 Solid recovered fuels and biomass Specification and classification 8171

NTA 8204:2003 Solid recovered fuels and biomass - Determination of biomass content 8172

OBERNBERGER, I. (1997): Aschen aus Biomassefeuerungen – Zusammensetzung und 8173 Verwertung. In: VDI Bericht 1319. Thermische Biomassenutzung – Technik und 8174 Realisierung. VDI Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf, 1997. 8175

OECD/IEA (2009): IEA Statistics, Renewables Information 2009. 8176

OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2005): Van Beuke-8177 ring, P.: Chapter 4 (Improving Markets for Used Rubber Tyres) in: Working Group 8178 on Waste Prevention and Recycling – Improving Recycling Markets. 8179 ENV/EPOC/WGWPR(2005)3/FINAL. 8180 http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/24/14/35582045.pdf (extracted 10.07.2011) 8181

OELI (2004): Wer ist Öli? Information material available under http://www.agenda21-8182 diessen.de/Bilder/Oeli.pdf (extracted 10.07.2011) 8183

OELI (2011): Technical information on the Fritzens CHP plant, available under 8184 http://www.oeli.info/de/Oli---Technik_387 (extracted 10.07.2011) 8185

OTS – APA Austria Presse Agentur, Originaltext-Service (Austrian Press Agency, Origi-8186 nal Text Service) (2009): OTS press text, January 9th, 2009. 8187 http://www.ots.at/presseaussendung/OTS_20090109_OTS0153/salzburg-ag-8188 gibt-bio-gas (extracted 11.07.2011) 8189

OVAM – Public Waste Agency of Flanders (2010): Van der Linden, A.; Vanderreydt, I.; 8190 Janssens, G.; De Wachter, A.; Verlinden, J.: End-of-waste criteria voor af-8191 gewerkte olie (End-of-waste criteria for waste oil). 8192 http://www.ovam.be/jahia/Jahia/cache/offonce/pid/176?actionReq=actionPu8193 bDetail&fileItem=2416 (extracted 11.07.2011) 8194

OVAM – Public Waste Agency of Flanders (2011): Personal information by Mr. Luk 8195 Umans, June 2011. 8196

ÖVGW-RICHTLINIE G31: Erdgas in Österreich. www.ovwg.at 8197

ÖVGW-RICHTLINIE G33: Regenerative Gase – Biogas. www.ovwg.at 8198

PETERSSON (2010): Petersson, A.: Country Report Sweden. IEA Bioenergy Task 37, 8199 Country Report Finland, s’Hertogenbosch, November 2010. http://www.iea-8200 biogas.net/_content/publications/member-country-reports.html 8201

PHADKE, M. (2010): Global Used Oil Markets and Re-refining Industry. Presentation at 8202 UEIL Congress. 21-22 October, Vienna 2010. 8203

POSITIVE LIST (2001): Positivliste für die Verbrennung von Abfällen in Anlagen zur Ze-8204 menterzeugung. Erstellt vom BMLUFW, dem BMWA sowie der Vereinigung der 8205 österreichischen Zementindustrie. (Positive list for the incineration of waste in fa-8206 cilities of cement production. Issued by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Agricul-8207 ture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management and the Austrian Federal 8208 Ministry of Economics and Labour and the Austrian Cement Industry). 2001. 8209 http://www.zementindustrie.at/file_upl/positivliste3.pdf. (extracted 05.05.2011). 8210

RAL-GZ 428 (2003): Recyclingholz 8211

RAL-GZ 724 (2008): Sekundärbrennstoffe 8212


REVATECH 2011: http://www.revatech.be/en/wos/wos_huiles.html (extracted 10.07.2011) 8213

RINTALA & MYKKÄNEN (2010): Rintala, J.; Mykkänen, E.: IEA Bioenergy Task 37, Country 8214 Report Finland, s’Hertogenbosch, November 2010. http://www.iea-8215 biogas.net/_content/publications/member-country-reports.html 8216

SAKULIN (2010): Sakulin, Ch.: Promotion of biogas and its market development through 8217 local and regional partnerships - Task 2.1: Country specific conditions for the im-8218 plementation of biogas technology: Comparison of Remuneration. Intelligent 8219 Energies Europe, Contract no. EIE/07/225/SI2.467622, Report, June 25th 2010. 8220 http://www.biogasregions.org/dump/BRD21ComparisonofRemunerationin98221 EUcountriesin201_48.pdf (extracted 26.06.2011). 8222

