Study of teacher competencies and teaching - Higher Education
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A STUDY OF TEACHER COMPETENCIES AND TEACHING PRACTICES FOR SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS IN WORKERS WELFARE MODEL SCHOOLS TAHIR KALEEM SIDDIQUI Reg. No.52/FUCE/PhD.Edu-2004 FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES RAWALPINDI-PAKISTAN 2010
Transcript of Study of teacher competencies and teaching - Higher Education
A STUDY OF TEACHER COMPETENCIES AND TEACHING PRACTICES FOR SCHOOL
EFFECTIVENESS IN WORKERS WELFARE MODEL SCHOOLS
TAHIR KALEEM SIDDIQUI
Reg. No.52/FUCE/PhD.Edu-2004
FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
RAWALPINDI-PAKISTAN
2010
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A STUDY OF TEACHER COMPETENCIES AND TEACHING PRACTICES FOR SCHOOL
EFFECTIVENESS IN WORKERS WELFARE MODEL SCHOOLS
By
TAHIR KALEEM SIDDIQUI Reg. No.52/FUCE/PhD.Edu-2004
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in Education at Foundation University College of Liberal Arts and
Sciences, Rawalpindi
FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES
RAWALPINDI-PAKISTAN
2010
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Dedicated
to
The loving memories
of my mother
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FORWARDING SHEET
This thesis entitled “A Study of teacher competencies and teaching
practices for School Effectiveness in Workers Welfare Model Schools” submitted
by Tahir Kaleem Siddiqui in partial fulfillment of the requirement, for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Education, under my guidance and supervision, is forwarded
for further necessary action.
Prof. Dr. M. Maqsud Alam Bukhari
Advisor
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APPROVAL SHEET OF THE COMMITTEE
This thesis entitled “A Study of teacher competencies and teaching
practices for School Effectiveness in Workers Welfare Model Schools” submitted
by Tahir Kaleem Siddiqui in partial fulfillment of the requirement, for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Education, is hereby accepted.
Prof. Dr. M. Maqsud Alam Bukhari
Supervisor
_______________ External Examiner Dr. Saeed Anwar ______________ External Examiner Dr. Ayesha Akbar Dr. Muhammad Tayyab Alam Prof. Dr. M. Maqsud Alam Bukhari Head of Department (R&D) Principal/Dean FUCLAS FUCLAS Dated: _____________
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AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
Except where otherwise acknowledged in the text, this thesis represents the
original research of the author. The material contained herein has not been submitted
either whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other university.
Tahir Kaleem Siddiqui
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my deep & sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr.
Maqsood Alam Bukhari, for his inspiring guidance, constant encouragement and
constructive criticism. His guidance at different stages of the research enabled me to
compile this study.
I am highly indebted and grateful to Dr. Muhammad Tayyab Alam for his
professional support, when I was stuck-up with different issues. My gratitude is due to
Dr. Mushtaq-ur-Rehman, former Director, IER, in completing this research. Dr.
Shahid Siddiqui was very kind to go through the draft copy and gave his valuable
suggestions in improving it.
I also feel indebted to Raheela Tajwar for her sincere cooperation and
encouragement during the progress of this study.
I will be failing in my duty, to acknowledge the support of Mr. M. Saeed
Ahmed Khan, Secretary, Workers Welfare Fund, for his valuable guidance and
providing me the enabling working conditions, to continue the research, in addition to
my official duties. I admit that without his support, it would not have been possible to
complete the study.
I owe special thanks to my wife, who had the patience to bear with me during
the long time that I spent on this study, disrupting normal routines.
I also express deep gratitude to all the administrators, teachers and students of
Foundation University for their cooperation during my research work.
My thanks are also due to my family members for their love, encouragement
and sincere wishes in completing this research.
Tahir Kaleem Siddiqui
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ABSTRACT
This research was designed to study the instructional process competencies
through class room observations in Workers Welfare Model Schools (WWMS)
established by Workers Welfare Fund (WWF), a subsidiary organization of Ministry
of Labour and Manpower, Government of Pakistan. The organization runs 75 schools
throughout Pakistan. The major purpose of the study was to identify essential teacher
competencies for school effectiveness and find out class room practices used by
Workers Welfare Model Schools teachers. The study was also aimed at exploring
indicators of school effectiveness. A mixed method approach was adopted to study the
state of school effectiveness. Forty sample schools were selected from a total of 75 on
all Pakistan basis. Multistage sampling technique was used for sample selection.
Twenty principals, 400 teachers and 80 classroom observations constituted the
population for this study. The data collected through the questionnaire, classroom
observations, focused group discussion and official documents. Data collected through
afore-mentioned instruments was tabulated, analyzed by both qualitative and
quantitative techniques and interpreted category-wise. To analyze the data, chi-square
test was applied to find out the significance of difference among the opinions of the
respondents. On the basis of results obtained from the analysis of data through chi
square test, statements were accepted or rejected.
Major findings of the study indicated that though most of the teachers are
aware of standards of teaching for school effectiveness to some extent but they are not
implementing these standards in their classrooms. Also majority of the teachers are
not using evaluation techniques properly. The teachers, however, agreed with two
major characteristics of the teacher education for school effectiveness i.e. content
knowledge and pedagogical competencies. The major implication of the study is to
shift from lecture paradigm to collaborative, interactive and democratic teaching style
and develop mentoring as well as monitoring teacher education programme for overall
school effectiveness. Also a need emerges to find out as to why teachers, despite
having knowledge of the required techniques, do not follow the standards of school
effectiveness.
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CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 5
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 5
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 5
4.4 METHODOLOGY 5
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 6
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 WORKERS WELFARE SCHOOLS 7
2.2 SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS 8
2.3 SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS IN PAKISTAN 16
2.4 TEACHER AND EDUCATION 17
2.4.1 Importance of a Teacher 19
2.4.2 Characteristics of a Teacher in Islamic Perspective 19
2.4.3 Professional Characteristic of Teacher 21
2.5 COMPETENCIES OF THE TEACHER 21
2.5.1 Academic Competencies 23
2.5.2 Methodological Competencies of Teachers 23
2.5.2.1 Lesson planning 23
2.5.2.2 Use of questions 26
2.5.3 Improvement of Student Attitudes 28
2.5.4 Classroom Management 28
2.5.5 Time Management Skill 29
2.5.6 Development of Self-confidence in Students 30
2.6 TEACHER EDUCATION AND IMPORTANCE OF
TEACHER EDUCATION 31
2.6.1 Concept of Training in Education 33
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2.6.2 Teacher Training and Professional Development 34
2.6.3 Professional Development 35
2.7 PROVISION OF TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN
PAKISTAN 36
2.8 TYPES OF TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMMES 38
2.8.1 Formal Institutes for Teacher Training. 38
2.8.2 Non Formal Institutes for Teacher Training 38
2.8.3 Field Based Institutes for Teacher Training. 38
2.9 TEACHER TRAINING IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 39
(1947)
2.10 LEVELS OF TEACHER TRAINING IN PAKISTAN 41
2.10.1 Primary Teaching Certificate / Diploma in
Education 41
2.10.2 Certificate in Teaching (CT) 41
2.10.3 Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) 41
2.10.4 Master of Education (M.Ed) 41
2.10.5 Master of Education (M.A) 42
2.11 TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS IN HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE 43
2.11.1 Normal Schools 43
2.11.2 Elementary Colleges 44
2.11.3 Colleges of Education 44
2.11.4 Institutes of Education and Research (IER) 44
2.12 TEACHER EDUCATION IN INTERNATIONAL
PERSPECTIVE 45
2.13 CHALLENGES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE
TWENTY FIRST CENTURY 55
2.14 STUDENT TEACHING PRACTICE 56
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 59
3.1 DESIGN OF THE STUDY 59
3.1.1 Sampling 59
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3.2 TOOLS FOR COLLECTION OF DATA 60
3.2.1 Document Analysis 60
3.2.2 Focused Group Discussion (FGDs)– Principal 60
3.2.3 Survey Questionnaire Teachers 61
3.2.4 Observation Checklist 61
3.3 VALIDATION OF THE RESEARCH TOOLS 61
3.4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 62
3.4.1 Procedure for data collection 62
3.4.2 Data Collection and Data Analysis 62
4 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 65
5 SUMMARY, DISCUSSION FINDINGS/CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS 121 5.1 SUMMARY 121
5.2 DISCUSSION 121
5.2.1 Methodological Competencies 123
5.2.2 Motivational Competencies 125
5.2.3 Material Utilization Competencies 129
5.2.4 Instructional Process Competencies 131
5.2.5 Teaching Evaluation Competencies 135
5.2.6 Focused Group Discussion – Principals 138
5.3 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 141
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 145
BIBLIGRAPHY 148
APPENDICES 160
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LIST OF TABLES Table No. Page
3.1 Target Population 58
3.2 Sample for study 59
4.1 Gender wise ratio 65
4.2 Age-wise 66
4.3 Academic qualification wise distribution of respondents 67
4.4 Professional qualification wise distributions of respondents 68
4.5 Job experience wise distribution of respondents 69
4.6 The teacher uses problem solving methods in teaching. 70
4.7 The teacher uses individual teaching methods for individual differences 71
4.8 The teacher utilizes teaching situation effectively 72
4.9 The teacher appreciates students for correct answers 73
4.10 The teacher gives hints to students in order to lead them to the 74
correct answers.