SEI – Sustainable Ireland (2003): A Resource Study on Recovered Vegetable Oil and 8223 Animal Fats. Dublin, December 2003. 8224 http://www.seai.ie/Archive1/Files_Misc/RVOStudy.pdf (extracted 12.07.2011) 8225

SFS 5875: Solid recovered fuel. Quality control system 8226

SOBCZAK-KUPIEC & WZOREK (2010): Sobczak-Kupiec, A; Wzorek, Z.: The physicochemi-8227 cal investigations of bone by-product from meat industry. Waste Recycling XIV, 8228 Košice, Slovakia, December 2-3, 2010. 8229 http://wasteforum.cz/cisla/WF_4_2010.pdf 8230

SPW - Ministère de la Région Wallonne, Direction Générale des Ress. Naturelles et de 8231 l’Environnement 8232

STADT GRAZ UMWELTAMT – City of Graz, Austria; Office for the Environment (2003): Öko-8233 drive – von der Pfanne in den Tank – Aus Altspeiseöl wird Biodiesel (Ökodiesel). 8234 http://www.graz.at/umwelt/catch_me.htm? and 8235 http://www.graz.at/umwelt/uamt/start/deutsch/seiten/oekodrive_1.htm. 8236

STATISTISCHES BUNDESAMT (GERMANY) (2009): Abfallbilanz. 8237

STATISTISCHES BUNDESAMT (GERMANY) (2009): 2008: Thermische Entsorgung des Klär-8238 schlamms hat zugenommen. Pressemitteilung Nr.504 vom 22.12.2009. 8239

STERGARŠEK (2004): Stergaršek, A.: Cleaning of syngas derived from waste and biomass 8240 gasification / pyrolysis for storage or direct use for electricity production. Presen-8241 tation at the workshop “Production and Purification of Fuel from Waste and Bio-8242 mass”, Košice, Slovakia, October 11-12, 2004. 8243 http://wasteforum.cz/cisla/WF_4_2010.pdf 8244

STN 65 6690:2007 Waste oils (Slovakian National Standard) 8245

STN 65 6691:2007 Oil products. Fuel oils derived from used oils. Requirements and test 8246 methods (Slovakian National Standard) 8247

STOIBER (1998): Stoiber, H.: Pyrolyse und Vergasung von Kunststoff in einer intern 8248 zirkulierenden Wirbelschicht (Pyrolysis and Gasification of plastics in an internally 8249 circulating fluidized bed reactor). PhD Thesis, Vienna University of Technology; 8250 Department of Process Engineering, Fuel Technology and Environment Technol-8251 ogy. Vienna, May 1998. 8252

SZ (2007): Martin Kotynek: Deutschland wird Müllmeister. Süddeutsche Zeitung, Mün-8253 chen, 19.09.2007. 8254 http://www.sueddeutsche.de/wissen/entsorgung-deutschland-wird-8255 muellmeister-1.910358. 8256



TECPOL – Technologieplattform für ökoeffiziente Kunststoffverwertung (2003): 1 Jahr 8257 Tecpol. Information brochure. 8258 http://www.tecpol.de/downloads/1_Jahr_tecpol.pdf (extracted 11.07.2011) 8259

TEMPEL 2010: Tempel, S.: Study on Biomass Trade in Germany. 4biomass Report, pub-8260 lished by the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation 8261 and Nuclear Safety. Berlin, 2010. http://www.4biomass.eu/en/publications. 8262

THERMOTEAM (2011): Thermo Team Alternativbrennstoffverwertungs GmbH 10.02.2011: 8263 www.thermoteam.at (extracted 10.02.2011). 8264

TU WIEN (1999): Fehringer, R.; Rechberger, H.; Brunner, B.: Positivlisten für Reststoffe in 8265 der Zementindustrie (PRIZMA). TU Wien, Institut für Wassergüte und Abfallwirt-8266 schaft, Abteilung Abfallwirtschaft und Stoffhaushalt. Wien, 1999. 8267

UBA – Umweltbundesamt (Germany) (2006): Lechtenböhmer, S.; Nanning, S.; Hille-8268 brand, B;, Buttermann, H.-G.: Einsatz von Sekundärbrennstoffen. Umweltbun-8269 desamt (Germany), UBA-FB 000893, Dessau, 2006. 8270