4.11 The teacher uses reinforcement effectively. 75
4.12 The teacher selects appropriate and relevant teaching materials 76
4.13 The teacher uses prescribed teaching tools 77
4.14 The teacher uses personal teaching tools in addition to the prescribed 78
tools
4.15 The teacher applies contemporary knowledge and new ideas in 79
teaching
4.16 The teacher uses different questioning techniques 80
4.17 The teacher manages discipline in his/her class room. 81
4.18 The teacher uses time management techniques in teaching 82
4.19 The teacher manages classroom activities properly. 83
4.20 The teacher makes clear statement of objectives of lesson to students 84
before starting teaching
4.21 The teacher prepares course contents properly 85
4.22 The teacher uses various evaluation techniques 86
4.23 The teacher assesses student’s behavior effectively 87
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4.24 The teacher assesses students own work adequately 88
4.25 The teacher always keeps record of individual students 89
4.26 Higher academic qualification improves teacher’s job effectiveness. 90
4.27 The ability of a teacher to perform effectively is an inborn quality 91
4.28 Professional qualification improves teacher’s job effectively 92
4.29 The teacher uses evaluation data to improve job situation. 93
4.30 The teacher has direct interaction with his/her students 94
4.31 Use of problem solving methods in teaching 95
4.32 Use of individual teaching methods for individual differences 96
4.33 Utilization of teaching situation effectively 97
4.34 Students were appreciated after correct answers 98
4.35 Students were given hints for correct answers. 99
4.36 Students were given second chance for correct answer. 100
4.37 Used reinforcement effectively. 101
4.38 Selected appropriate and relevant teaching material. 102
4.39 Used personal teaching tools effectively 103
4.40 Used own devised teaching tools 104
4.41 Applied contemporary knowledge, new ideas in teaching 105
4.42 Used questioning techniques 106
4.43 Presented course contents in the classroom properly 107
4.44 Used time management techniques in teaching 108
4.45 Managing classroom. 109
4.46 Manage discipline in the classroom 110
4.47 Used various evaluation techniques 111
4.48 Assessed student’s behavior effectively 112
4.49 Assessed students own work effectively 113
4.50 Presentation and explanation etc ability 114
4.51 Knowledge of subject matter. 115
4.52 General knowledge 116
4.53 Teacher student interaction. 117
4.54 Ability to motivate students. 118
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5.1 Items analysis of methodological competencies 122
5.2 Items analysis of motivational competencies 126
5.3 Items analysis of material utilization competencies 128
5.4 Items analysis of instructional process competencies 131
5.5 Items analysis of teaching evaluation competencies 135
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure No. Page
4.1 Gender wise 65
4.2 Age-wise 66
4.3 Academic qualification wise distribution of respondents 67
4.4 Professional qualification wise distributions of respondents 68
4.5 Job experience wise distribution of respondents 69
4.6 The teacher uses problem solving methods in teaching. 70
4.7 The teacher uses individual teaching methods for individual differences 71
4.8 The teacher utilizes teaching situation effectively 72
4.9 The teacher appreciates students for correct answers 73
4.10 The teacher gives hints to students in order to lead them to the 74
correct answers.
4.11 The teacher uses reinforcement effectively. 75
4.12 The teacher selects appropriate and relevant teaching materials 76
4.13 The teacher uses prescribed teaching tools 77
4.14 The teacher uses personal teaching tools in addition to the prescribed 78
tools
4.15 The teacher applies contemporary knowledge and new ideas in 79
teaching
4.16 The teacher uses different questioning techniques 80
4.17 The teacher manages discipline in his/her class room. 81
4.18 The teacher uses time management techniques in teaching 82
4.19 The teacher manages classroom activities properly. 83
4.20 The teacher makes clear statement of objectives of lesson to students 84
before starting teaching
4.21 The teacher prepares course contents properly 85
4.22 The teacher uses various evaluation techniques 86
4.23 The teacher assesses student’s behavior effectively 87
4.24 The teacher assesses students own work adequately 88
4.25 The teacher always keeps record of individual students 89
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4.26 Higher academic qualification improves teacher’s job effectiveness. 90
4.27 The ability of a teacher to perform effectively is an inborn quality 91
4.28 Professional qualification improves teacher’s job effectively 92
4.29 The teacher uses evaluation data to improve job situation. 93
4.30 The teacher has direct interaction with his/her students 94
4.31 Use of problem solving methods in teaching 95
4.32 Use of individual teaching methods for individual differences 96
4.33 Utilization of teaching situation effectively 97
4.34 Students were appreciated after correct answers 98
4.35 Students were given hints for correct answers. 99
4.36 Students were given second chance for correct answer. 100
4.37 Used reinforcement effectively. 101
4.38 Selected appropriate and relevant teaching material. 102
4.39 Used personal teaching tools effectively 103
4.40 Used own devised teaching tools 104
4.41 Applied contemporary knowledge, new ideas in teaching 105
4.42 Used questioning techniques 106
4.43 Presented course contents in the classroom properly 107
4.44 Used time management techniques in teaching 108
4.45 Managing classroom. 109
4.46 Manage discipline in the classroom 110
4.47 Used various evaluation techniques 111
4.48 Assessed student’s behavior effectively 112
4.49 Assessed students own work effectively 113
4.50 Presentation and explanation etc ability 114
4.51 Knowledge of subject matter. 115
4.52 General knowledge 116
4.53 Teacher student interaction. 117
4.54 Ability to motivate students. 118
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
School effectiveness has been one of the major concerns of practitioners and
policy makers, not only in Pakistan but also in other countries. School effectiveness
encompasses students’ academic achievements and development of their personality
together with the teachers’ development and improvement in school milieu.
In Pakistan, school effectiveness is generally, measured by scholastic results
shown by students at various levels. The higher the number of grades and the pass
percentages, the more effective the school is considered. While making the pass
percentages as a standard for school effectiveness, many factors may be overlooked. It is
possible that the “Good” achievement may be because of the fact that the students
obtained by supplemental coaching out side the school, by those who can afford this,
which indirectly indicates that obtaining of good results is not because of teaching at the
school but is dependant on the “paying capacity” of those who can financially afford
taking coaching outside the school hours.
The above considerations lead to the inference, that school effectiveness is
generally judged only by grades obtained rather than more effective elements leading to
holistic development of children. The mere holistic view of effectiveness, deals with
overall development of student personality, whereas scholastic achievement, teacher’s
training and teacher student relationship are basic components of school development, as
a result of professional development.
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According to Scheerens (2000), effectiveness of the school is measured as to what
extent goals are achieved by a school, with comparison to other similar school. Cheng
(1996) described, school effectiveness is the ability of the intuitions to optimize the
working or the stage to which schools can practice its routines, when the required input is
made. In effective schools, condition exist, to an extent that the overall achievements of
the students indicate that they are able to attain the basics, which are essential to make
them learn the skills to be successful in next follow up level in the learning process
(Kunwar, 2001, p.85).
Long and Pinder (1995), identify a range of key issues in school effectiveness,
wherein teacher development is primary element besides curriculum development and
parental involvement. They both proposed a close relationship between teacher
development and school effectiveness.
Effective and target oriented education, is conceived as the most powerful
medium and a source to effect required change in the social setup of a country. This,
however, does not take place in isolation, but is accomplished by the teacher, who is
required to be major player of change during the entire process. With this focal position,
the teacher has to be equipped to undertake this most important role and has to be
effectively prepared and trained professionally. This training process must be accorded
the highest priority by every one concerned for improving the deliverance of education. A
teacher’s profession is very challenging for as he can play an effective role in nation
building. Teachers, who can shoulder this responsibility, have to be trained in the
professional knowledge and should be encouraged to adopt the profession. The other real
aspect, would be inducting teachers through Professional Development. The adequacy of
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this training process, is dependant on required motivations, dedication and a will for
continuous professional development achievement in this profession. It is a rather
continuous and life-long effort.
Poetter (1997) is of the opinion that such people, who are normally not vocal,
have to be found to impart education. Certainly, there is more to teaching than feeling
affection for children and an eagerness to serve school / children well. Moreover, when
teachers forget that children come first their students and society are in serious danger.
Therefore, teachers in schools are both among the “most powerful” and the “most
stressed” individuals in the world. They are powerful because of their influence over
young minds and they are stressed because of the responsibilities that are often out of
proportion to their authority (Dark, 1995).
The reality is that schools could change and develop only, if the teachers within
the institutions, are empowered to develop themselves (Bayne-Jardme, 1994; Doyle and
Hartle, 1985). Realizing the importance of education, Lawal (2003) points out that "the
learning process is a basic element of cultural progress without which no individual can
attain professional development.
From the aforementioned, it transpires that it is through effective teacher
education programs, that we can improve teaching, which is the gateway to knowing,
learning and teaching. These help teachers to develop as “effective teachers”. Teacher
education programmes are directed to equip the teachers with professional skills, know
how and motivation to encourage students to acquire knowledge and attitudes, about
society, wherein they live. This process is expected to result in teachers who posses the
required qualities of an effective professional teacher for good education and social
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achievements. With these requirements, teacher education assumes an essential role in
educational process dealing with acquisition of effective teaching skills and techniques.
The development and improvement of education by a nation requires, that all the
essential elements for improving training in education must be provided, including,
selection of professional and scholastically qualified teachers. Such teachers consider
education as a sacred mission for improvement of education in the country so as enable it
to complete with other nations.
To make teaching profession more acceptable and professional, it is essential that
research in teacher education should assume a pivotal role. This must include a
transmission and acquisition of knowledge, so that those who are trained are able to
realize the impact that the training, would have for the entire economy as well as the
society.
In addition to professional training, teachers should be trained in learning
practical ethics related to education and various models made for school effectiveness
and teacher education. These are open for further research in this direction.
Arguing the need for an effective teacher education program, Lawal (2003)
indicated that such persons will be able to deliver effective teaching. They are expected
to employ the use of teaching aids to improve their delivery process, and manage the
students in the class, through applications of better methods and manage and control their
classes for effective learning.
The role of teachers in making professional knowledge available to their
colleagues and students, with on motivation impact on teachers' job effectiveness, are
essential for educational development.
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Keeping in view the above established linkage between teacher it is required to
explore indicators and standards for an effective teacher which may lead to improve
school effectiveness.