UBA – Umweltbundesamt (Germany) (2010a): Daten zur Umwelt (2010). 8271 www.umweltbundesamt.de 8272

UBA – Umweltbundesamt (Germany) (2010b): Schüler, K.: Aufkommen und Verwertung 8273 von Verpackungsabfällen in Deutschland im Jahr 2008. Umweltbundesamt (Ger-8274 many), UBA-FB 001431, Dessau, 2010. 8275

UBA – Umweltbundesamt (Germany) (2011): Personal information by Mr. Markus Gleis, 8276 May 2011. 8277

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (1992): Materialien zum Bundes-Abfallwirtschaftsplan 1992, Band 1 – 8278 Bestandsaufnahme der Situation der Abfallwirtschaft. Wien, 1999. 8279

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2001): Grech, H.; Angerer, T. & Scheibengraf, M.: Bestandsauf-8280 nahme der thermischen Entsorgung von verarbeiteten tierischen Proteinen in Ös-8281 terreich. Berichte, Bd. BE-192, Umweltbundesamt (Austria), Vienna. 8282

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2003): Böhmer, S.; Schindler, I.; Szednyj, I. & Winter, B.: Stand der 8283 Technik bei Kalorischen Kraftwerken und Referenzanlagen in Österreich. Mono-8284 graphien, Bd. M-162. Umweltbundesamt (Austria) Vienna. 8285

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2004): Boubela, G.; Wurst, F.; Prey, T. & Boos, R.: Materialien zur 8286 Thermischen Behandlung und Verwertung von Abfällen und Reststoffen in der 8287 Zellstoff-, Papier-, Span- und Faserplattenindustrie. Berichte, Bd. BE-248. Um-8288 weltbundesamt (Austria), Vienna. 8289

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2004): Szednyj, I. & Schindler, I.: Aktuelle Entwicklungen hinsichtlich 8290 Abfalleinsatz und Emissionsminderungstechniken in der Zementindustrie. Berich-8291 te, Bd. BE-237. Umweltbundesamt (Austria), Vienna. 8292

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2004): Stubenvoll, J.; Böhmer, S. & Szednyj, I.: State of the Art for 8293 Waste Incineration Plants. Report. Vienna, 2002. 8294 http://www.umweltbundesamt.at/fileadmin/site/umweltthemen/industrie/pdfs8295 /english_version.pdf 8296

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2006): Denner, M. & Kügler, I.: Erarbeitung eines Beprobungs-8297 konzeptes für Ersatzbrennstoffe. Durchgeführt im Auftrag des BMLFUW. Um-8298 weltbundesamt (Austria), Reports, Band 0059, ISBN 3-85457-857-1, Wien, 2006. 8299


UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2007): Böhmer, S.; Kügler, I.; Stoiber, H. & Walter, B.: Abfall-8300 verbrennung in Österreich: Statusbericht 2006. Reports, Bd. REP-0113. Umwelt-8301 bundesamt (Austria), Vienna. 8302

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2008): Neubauer, C. & Walter, B.: Behandlung von gemischten 8303 Siedlungs- und Gewerbeabfällen in Österreich. Reports, Bd. REP-0225. Umwelt-8304 bundesamt (Austria), Vienna. 8305

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2008): Walter, B.; Kügler, I., Öhlinger, A. et al.: Tierische Nebenpro-8306 dukte 2004–2006. Erhebung der Mengen an Tierischen Nebenprodukten in Ös-8307 terreich. Reports, Bd. REP-0198. Umweltbundesamt (Austria), Vienna. 8308

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2009): Walter, B.; Tesar, M.: Porosierungsmittel in der Österreichi-8309 schen Ziegelindustrie: Herkunft und Einsatz. Reports, Bd. REP-0244, Umwelt-8310 bundesamt (Austria), Vienna. 8311

UMWELTBUNDESAMT (2009): Denner, M.: Ermittlung der Einflüsse von alternativen che-8312 misch-analytischen Aufarbeitungsverfahren „EBS-Analytik“. Durchgeführt im Auf-8313 trag des BMLFUW. Umweltbundesamt (Austria), Reports, Band 0125, ISBN 3-8314 85457-924-1, Wien, 2009. 8315

UN - United Nations Statistics Division (2011): 8316 http://datamarket.com/data/list/?q=lubricants (extracted on March 3rd 2011) 8317

UNI 9903 Part 1 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels - Specifications and classification 8318