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The present research was designed to explore essential teacher competencies for
school effectiveness and find out, if classroom teaching practices used in Workers
Welfare Model Schools (WWMS) are consistent with these competencies?
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objectives of this study were:
1. Evaluate teacher competencies skills for school effectiveness
2. To explore elements of school effectiveness
3. To observe classroom environment and to assess teachers competence
4. To suggest measures to enhance the school effectiveness in WWMS.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1) What are the basics of school effectiveness?
2) Which teacher’s competencies are essential for school effectiveness?
3) To what extent are these competencies applied in the classroom?
1.4 METHODOLOGY
Worker Welfare Fund is running 75 schools all over Pakistan. A sample of 40
schools was selected randomly. Multistage sampling technique was adopted to select the
sample. Twenty (20) principals (for focused group discussion), 400 teachers and 80
classrooms (for observations) constituted the population for this study. Based on related
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literature review, the instrument of data collection was developed for the focused group.
Data were collected through questionnaires, classroom observations, interviews and
official documents.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The research is significant, as it will give policy direction on achieving school
effectiveness, which is a rising issue for academia and the outcomes from this study will
facilitate the process of professional development for school effectiveness. It will also
help in developing model of school effectiveness. It will further establish a foundation of
teacher education program. Teachers in the context of Workers Welfare Fund schools
may revise their curricula on the basis of this study. Private sector may also use findings
of this study for improving their working environment.
Federal and Provincial Governments, Private Sector and Civil Society
Organizations engaged directly or in providing imperative education may find the study
useful in future research, and to provide guidelines for developing and managing teacher
education program in Pakistan.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter deals with the review of related literature. It explores the factors
relevant to the effective teacher education. The chapter draws seminal researcher
focusing on the constituents, some on the identification of factors, of an effective teacher
training for Workers Welfare Model Schools in the country. In the final section, a critical
review of the related studies is presented.
2.1 WORKERS WELFARE SCHOOLS
The WWF is supplementing the existing educational facilities in the country,
sponsored by the public & private sectors, by taking the initiative to establish its own
school system, for the workers’ children, so as to provide them with an opportunity of
standard and quality education. This is a humble effort by the WWF to provide most
convenient access to the children, for developing their personality and elevating the
social standing of those involved & the entire workers community. The WWF school
system is focused on developing the personality of worker’s children to make them
effective citizens of the nation by contributing to economic prosperity.
The Government of Pakistan is working hard to elevate the literacy level, by
realizing the significance of the UNO slogan ‘Education for All’. To achieve this
objective, our government, in collaboration with private sector, NGOs international and
other donor agencies has taken revolutionary initiatives to kick off sustained campaigns
to up lift the literacy level.
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Workers Welfare Fund (WWF) is striving hard to achieve the national objective
to increase the literacy level. It has initiated a number of educational schemes, to educate
the children of industrial workers and to bring them at par with other segments of the
society. In this regard, a number of schemes have been initiated which include; (i)
establishing educational institutions, (ii) scholarships, (iii) quality education programme
and (iv) technical education.
The WWF is conscious of the fact that the poor industrial workers do not have the
means and finances to provide quality education to their children. The WWF had to
intervene and fill in the “financial gap” by providing free education. The WWF has not
restricted its role to filling the financial gap alone, but has also made genuine efforts to
provide quality education, which would make these children useful addition to the
national economy.
WWF has reflected its perpetual commitment by establishing a well coordinated
and harmonious network of seventy five schools, all over the country, during the past, to
educate the children of the industrial workers, a hardworking but poor segment of the
society. Through these institutions, WWF is imparting quality education to approximately
20,000 children in coordination with its provincial counterparts, in the remote areas of the
country. These schools are providing free of cost quality education to the children of
workers in a conducive and receptive manner.
2.2 SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS
School effectiveness has been one of the major concerns of practitioners and
policy makers, throughout the world. The notion of school effectiveness encompasses
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students’ academic achievements and development of their personality together with the
development of teachers.
The concept of effective school was introduced in America in 1960s. A number
of American universities and research institutes worked on this issue. Coleman (1966) is
of the view that difference of school does not make a significance difference in student’s
achievement. The stress was on family and the environment in which the children
(student) live, as it will have substantial influence on achievement and subsequent
performance. This leads to the opinion that schools and teachers make no difference.
This research accepted that school plays an insignificant portion in the education
of the student, curriculum was considered to be considerably important to meet the
child’s requirement. This was the thinking in 60s and curriculum provision was
considered as the main tier and function of schools continuing with this thinking was that
the teachers are not involved in the classrooms; and no linkage was developed between
the teaching style and curriculum development (Hopkins, 1987).
Contrary to 1960s, during 1970s, 1980s and gradually, the consideration of an
effective contribution to a students achievement assumed education became an important
role and started drawing greater attention of the research scholar. Bookover et al. (1979)
supported the concept that schools could make a difference, to a child’s attainment. This
negated the views argued by Coleman, that the effects of the home and family
background outweigh the effect of school. Teachers thus assumed a pivotal role and
become the focus or tools of effectiveness (Biddle, Good and Brophy, 1975).
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Reynolds (1976) started work in England on ‘School Difference Research’. The
results provided and established the concept of school effectiveness. He published his
findings, in an article in the New Society Journal. His work was continued by Edmonds
(1978), who identified factors of effective schools, that, he found made a difference to
performance and achievement.
Reynolds (1985) produced, a study on school effectiveness, which made it
indicated that there was variation among schools and clear factors which indicate that
effectiveness of various school was different. In addition to the factors noted by Rutter et
al. (1979), Purkey and Smith (1985) identified criterion of school effectiveness. These
factors were organizational in content and are listed in Hopkins et al. (1994:45) as:
1. School heads are focused on given curriculum.
2. Congenial atmosphere in the institutions.
3. Stress on curriculum and teaching.
4. High expectations for childrens.
5. A clear evaluation and monitoring system.
6. In-service and on-going training.
7. Help of the parents.
School effectiveness is focused at the development of system, instead of
individual, who would in anyway benefit from the process as a whole Fullan (1985) and
Mortimore et al. (1988) added some ‘process factors’ to this list, i.e.
• Continuous staff envelopment,
• Spare some time during school hours for discussion with colleagues,
• Priorities for development must be sharply focused,
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• The impact of change in teaching is also dependent on puralled changes in the
conditions within school,
• Staff participating in effective school must be supported an project should be
“data Driven” in sense of complete information for evaluation should guide
participant for improvement,
• Avoid bureaucratic implementation of the project,
• Quick reminds applied in participating school and classrooms.
• Autonomy of school is necessary for successful implementation of effective
school project.
Crandall et al. (1982 and 1986), Huberman and Miles (1984), Hargreaves (1984),
Rosenholtz (1989), Louis and Miles (1990) and Wilson and Corcoran (1988) were
involved in substantial research, during the eighties, when focus of school effectiveness
research was shifted to school improvement.
This move started as an acceptable way of looking at the educational process in
teaching institutions. Clift and Nuttall (1987) are of the opinion that the happening or
occurrences among teachers and students and assessment of those who made the centre of
attention of research in the field.
Hopkins (1987 b) played a significant role in school improvement. Hopkins et al.
(1994: 102) gave five principles for improvement of the school.
1. The vision is that (school in the future) these must be equal opportunity for school
community to participate.
2. In school, because it has its vision, will see in external pressures for change and
important opportunities to secure its internal priorities.
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3. The school will seek to create and maintain conditions in which all members of
the school community can learn successfully.
4. The school will seek to adopt and develop structures that encourage collaboration
and lead to the empowerment of individuals and groups.
5. The school will seek to promote the view that the monitoring and evaluation of
quality is a responsibility in which all members of staff share.
The schools have a clear line of involvement throughout the teaching hierarchy of
school. Development is encouraged and initiated at all levels from whole school systems
through departments down to including the teachers and the pupils in the classroom. This
whole school approach must come from the imaginative leadership of the Head teacher
who has the confidence to manage in Caldwell and Spinks’s (1988) terms a collaborative
‘self-managing school’.
Leadership in a school plays an effective role through the institutions of the
Headmaster / Principal. In the context of school transformational leadership that places
emphasis on process, shared vision, school culture and energizing participation is now
crucial. In the ‘learning school’ Holly and South worth (1989) quote Stenhouse
(1975:53) who says ‘there can be no curriculum development without teacher
development’. So in their terms:
“…..a learning school is a developing school’. A learning school being characterized by five levels of learning. Children’s learning, teacher learning, staff learning, organizational learning and leadership learning. We regard school improvement as a different direction make a difference in education, that increases the achievement of learners besides strengthening the capacity of the school’s capacity for institution for controlling the change”.
13
Schools effectiveness is now considered as a means of change in the interest of
students. Reynolds provided a comparative table of characteristics of the two fields that
contrasts their approaches.
Comparative table of school effectiveness and school improvement
No. School Effectiveness School Improvement
a Focus on schools. Focus on individual teachers or
groups of teachers
b Focus on school organization Focus on school process.
c Data driven with emphasis on
outcomes.
Rare empirical evaluation of the
effects of change.
d Quantitative in orientation Qualitative in orientation
e Lack of knowledge about how to
implement change strategies
Concerned with change in schools
exclusively
f More concerned with schools at a
point in time as changing.
More concerned with schools
g Based on research knowledge. Focus on practitioner knowledge.
h More concerned with change in pupil
outcomes
More concerned with journey of
school improvement than its
destination
The emphasis of school effectiveness, being on systems and outcomes, which are
both academically and socially, orientated. School improvement comes from a different
stance. This field is about “developing strategies for change that strengthens the school’s
organization, as well as implements curriculum reforms in the pursuit of students
achievement” (Reynolds et al. 1993: p.42). To add to this, Reynolds et al. also show how
the school improvement field itself changed over time.
14
Changing Concept of School Improvement
Indicators 1960s 1980s
Orientation Top down Bottom up
Knowledge based Elite knowledge Practitioner knowledge
Target Organization or process
based
Curriculum based
Outcomes Pupil outcome orientated School process orientated
Goals Outcomes as given Outcomes as problematic
Focus School Teacher
Methodology of evaluation Quantitative Qualitative
Site Outside school Within school
Focus Part of school Whole school
Reynolds et al. (1993) observed in their paper, that there has been a paradigmatic
shift from the stance in the 60’s and 70’s to the higher level in the 80’s. The emphasis
then was on a top down approach by induction of technology in the school improvement.
The focus was on the improvement of curriculum and the internal school organization.
This thinking, however, does/did lead to any improvement and has to disagree and
definite shift was made in the 80’s which was turned as bottom up approach and was
acceptable to the people involved.
This approach, either consider active involvement of people, in the process or
involving the teacher with the school process.
15
Weindling (1998), therefore, suggested a series of school-based strategies and
initiatives that incorporates both ‘traditions’. They would include the following areas of
work:
1 Use the research findings on effective schools and effective teaching.
2 Gather school specific information e.g. conducting needs assessment and analysis
of student performance data.
3 Foster staff development and collegiality e.g. through team teaching, peer
coaching and Investors in people.
4 Explore a variety of teaching methods e.g. the study of teaching skills, thinking
skills and strategies such as co-operative and flexible learning.
5 Make effective use of a range of curricular initiatives – whole curricular (e.g. the
National Curriculum), T.V.E.I and subject specific.
6 Improve relations with parents and employers e.g. by introducing parental
involvement programmes and educational Business Partnerships and Compacts.
Scheerens (2000) defines “School Effectiveness” as the achievement of the school
and compare with other some standard schools "school effectiveness is seen as the degree
to which schools achieve their goals, in comparison with other schools that are equalized
in terms of student intake, through manipulation of certain conditions by the school itself
in the immediate school context. The emphasis of the teacher in the classroom with the
students is matter under discussion on review. The research is now focusing on the
reason of making a link with the learning objectives in the changing world.
16
Cheng (1996) – School effectiveness is ‘the capacity of the school to maximize
school functions or the degree to which the school can perform school functions, when
given a fixed amount of school input.
Herman and Herman (1994) argued that “an effective school is one in which the
conditions are such that student achievement data shows that all students evidence
acceptable minimum mastery of those essential basic skills that are pre-requisite to
success at the next level of schooling” (Kanwar 2001, p.85).
Long and Pinder (1995), identify a range of key issues in school effectiveness.
Teacher education is one of the important factors, besides curriculum development and
parental involvement (Kevin Holloway et al., 1998). They both proposed a close
relationship between teacher development and school effectiveness. Barth (1990) offers a
particularly interesting parallel between teacher and pupil development.
2.3 SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS IN PAKISTAN
School effectiveness, in Pakistan, has been viewed in different contexts.
Educational plans have no clear-cut provision on school effectiveness. Although
improving curriculum and teacher’s training has been the main thrust of all major
policies, yet, school effectiveness is a major concern from two standpoints: quality of
teaching and outcomes of students.
In Pakistan, school effectiveness is generally, measured by results obtained by
students at various levels. The higher the number of grades and the pass percentage,
more effective the school is considered. This is, however, not the correct approach, as
school effectiveness should deal with overall development of student personality,
17
whereas scholastic achievement, teacher’s training, teacher taught relationship are basic
components of school development, as a result of Professional Development.
While making the pass percentages as a standard for school effectiveness, many
factors may be overlooked. There are possibilities that “Good” outcome may be done to
supplemental coaching out side the school, by those who can afford this, which indirectly
indicates that obtaining good results is not because of teaching at the school but is
dependant on the “paying capacity” of those who can afford for coaching outside the
school hours.
The above considerations lead us to the inference, that school effectiveness is
judged only by grades obtained rather than more effective elements leading to holistic
development of children. Factors such as developing the learning skills, building
confidence to face life, attitude and perception towards life, etc, or in other words the
intellectual growth stands to be neglected (Siddiqui, 2007, p. 115).
2.4 TEACHER AND EDUCATION
Education is a process of learning, which is aimed at improving moral, cultural,
social and intellectual attributes of the student individually as well as member of social
group. The process of learning is looked at as training in the filled of morals for
individuals through which their potentialities are developed, the traits of the creator are
inculcated in them and the culture of the people is transmitted to the coming
generations (Khalid, 1998). It is an instrument to change the social, cultural, economic
and political set up of the society. It is considered a key to development.
18
According to Allana (1987), education is a vitally important aspect of life. It is
the way in which life attempts to realize the noblest form of existence and a flourishing
humanity. It is the process through which individuals, groups and nations endeavor to
achieve their ideals and aspirations.
In education, the ultimate purpose of teacher is to help student to learn, often in a
school. The aim is a course of study, planning of lesson, including learning and thinking
skills. All these skills referred to pedagogical skills of a teacher. The teaching profession
demands full devotion towards continues learning..
Teacher’s importance in modern era has acquired new dimension. They not only
have to impart subject matter to the pupil but also help him in use of knowledge for
developing the abilities and talents with which he is born. If we wish to bring a
productive change, to raise the standard of education, it is imperative to recruit teachers
who not only have proficiency in their subject, but also have required a positive attitude
towards education and children.
The success of any educational system depends on good teachers. We cannot
replace the teachers with any other type of instructional material. It has been well said
that teachers are the best educational system. So, in an educational system, teacher is the
basic factor for its success. A teacher is more than what is commonly talked about. His
duties of profession have many other dimensions (Deen, 2000, pp 24-25)
The effective learning depends upon quality of teaching which requires
individuals who are academically able and who care about the well being of children and
youth. (Highland Council Education, Culture and Sport Service, 2007)
19
2.4.1 Importance of Teacher
Teacher’s importance in modern era has acquired new dimensions. They not only
have to impart subject matter to the pupil but also help him in use of knowledge for
developing the abilities and talents with which he is born. If we are committed to bring
about really a productive change, to raise the standards of education, it is imperative to
recruit teachers who not only have the subject matter proficiency, but also have required
a positive attitude towards education and children.
Teachers are the builders of our new generation. Unless we have the most
dedicated, hard working and trained teachers in our educational institution, we cannot
educate good citizens for tomorrow. This in turn depends on the effectiveness with which
they have been taught by their own teachers in the classrooms (Govt. of Pakistan 1977).
The success of any educational system depends upon good teachers. We cannot
replace the teachers with any other type of instructional material. It has been well said
that the teacher of a school are always batter than the system of education, teacher is the
basic factor for its success. A teacher is more than what is commonly talked about him.
His duties of profession have many dimensions. He helps students to learn things (Deen,
2000, pp 24-25).
The teaching importance is vital element in enhancing acquisition of knowledge
in the school.
2.4.2 Characteristics of a Teacher in Islamic Perspective
Teaching according to the Islamic concept is a calling of the prophets. It is
certainly an honorable activity, as opposed to an activity, which is merely useful. The
20
Muslim tradition bestows great respect upon the teacher. In fact, teaching was considered
to be an act of worship performed to please Allah. Thus, even during the period of
Muslim decadence, men of wealth and position considered it a duty to spare some their
time for teaching a few students (Qureshi, 1975). Ghazali lists the following
characteristics of a teacher:
1 The teacher should follow the example of the prophet and seek no remuneration
for teaching the students. The only reward he should hope for is the pleasure of
Allah.
2 He should be perfectly honest with the students and should not give them the
yazahs (license for teaching before they are worthy of them).
3 A teacher should never abuse a fellow teacher before a student. On the contrary,
he should teach his subject in a way that it creates love for other subjects also.
4 The teacher must consider the students intellectual level before presenting a
subject to them. The teacher must guard against the teaching of a matter, which is
beyond his comprehension.
5 The teacher should practice what he preaches, lest his deeds should contradict his
words. People are influenced only when a man presents himself as a model of his
preaching. Words devoid of action fall flat and bring ridicule to the teacher
(Khan, 1996).
A teacher is the ideal and model to be followed by students. He is the focus of
entire teaching process. A teacher must earn respect of his students by the qualities that
he possesses. He should grasp the meaning of education and its relation to society.
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2.4.3 Professional Characteristics of a Teacher
Literature reviewed indicates number of professional characteristic which are
basic requirement for a good teacher. Following professional characteristics are basic
component of his personality:
1 Honour of child
2 Introduction with students by giving attention
3 Participation of students in school activities
4 Addressing the individual differences; of the students
5 Importance to theory as well as practice
6 Source of assessment in the classroom
7 Ask questions with consideration in lecture style
2.5 COMPETENCIES OF THE TEACHER
Application of well coordinated and intermingled approach to knowledge to
contently re-visits the instructions as they plan implementation. The instructors/teachers
consider a broad and integrated set of knowledge and techniques, which planning to
revise these aspect of the competence of a teachers so, to competence what expected of a
teacher understanding about using technical advancement should be answered in the
context of the different sets of knowledge and skills that effective teachers possess. The
research in teacher’s knowledge, skills and standards suggests that teacher change with
the passage of time and develop skills like planning, designing, assessment techniques,
helping student reflective teaching, professional commitment, assessment techniques,
effective feedback and application of knowledge, what they have gained to improve
instructions;
22
To understand a competent teacher, we have to see to what extend they apply an
integrated knowledge that they have in planning and implementing their teaching and
revise the contents of their lesson. The other aspect of teaching competency is ability in
technological aids, which suggests that the teacher must possess knowledge and skill
about proficiency in teaching aids. This suggests that effective teachers are able to learn
planning and designing of lesson as well as the strategies to be adopted in teaching;
1. They should be thus traced in facilitating teaching and professional were
committee to acquiring knowledge throughout their life.