UNI 9903 Part 2 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels (RDF). Terms and definitions. 8319

UNI 9903 Part 3 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels. Fundamental indications for system-8320 atic sampling of fuels. 8321

UNI 9903 Part 4 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels. Size determination. 8322

UNI 9903 Part 12 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels. Preparation of fuel samples for me-8323 tal analysis. 8324

UNI 9903 Part 13 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels (RDF) - Determination of metals - 8325 Methods by atomic absorption spectrophotometry 8326

UNI 9903 Part 14 - Non mineral refuse derived fuels (RDF). Determination of glass con-8327 tent. 8328

VAN DIJSSELDONK ET AL. (2006): van Dijsseldonk, T.; Spanjers, M.; Willeboer, W.: Biomass 8329 as fuel for electricity generation by Essent: co-firing and gasification. June, 2006. 8330 http://www.biorefinery.nl/fileadmin/biorefinery/ws060616_presentations/08._8331 WS_Power_Production__Wim_Willeboer_-_Essent_.pdf 8332

VEOLIA (2011): Information on secondary liquid fuels (SLF). 8333 http://www.veoliaenvironmentalservices.co.uk/Main/Services/For-8334 business/Hazardous-waste/Treatment-and-recovery/Secondary-liquid-fuel/ 8335 (extracted 10.07.2011) 8336

VDZ - Verein deutscher Zementwerke (2009): Verein deutscher Zementwerke e.V: Um-8337 weltdaten der deutschen Zementindustrie 2008. Düsseldorf, 2009. 8338

VOGT ET AL. (2008): Optimierungen für einen nachhaltigen Ausbau der Biogaserzeugung 8339 und -nutzung in Deutschland (Optimization for a sustainable expansion of biogas 8340 production and use in Germany). FKZ: 0327544. 8341



WALSH (2010): Walsh, C.: Refuse Derived Fuel Industry in Ireland. Presentation dated 8342 September 27th 2010, available under http://www.een-8343 ireland.ie/userfiles/Conor%20Walsh%20SLR%20Consulting.pdf (extracted 8344 10.07.2011) 8345

WEILAND (2010): Weiland, P.: IEA Bioenergy Task 37, Country Report Germany, 8346 s’Hertogenbosch, November 2010. 8347

WELLINGER (2007): Wellinger, A.: Status of biogas production in Italy (Extract of a presen-8348 tation by Sergio Piccini, Centro ricerche prodzione animali). IEA Bioenergy 8349 Task 37, Lille, 12-13 November 2007. 8350

WELLINGER (2011a): Wellinger, A.: Summary of Biogas in REAPS – Comparison of Bio-8351 gas Strategies. Transnational Forum on Biogas, Warsaw, April 7th 2011. 8352 http://www.4biomass.eu/document/file/Wellinger.pdf (extracted 26.06.2011). 8353

WELLINGER (2011b): Wellinger, A. (EBA European Biogas Association): Personal infor-8354 mation, July 15th 2011. 8355

WER-ENTSORGT-WAS.DE (2011): Information available at http://www.wer-entsorgt-8356 was.de/entsorgungstipps/abfall/Altkleider.html (extracted 13.07.2011) 8357

WRAP – The Waste and Resources Action Plan (2008): Domestic Mixed Plastics Pack-8358 aging Waste Management Options - An assessment of the technical, environ-8359 mental and economic viability of recycling domestic mixed plastics packaging 8360 waste in the UK. ISBN- -84405-396-2. Banbury, UK, June 2008 8361 http://www.wrap.org.uk/recycling_industry/information_by_material/plastics8362 /domestic_mixed.html (extracted 13.07.2011) 8363

WRAP – Waste & Resources Action Programme, UK (2009): Wood Waste Market in the 8364 UK – Summary Report. Banbury, UK, August 2009. www.wrap.org.uk. 8365

WRAP – Waste & Resources Action Programme, UK (2010): Gate Fees Report 2010: 8366 Comparing the cost of alternative waste treatment options. Banbury, UK, July 8367 2010. www.wrap.org.uk. 8368

WRAP (2007): Wrap Tyres Programme: Composite construction products from waste 8369 tyres - Turning waste tyres into new products for the construction industry. Re-8370 port, London, August 2007. 8371 http://www.wastexchange.co.uk/documenti/tyres/tyr003_04__21_Aug_07_fin8372 al_version.pdf (extracted 10.07.2011) 8373

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