2. They should further be able to guide their students by properly designaty
course of studies
3. They should be able to currently use student’s output and provide him with a
correct feedback and how to make use of this in improving their teaching.
4. An instructor must be able to adequately manage the classroom.
5. Know the ways and means to motivate the students
6. The instructor must be able to understand as to how the students learn and
improve besides knowing the contents of the education method that they are
teaching.
One of the attribute of effective teaching relates to the social context of the
community, the variance in the students and the positive attributes and the deficiencies in
the children. The proficiency in technology is perceived as a means to an end (resulting
in better teaching) rather than as an end in itself (Siddiqui, 2007).
23
2.5.1 Academic Competencies
Teacher must know academic matters (Kohll, 1992). Command on subject and
develop overall personality of the student. Accept the learning needs of the scientific
world. Understand the psychological basis of education and the factors, which influence
education.
2.5.2 Methodological Competencies of Teachers
Teaching Methodology is the process of teaching and the resultant learning by
developing a link between the students and the knowledge and skill contents embodied in
the curriculum Schools, through effective teaching methods, provide the required
environment to the students in learning a particular skill or an area of knowledge.
Methodology as defined by many definitions is a way of doing something in a
systematic, orderly and regular manner. Competence on the other hand refers to
possessing sufficient skill and knowledge in a particular area. Methodological
competencies are thus procedures to undertake a particular work with adequate
knowledge and skill.
2.5.2.1 Lesson planning
According to Bhatia, following five steps are necessary for teaching a lesson.
Presentation, motivation, association, generalization and application are necessary steps
for teaching a lesion.
In the classroom, the teacher has greater discretion as to the time devoted to a
given lesson. In most high school subjects, the bulk of instruction centers on lecture and
discussion. In planning instruction, the teacher must be aware of the fact that his behavior
24
and interaction with students vary according to the nature of the activity used during
instruction’s (Airasian, 1994).
The classroom task may be divided in two phases: The subject matter and lessons
planning.
The lesson must start with some thing to keep the students occupied at where he /
she is. The activities for this movement must be in harmony with the students’ mental and
physical level and lesson. Reading, writing, drawing or coloring may all be suitable in
particular circumstances. Most important is the need to give the children something,
which is, clear, concise and well within their capability. The aim at this stage is simply to
buy a little time of peace and quiet to deal with latecomers, lost property or any other
interruptions. Aims of teaching a lesson may be achieved by maintaining interest,
motivation and clarity in it. This certainly calls for a versatile teaching. Lesson should
be broken into smaller units for keeping every child busy due to their individual
differences in learning. The aims may not be fully achieved but may produce
reinforcement for learning (Laslett and Smith, 1984).
Starting with a general idea of what will be done during an instructional unit,
teachers move through a series of successive elaborations and specifications. Important to
this process and indicative of the way assessments are made, is the fact that teachers
typically try to visualize their teaching activities unfolding in their own classroom. In a
very real sense, teachers mentally rehearse the learning activities they contemplate using
in the classroom. There are many different instructional models that teachers can and do
follow when teaching. These models describe steps or activities that should take place
when a lesson is taught (Eby, 1992).
25
According to Oser et al. (1992) the teacher kept tight control over the lesson when
students' reactions did not reflect this emphasis drew on personal experiences to model
the appropriate interpretation. The manner in which this lesson was conducted and
communicated to the students as a set of values, perhaps unintended by the teacher.
Educational objectives, or achievement targets, specify what pupils are to learn
from the lesson; what they should be able to follow the instructions. Objectives describe
the expected outcome of lesson. The materials going to be in teaching must also be
specified. Nothing in advance that the lesson will require a video player, copies of the
daily newspaper, construction paper and crayons, or marbles and an inclined plane helps
the teacher prepare the needed materials. Planning also requires a description of the
teaching and learning strategies being planned to use in the classroom. The heart of
teaching process is based on the strategies or activities teachers use with their pupils.
Finally, a lesson plan should include some way to assess the success of the lesson.
Plans string together a series of instructional activities each of which encompasses
a relatively short period of time, usually ten to twenty minutes, during which pupils are
arranged in a particular way or focused on a particular process. Common classroom
activities have been catalogued and include seatwork, reading circle, recitation,
discussion, lecture, demonstration, checking work, independent study, audio-visual
presentation, tests, giving instructions, student report, games and silent reading. Clearly,
some of these activities are more common in certain subject areas and grade levels.
In planning day-to-day lesson and activities, one important consideration is the
nature of the pupil needs vis-à-vis the content of the lesson. If few pupil have had
difficulty in understanding concepts or processes presented in a prior lesson, the teacher
26
might select a supervised seatwork activity to provide a chance to work more closely with
those pupil. When reinforcement and pupil engagement are needed, recitation might be a
useful lesson activity (Airasian, 1994).
2.5.2.2 Use of questions
Classroom interaction involves the use of questions. The teacher's attitude is
reflected in the point and purpose of his use of questions. If these are seen as tricks and
traps designed to catch out the unwary and inattentive, then they become a source of
negative interaction. If the teacher sees questions as a way checking whether his material
is being understood, than a wrong answer can be seen as the teacher's fault and the
occasion for further explanation, rather than reprimand. Of course, this may not always
be true, but a far more positive perspective than the traditional assumptions that wrong
answers result from children's stupidity. A quiz can have its place, particularly as a way
of recapping a lesson, but in the main body of the lesson teachers' questions should be a
source of feedback rather than friction. If the lesson is to go smoothly, they should also
be short, specific questions requiring brief answers and responded to with praise if
possible, with tact if not (Laslett and Smith, 1984). Following consideration are important
when asking lower order questions. Teachers should:
1 Ask clear, not ambiguous questions,
2 Ensure that the questions focus students attention on the key elements of the
lesson,
3 Ask questions that permit teachers not only to check for student understanding,
but also to identify possible reasons for any misunderstandings that are evident
27
4 Avoid excessive use of choral responses or `call outs', interacting with one student
at a time instead.
When asking `higher-order' questions, teachers should:
5 Allow generous amounts of "wait time" after they ask the questions (that is, the
time students have to answer the questions before the teacher speaks)
6 Remind the students, as necessary, that all answers are expected.
7 Whenever possible, the teacher should strive for a balance between lower-order
and higher order questions in their lessons (Anderson, 1991).
The teacher used a questioning technique known as group alerting to keep the
reading group involved. It kept all the students awake and on their toes. The teacher
asked questions first and then called on a student to respond (Sadker and Sadker, 1997).
Asking good questions is an important aspect of good teaching. All students
should have equal access to classroom questions and academic interaction. Classroom
questioning is of two types.
a. Lower-order question
Which can be answered through the processes of memory and recall. For example, "who
was president of the confederacy during the Civil War?" is a lower-order question.
Without consulting outside references, an individual can respond with the correct answer
only by recalling the information he / she has already learnt. Research indicates that
approximately 90 percent of the questions teachers ask are lower-order questions.
Ask lower-order questions when:
1 Students are at orientation stage
28
2 Student are at practice stage
3 Students are at review stage.
b. Higher-order question
Which requires more demanding thought for response. These may be used for
evaluations, comparisons, causal relationships, problem divergent or solving, open-ended
thinking and despite the fact that higher-order questions have been shown to produce
increased student achievement, most teachers ask very few of them. Ask higher-order
questions when:
1 A content base has been established and you want students to manipulate
information in more sophisticated ways
2 Students are learning how to solve problems
3 Students are discussing some creative or affective topic
4 Students are making judgments about different objects
2.5.3 Improvement of Student Attitudes
Sadker and Sadker (1997) explain that changes in student’s behavior take place in
the following ways:
1 Dramatic increase in student response.
2 Statements supported by evidences.
3 Enhanced thinking process.
4 Taking inattentive in discussion.
5 Problems regarding discipline minimized to measure complexity.
6 Enhanced achievement on written tests to measures complexity in thinking.
29
2.5.4 Classroom Management
The personality of a teacher coupled with his character is a very important factor
in teaching in the class rooms. However, this alone is not sufficient for effective teaching
and has to be coupled with competence which is very important with relation to the
classroom atmosphere. The class room teaching is affected to a great extent by a number
of factors which include the communication style (whether the student understand it), the
general atmosphere in the class (tense or relaxed), the rules regulations (strict or relaxed),
but in addition to these factors, the teacher plays a role by influencing the students’ view
of himself. The teacher has to efficiently manage the class which requires achieving the
set objectives /plans for the class with minimum deviations.
Good teachers carefully manage their classrooms in order to reduce disturbances.
They manage to keep all students during the class time, make teaching aids in ready
position, and make it convenient for students to watch the instructional presentations
(Sadker and Sadker, 1997).
2.5.5 Time Management Skill
The learning in a class is an important teaching variable and is a consequence of
teaching methodology. It varies significantly from teacher to teacher for the same subject
and within similar internal and external environments. The academic learning is a
consequence of effective time management in the class room. The various tasks
performed in the class room are of important consequence such as, time taken to put the
class to order and get started, the lesson plan, and the discussion on issues or questions
raised by students. All these have an impact on student learning and, therefore, require
proper attention.
30
Time wasters have an adverse effect on student learning in classroom. Those
students who spend more time on pursuing the course contents are able to learn more and
resultantly achieve better results. Teachers do make class room time schedules but it is
not enough, what matters are as to how effectively the allocated time used. An effective
use of class room time and schedule will have a positive effect on scholastic achievement
of students. The positive results of effective time use have prompted researchers to study
it in more detail and various terminologies have emerged as under;
• Allocated time
• Engaged time
• Academic learning time
A teacher who believes in effective class room time management will always
make a proper plan for the time to be spent in the class. He will avoid late coming as this
gives the student time to build noise level which takes time to subside and is thus a time
waster. A good time management teacher would always tell the rules and regulations to
the students to be followed in the class room along with the expected behavior (Sadker
and Sadker, 1997).
2.5.6 Development of Self-confidence in Students
Teaching is one of the most challenging professions. Working with young people
as they develop their personality is a rewarding experience. Teachers help to develop the
minds of young people to the end that they can cope with problems affecting our
country's future (Gilchrist el al., 1985).
To teach successfully, one must plan successfully. Successful planning means
knowing how to facilitate a positive learning experience for all students. The teacher uses
31
his/her best professional judgment to decide which method; strategy and technique will
work best for a particular situation (Dhand, 1990).
Teacher training is focused on methods, courses and areas of content specialty. It
is as if we assume that once a person knows many facts about a particular subject, he or
she can teach it to others; or in the case of elementary and secondary education, if teacher
studies a subject in depth and learns methods of instruction, he or she will then be a good
teacher (Zehm and Kohler, 1993).
2.6 TEACHER EDUCATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE
In order to make a teacher perfect or better, it is essential that course for teachers
be re-oriented, re-shaped, and re-drafted to improve the overall status of a teacher. An
adequately trained teacher will be able to deliver quality education, which will be
reflected in providing better education to the future generation of the country. The
finding of a study conducted by Fuller & Alexander (2004) indicated that students who
were taught by educationally qualified teachers showed better results. (Laczko-Kerr and
Berliner, 2002) also showed in another study that those students who were taught by un-
trained teachers performed substantially poorly, than those who were given education by
new teachers, but who were qualified.
Darling-Hammond (1999) in their study showed a substantial linkage between
good results and qualified teachers. The study also showed a substantially negative
linkage between results obtained by untrained teachers, who were comparatively new on
the jobs. (Fetler 1999) was of the view that teachers with short training did not perform
will, when compared with those who were fully trained and had longer experience.
32
Balon (1990) is of the view that an effective teacher can be valuable for the
students, the society, and the country. This is because of the fact, that such a teacher
educates the future generation, on whom the future of the society and the nation depends.
Such an education involves primarily an over all development of a person, to make him a
complete individual of the society.
The difference between a trained and an untrained teacher lies in methods adopted
for teaching and development of children. There is great diversity in the type of training
available to teachers and thus comparisons become difficult. Analyst have, therefore,
tried to find effects of training for teachers and are of the opinion that pedagogical
training is better than those who do not have this type of training (Hedges and Laine,
1996).
A joint study by Harvard University and the Academy of Education, indicated
that level of training obtained by a teacher contributed to rise in obtaining marks in
Math’s for grades four and five. The efforts to develop the abilities of teaching staff are
aimed at helping the faculty to acquire learning skills and knowledge about subject
matters, teaching techniques, related to learning (Main, 1985). The performance of a
teacher before the class is dependent on training provided to him. To assess how
effective is the teaching, one, has to look at the performance of teacher in the class and
the attitude of the instructor in teacher training establishments. The output of teacher is
dependent on his knowledge and ability. The effective teaching process is thus
dependent on professional training and learning (Glaser, 1989). According to Aggarwal
(1993), the training of teacher is required for formulating a positive attitude, and a
purpose for the profession.
33
According to Schiefelben (1921), it has been usually assumed that the quality of
teaching performance is directly influenced by the academic qualification and
professional training of teachers. Effective teaching is determined by content, mastery
and Pedagogical Skills.
2.6.1 Concept of Training in Education
What is training in education? While answering this question, we may refer to the
acquisition of academic and Professional Skills and Competencies. The phenomenon is
commonly known as Professional Development these days.
Teacher training is the planned influence of individuals’ psychological processes,
for the purpose to gain an attitudinal commitment to the philosophy, value and goals of
an organization. Staff/faculty development process focus on helping faculty member to
acquire the essential teaching/learning competences (Main, 1985).
Studies undertaken recently have tried to assess the effects of training for teachers
by making comparison among teachers who are trained in the traditional training process
and those using other means of training. These trainings can be in various forms to enable
the trainees to earn undergraduate qualification in other areas and than to enter teaching
profession and obtain certification. In the process they bypass some of the study required
by those undertaking training in proper educational training institutions. The non-
traditional teaching institutions or others like these, are given certificates, which does not
consider the requirements of teaching, that a teacher should have. These certifications
procedures should have more knowledge and practical displays (Wals and Syder 2004)
(Rivkin and Taylor, 1996), are of the view that research has established a positive linkage
34
between training in certified institutions and better results are obtained by students, who
are taught by such trained Teachers.
The training for teacher includes, matters related to polices and procedures, which
are aimed to provide the teachers, with all the teaching techniques that include skills,
knowledge and attitudes towards teaching, which are required for effective performance
both in the classroom as well as at the school. The training for teacher comprise some of
the under mentioned;
1. The basis or (initial) training. This is theoretical as the teacher is yet to take
classes in a school.
2. Induction, which includes helping the teachers in their activities, during the initial
years of teaching
3. Continuing Professional Development (CDP) which continues throughout the
profession of a teacher.
Norton (1985) is of the view the teacher education is a complete set of learning,
which trains him to work effectively at various levels of schools. It comprises of both
formal and informal training, considered necessary for entering into the profession of
teaching.
In many countries, the teacher education is conducted at higher education level.
What is to be taught, what and learnt, is under debate in many countries. This is very
important as, it includes the type and content of knowledge to be passed on students, who
will later on make a contribution to the society and the country. Thus the curriculum
could be divided into knowledge & skills to be taught, to the teachers.
35
2.6.2 Teacher Training and Professional Development
The teacher training and professional development includes the following;
1 Maintaining of educational competency.
2 To further improve pedagogical skills and professional knowledge.
3 To develop flexibility in teaching and judgment.
4 To includes personal and inter-personal qualities.
5 To encourages self-awareness and responsibilities.
Teachers training organizations should be able to provide knowledge, skills and
values of society. These elements of training, if correctly provided, can help in
modifying the behavior and attitudes of teachers after completion of training.
2.6.3 Professional Development and Teacher Education
Professional development of teachers has to be linked to all aspects of education.
In order to improve teacher education, a global effort has to be made, by involving
training agencies and organizations in the world, the countries and other institutions to
ensure that proper education is provided to the teachers at the level of university, so as to
enable them to work as good teachers.
The education for teachers must include the following;
1 Methodology
2 Pedagogy
3 Practice
4 Curriculum
It has been observed, that teacher education and variables in the school
environment are of real consequence, than in more developed countries. A study
36
conducted in four developing countries has indicated that the quality of teacher was one
of the major element between good and poor school (Carron and Châu, 1996).
In addition to education of teachers, it is also of significance that they receive
training during their service, so as to keep them abreast with new knowledge in their
subjects and to get their support for improving teaching methods. Teaching is a
profession spared over the entire life of a teacher, as learning never ends and additions
are made to it regularly as knowledge expands. In case the teacher stops learning, his
knowledge will become stale and outdated, as they will be repeating what they learn year
after year. Those teaching must be provided with the help to explore and find new
methods to experiment, as well as find new approaches in this direction. To do these, the
elements of the in-service training and subsequent continuous development is aimed at
helping teachers, in finding new teaching methods is very important. The training
provided during service is required to be of high quality. It should not be a routine
activity, as in that way it will loose its significances. Quality training during service has
to be arranged with the help of universities and other relevant organizations, dealing with
extended education. A teacher who continues to maintain high professional standards
will be able to provide quality education, with better learning. Achieving high
educational standards is a continuous process, which is initiated with education before
service, initial learning, and continuing to learn. (Department of Education website at
http://www.doe.mass.edu/
2.7 PROVISION OF TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN PAKISTAN
Education has a checkered history in Pakistan. Soon after the independence, the
importance of education was recognized. Fazal-Ur-Rehman, the first Education Minister
37
on the behalf of the father of the nation, Quaid-i-Azam, convened the First Educational
Conference, immediately after independence. He read the message from the Quaid, which
provided guidelines for the educational system of the new country (Government of
Pakistan, 1947).
Teacher Education is imparted through pre-service and in-service teacher training
institutions, but it is predominantly pre-service in the form of Certificate, Diploma Or
Degree program. In-service training programs are conducted by specified units of the
provincial governments, where the content remains limited to the teaching of prescribed
school curricula or development of administrative skills or orientation to the government
initiatives, such as formation of school management councils etc. These institutions are
known as Provincial Institutes of Teacher Education (PITE) and in Punjab, there is the
Directorate of Staff Development. At the federal level in-service teacher education is
conducted by the National Institute of Science and Technology Education (NISTE).
Both the students and teachers are faced with major problems in quality of
learning and competency, which is at its lowest in Pakistan. One of the many reasons for
this one factor is low level of qualifications, expected from a teacher at primary level, the
other being the quality of teacher training program, which is dependent on the instructors.
Teaching practices and absence of adequate monitoring is another problem. The
available Data indicates that out of 100 students, who join school at the initial level in
public sector schools, only 8 complete their higher secondary school. It is worth
mentioning that present 200 teachers training organizations are functioning in the
country.
38
The public sector training organizations are located throughout the country for
providing pre-service, in-service training for teachers at the lowest level. In addition to
these there are around 300 teachers resources centres, established under education sector
reform programme, through out the country. This shows an extensive coverage, but
suffers from poor standards and quality. It is essentially required that specialized persons
both from Government Sector and NGOs’ be selected and located in the various centers.
The Pakistan teacher education and professional development programme of the
Government of Pakistan is at present performing this function.
2.8 TYPES OF TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMMES
In Pakistan, there are three types of Teacher Training Institutions.
2.8.1 Formal Institutes for Teacher Training
In these training institutes, the teachers were trained before joining the service. At
the time of independence these types of teacher training institutes were 22 in numbers.
For the admission, the prescribed qualification was certificate in Elementary and
Matriculation. After the completion of training, the trainees were awarded certificates J.V
(junior vernacular) and S.V (senior vernacular). Those having J.V certificates were
appointed in the primary schools as S.V. were selected for the elementary schools as
elementary teachers. For high school students were taught by the teachers from normal
and elementary colleges (Hameedi, 1962).
2.8.2 Non-Formal Institutes for Teacher Training
Allama Iqbal Open University was established at federal level in 1974, which
started, its programs for teacher training which included PTC, CT, B,Ed, M.Ed, M.A.
39
education, M.Phil and PhD education (AIOU, 1997).
2.8.3 Field Based Institutes for Teacher Training
This program is for the northern areas. In northern areas, there are different
groups of people based on their sectarian orientation. The Imaeli school of thought
spends lot of money to provide educational facilities, to people of their sect and open one
room school in the area. This may be the room of a masjid or jammat khana. These
schools are also known as Diamond jubilee schools. Curriculum of these schools was as
in the other public schools but the administration was in the hands of the Ismaeli school
of thought. (Farooq’1993)
In 1983, 80% teachers in these schools were untrained. At that time there was a
government teacher training institute in Gilgit and now there is a Government College of
Education for primary teachers. It was not enough to meet the requirement of the people
living in difficult mountain areas. In these circumstances, the Central Board of Education
with cooperation of the Government of Pakistan started a mobile field training program.
There was separate schedule of practical teaching because pre-service and in-service
teachers were trained during the course (Shaheen, Suhail and Farooq).
2.9 TEACHER TRAINING IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE (1947)
From the 1947 to 1978, there were normal schools for the training of the primary
teachers in Pakistan. After 1978, all teacher training schools were changed into colleges
for elementary teachers. Following were the teacher training programmes in Pakistan.
Names of the program Qualification for admission
1- J.V (junior vernacular) Middle (8th)
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2- S.V (senior vernacular) Matric
3- C.T (certificate in teaching) F.A/Fsc
4- O.T (oriental teaching). F. A
5- B.T (Bachelor in teaching) B.A
In 1956, the name of the J.V was changed into Primary Teaching Certificate
(PTC) and the pre-requisite qualification was modified from middle to Matric (Govt. of
Pakistan, 1956).
Since independence of Pakistan, at secondary level teacher training (14+1) model
was applied for the teacher training in the elementary colleges of Pakistan In 1957, the
name of (B.T) was changed as Bachelor of education (B.Ed).
In 1972-1980’s education policy, it was realized that for teaching of science, there
should be a program for the training of science teacher. In the light of this policy, a new
program for science teacher was introduced in universities and elementary colleges
throughout Pakistan.
Provincial Education Departments and Education Extension Centers are providing
training in education in their institutes. Teacher education programmes are offered in
Government Colleges of Elementary Teachers, Government Colleges of Education,
Institutes of Education and Research and Departments of Education in universities.
Teachers for grades 1 to 8 are required to complete minimum of one-year teacher-training
program; Admission to these programmes is based on completion of grade 10, at the
minimum. Teachers for grades 9 and 10 are required to complete one-year teacher-
training programme for which the admission requirement is 2-year Bachelor of
41
Arts/Science; the credential awarded is a Bachelor of Education. Teachers for grades 14
and 16 are required to complete three-year teacher-training programme leading to a
Bachelor of Education Degree.
2.10 LEVELS OF TEACHER TRAINING IN PAKISTAN Teacher education is conducted in institutions under the control of the Provincial
Education Departments and Education Extension Centers. Teacher education
programmes are offered in Government Colleges of Elementary Teachers, Government
Colleges of Education, Institutes of Education and Research and Departments of
Education in universities. Various types of pre-service teacher education programs are
offered to prepare teachers for different levels of education.
2.10.1 Primary Teaching Certificate / (Diploma in Education, 10+3) It is an approved scheme of the Ministry of Education. Diploma in Education was
started with an objective to prepare more skillful teachers for elementary schools. The
duration of the programme is three years.
2.10.2 Certificate in Teaching (CT) CT programme aims to prepare teachers for teaching at middle school level. It
includes the courses related to philosophy and knowledge of middle school age and
methodology of teaching different subjects.
2.10.3 Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) Bachelor of education programme aims to prepare teachers for teaching at
secondary school level. It includes the courses related to philosophies and knowledge of
high school age and methodology of teaching different subjects at this level.
2.10.4 Master of Education (M.Ed) M.Ed education programme aims to prepare teachers for teaching at secondary
42
school level. It includes the courses related to philosophies and knowledge of high school
age and methodology of teaching different subjects at this level. It also aims to prepare
leaders and administrators for schools.
2.10.5 Master of Education (M.A)
Master in education programme aims to prepare teachers for teaching at college
and university level. It includes the courses related to philosophies and knowledge of
higher level and methodology of teaching education subject at this level. Master of
education is an academic and professional degree.
Levels duration and qualification for admission
Title of program year and duration (entry
ACAD + Programme)
Level/grades for
which prepared
Primary Teacher Certificate (PTC) 10+1 1-5
Certificate of Teaching (CT) 12+1 6-8
B.Ed 14+1 Secondary
B.S.Ed 12+3 Secondary
B.Sc (Hons) in Edu. Studies 12+4 Secondary
M.A Education 14+2 Secondary and HS
M.Ed B.Ed+1 Secondary and HS
M. Phil Master in Edu+ 2 Year Higher TT
The first two programs have been discontinued from 2002 onwards in Punjab, the
biggest province of Pakistan with a little more than 60% population of the country and
the minimum requisite qualification for a primary school teacher has been raised to a
bachelor degree.
43
Training program and qualification for admission at present
Name of Programme Qualification Acad. Year B.Ed(Bachelor of Education) B.A/BSc One Year
B.Sc(Bachelor of Science) FSc Three Year
M.A(Secondary) B.A/BSc Two Year
M.A(Islamic Education) B.A/BSc Two Year
M.Ed(Secondary) B.Ed. One Year
M.S.Ed(Science) BS.Ed. One Year
M.A(Master of Technology) B.A/BSc Two Year
M.A(Master of Business Education) B.A/BSc/B.Com Two Year
(Institute of Education & Research, 2002, 2004, College of Education, 2001-2002)
2.11 TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
2.11.1 Normal Schools
Normal schools now also called teachers college or teacher-training
college institution for the training of teachers. One of the first schools so named, the
École Normale Supérieure (Normal Superior School), was established in Paris in 1794.
Based on various German examples, the school was intended to serve as a model for
other teacher-training schools. Later, it was affiliated with the University of Paris.
Normal schools were established chiefly on normal pattern of education in non-
western or developing nations in South Asia. During post independence period in India,
this type of schools were established by the British Government. At the time of
independence of Pakistan, there were 22 teacher training schools. Since then, there has
been a remarkable improvement in teacher education and in scientific and technological
44
education and researches, the system of normal schools for teachers remain since 1978.
The new Constitution adopted by Pakistan in 1973 did not change the overall
administrative policy of the country.
2.11.2 Elementary Colleges
At present, there are elementary colleges and high schools which offer teacher
training programmes for PTC (Primary Teaching Certificate) and CT (Certificate in
Teaching) to teachers. Since 1947 to 1978, there were normal schools for the training of
teachers at primary level in Pakistan. However, after 1978 all the teacher training schools
(normal schools) were changed to colleges for elementary teachers.
2.11.3 Colleges of Education
Institutions which prepare secondary school teachers are known as Colleges of
Education. These are established solely for the purpose of training teachers. These are
usually for elementary teachers and emphasize pedagogical preparation more than subject
area preparation. In most cases these offer 2- to 4-years programs. Bachelor's Degree
programs tend to entail greater subject matter preparation and relatively less pedagogical
preparation. These are generally 3- or 4-year programs, with the teacher preparation
portion lasting one to two years. At present, there are twelve Colleges of Education.
2.11.4 Institutes of Education and Research (I.E.R) The following objectives were set forth for the Institutes:
1 To provide and promote facilities for training, study and research in education
45
keeping in view needs and resources available.
2 To provide teaching, training and guidance in order to prepare candidates for
B.Ed & M.Ed Degrees and such other Diplomas and Degrees that may be
instituted as and when necessary
3 To help develop in the trainees basic understandings, attitudes, abilities and skills
essential to successful teaching and creative educational leadership
4 To provide opportunities for professional educators for improving their
knowledge and ability through special in-service educational programs
5 To conduct research in the field of Education and publish the results of such
researches for the Information of those who are concerned with education
6 To provide guidance and advisory services to educational institutions as and when
necessary
2.12 TEACHER EDUCATION IN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
As the world has become a global society, education is seen by many as an
important avenue for national development. Economic growth, development and
improved living standards are considered to be directly linked to the state of education.
The preparation of new teachers and the on-going professional development of those in
the current teaching force are key to educational improvement (Cobb, Darling-Hammond
and Murangi, 1995).
46
Teacher education throughout the world has five main features i.e. recruitment,
curriculum, structure, governance, accreditation and standards, all representing decisions
regarding key issues.
Among the most important features of teacher education are the criteria and
procedures by which candidates are selected or recruited for entry to programs and
institutions. Unlike some other professions, teaching often suffers from a shortage of
qualified candidates for admission. Therefore, teaching often does not enjoy the privilege
of being able to select the best qualified from among a large pool of applicants. The
problem for a system is, first, ensuring that there is a large enough pool of qualified
graduates to meet the needs of the professions and, second, attracting enough qualified
applicants to enter teaching in competition with the other professions.
These are some of the issues confronted in the recruit of candidates for entry in to
the teaching profession. Factors influencing recruitment include the status of the teaching
profession; the supply and demand for teachers; and the economic resources of the
system.
An example of the status of the profession affecting recruitment can be seen in
Thailand. In 1996, it was reported that the low status of the teaching profession in
Thailand was discouraging competent people from entering teaching and that some
entrants were not seriously committed to becoming teachers. Therefore, the need to
improve the status of teaching and to provide other incentives for joining the profession
was important.
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Another important aspect of recruitment concerns the number of years of
schooling candidates have completed before entry to training institutions. While in most
developed countries completion of a full eleven or twelve years of schooling is a normal
requirement, which is an unrealistic expectation in a country that is unable to produce a
sufficient number of such graduates to meet its needs for teachers. Toward the end of the
twentieth century, in the central and south Asian countries of Afghanistan, Pakistan,
India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Nepal, the mean number of years of schooling required
before entry to teacher training was 10.7 years. In the Southeast Asian countries of
Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines, it was 10.5 years, while in
the Latin American countries of Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Peru, Venezuela and Colombia, it
was 9.3 years. In the African countries of Algeria, Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Morocco
and Kenya, the mean was 9.6 years.
This is not to say that the only qualifications accepted for entry to teacher
education are the number of years of schooling or level of academic achievement. In
some countries, candidates are recruited without completing the full secondary education
available because of their valuable experience in other types of activities beyond formal
schooling, such as employment and community development work and their strong
motivation to become teachers. In Australia, for example, universities, like the University
of Sydney, offer such candidates programs, specially designed to take advantage of their
strengths.
Most systems provide teacher education in face-to face situations to students
attending institutions of higher education. However, many teachers around the world
receive substantial components of their training through distance education. Beginning
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near the end of the 1950s, this approach involved the use of postal services for the
delivery of learning materials to students remote from an institution and the sending back
of completed assignments by the students. The correspondence elements of this model
were supplemented with tutorials conducted at centers located within reach of enough
students to form a group. On a number of occasions tutors would meet with the groups to
render the process in more motivating social contexts and to deal with students at a more
personal level. Sometimes students travelled to the campuses for residential schools.
Telephone hook-ups were also arranged by land line or even satellite. Two Australian
universities, the University of New England and the University of Queensland, pioneered
this approach to distance teacher education. As technical electronic advances occurred
with the introduction of personal computers and electronic mail, the process became
much faster and more efficient. Distance education is a relatively in-expensive approach
that is especially useful in locations where populations are sparse and distances are great.
The duration of teacher education programs varies across systems from a year or
less to four or even five years. That range exists in quite a variety of countries and seems
not always to depend on the economic development level of the countries concerned.
Among the African developing countries of Algeria, Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast,
Morocco and Kenya, the range in 1990 was from one to five years. In Australia, recruits
who have completed three-or four-year university bachelor's degrees can complete a
professional teaching qualification in one year, while most choose to enter teaching
immediately after completing secondary schooling and then take up to four years to
complete a bachelor of education degree..
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The crucial factor is the foundation on which the professional training is based.
Sometimes systems try to compensate for lack of a full secondary education in its recruits
by adding time to the training program in which to supply missing knowledge and skills.
However, this can increase the costs of teacher education to prohibitive levels.
One of the chief controversies in initial teacher education in more developed
countries in the second half of the twentieth century was whether professional
components of programs should be offered concurrently with academic components or
consecutively. It became commonly accepted that concurrent programs were preferable.
However, fluctuations in teacher supply and demand and the demands of other programs
in universities often resulted in decisions being adopted on the basis of practicalities
rather than ideals, so that consecutive programs began to take precedence. Continuous, or
concurrent, programs tend to introduce professional components early and in close
association with general education and specialist academic studies. Consecutive
programs, sometimes called "end-on" programs, delay the introduction of professional
components until general and specialist studies have been completed. Especially
controversial during the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s were the relationships between the
university or college offering the programs and the schools for which the student teachers
were being prepared. Traditionally, schools provided professional experiences during the
practicum component of the program, perhaps for up to three periods of three or four
weeks a year. However, the role of the schools in initial teacher education generally
became greater during those decades. In some cases, the school became the focus of the
program, with student teachers being based in schools rather than in universities or
colleges. Crucial to this controversy was the role of experienced teachers employed in the
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schools. Whereas, it had been more usual for them to act as advisers and supervisors of
initial school experience, they now sometimes undertook much more odious
responsibilities, such as designing and coordinating the whole program, with universities
providing a supporting role and awarding the final qualification.
The types of institutions offering initial teacher education programs also vary
from system to system. In some places, teacher education, especially at the elementary
level, is offered in single purpose, state-run or private colleges known often as teachers
colleges or colleges of education. In other countries, teacher education is offered by
multipurpose institutions, sometime called polytechnics, which are tertiary education
institutions emphasizing training for a variety of occupations, for example paramedical
services, occupational therapy and journalism. During the 1990s, both England and
Australia restructured their higher education systems so that all such institutions became
new universities or additional components of the existing universities.
All of these institutions work in conjunction with early childhood, elementary and
secondary schools, which provide practical teaching experiences for teacher education
students.
What is needed by the student teachers to learn in order to become effective
teachers in the contexts of curriculum which they will be employed? That is the most
fundamental of all the questions that can be asked about teacher education. Initial teacher
education programs usually have five strands: general education, specialist subjects,
education foundation studies, professional studies and the practicum, including practice
teaching.
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General education programs attempt to ensure that intending teachers have a
sound grounding in the predominant knowledge, attitudes and values of the cultures in
which they are preparing to teach. General studies in history, arts, science, mathematics,
philosophy, ethics, government, psychology and sociology are common components of
this strand.
Specialist subjects involve studies in depth, which qualify students to teach
specific areas of knowledge. Literature and literacy, languages, history, geography,
mathematics, science, computing, domestic science, physical education and industrial arts
are examples. Student teachers preparing to teach in elementary schools are usually
expected to teach a broader range of content, whereas post elementary teachers are
usually more specialized.
Education foundation studies include studies of the history of educational thought,
principles of learning and teaching, human growth and development, comparative
education and sociology of education. Curriculum and instruction subjects provide units
on principles and practice of planning, delivering and assessing learning experiences for
students and include such matters as programming, classroom management skills, test
construction, individualizing instruction and small group teaching methods, laboratory
instruction and cooperative learning techniques. In some systems, the distinction
between these theoretical and applied learning’s is eschewed on the grounds that
theoretical studies have little relevance to newcomers unless they are seen to arise from
practice and attempts are made to integrate the two. This was well exemplified in
England in 1992, when, partly on the grounds that the content of teacher education was
too theoretical, Kenneth Clarke, then the Secretary of State for Education, announced that
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80 percent of programs in secondary teacher education should be "school-based." In
North America, Bruce Joyce and Beverly Showers, among others, called for a more
central role of the school in teacher education. A somewhat similar complaint about the
excess of theory in the curriculum of teacher education programs was reported in 1991 by
Andrea B. Rugh and colleagues with reference to Pakistan and in 1986 by Linda A. Dove
regarding Papua New Guinea.
In some parts of the world, the role of the teacher is wider than in others and the
curriculum of teacher education is adjusted accordingly. In 1991, Beatrice Avalos
described situations in Tanzania and Papua New Guinea that are useful examples of the
risks encountered in such widening of the curriculum. In Tanzania, adherence was given
to the belief that education should produce citizens who were self-reliant, especially as
most children would not receive more than basic education. Schools were to be
community schools that inculcated "socialist" work habits; were self-supporting
financially; emphasized knowledge and skills useful to the village or rural community;
and encouraged the participation of the community in school activities. Pursuit of these
goals necessitated a broadening of the teacher education curriculum at the same time as
the length of the program was shortened in order to produce graduates more quickly. As a
consequence of these changes, the curriculum became overcrowded and content-centered
with little time for practical components. Avalos claimed that the teachers did not even
achieve sufficient competence to teach basic literacy and numeracy and concluded that
great caution needs to be exerted in training teachers for more than one purpose.
Providing actual teaching experience in real school situations (the practicum) is
one of the most challenging tasks for planners of teacher education. Traditionally, in the
53
elementary school context, the student teacher was placed with a volunteer school teacher
and would be assigned lessons to design, prepare and present under that teacher's
guidance. Usually these lessons would number about three per day, after an initial period
of orientation and observation, for about three weeks each year of the program. The
teacher would provide feedback on a selection of those lessons but, in order to develop
confidence and independence would not be present for all of the lessons, especially
toward the end of the period of practice teaching. The college or university in which the
student teacher was enrolled would usually appoint one of its own faculty to supervise
this process and that person would visit and observe the student teacher on several
occasions and would have the responsibility of reporting on progress and awarding a
grade, after discussing the experience with both the student and the cooperating teacher.
Student teachers would often have other assignments to complete as well as those
involving face-to-face teaching. For example, they might be required to establish a file on
school organization and curriculum resources in the school. In the context of the
secondary school, in which the student teacher might be obtaining experience in a
number of specialist subject areas involving more than one school department, a
corresponding number of cooperating teachers and college or university supervisors
might be appointed.
This traditional approach to the practicum has been criticized on the grounds that
it militates against bridging the gap between theory and practice, when the two might be
learned more effectively if integrated. In some cases the problem was approached by
trying to make the university or college the site of more practically orientated school
experiences. Thus, such innovations as laboratory schools were established at the
54
university. Over the last three decades of the twentieth century, the bridge was sought in
the form of simulations, such as microteaching. Microteaching usually occurred on the
campus of the college or university. It consisted of scaled-down teaching situations in
which shorter than normal lessons would be taught to smaller groups of students with
limited numbers of teaching skills to be practiced in pursuit of a small number of learning
objectives. Usually, teaching spaces were developed and built specifically for the
environment of microteaching. The lessons would be videotaped, so that the student
teacher could view the lesson, often in consultation with peers and a supervisor or mentor
and obtain feedback which could be used in re-planning the lessons.
While the controlled context in which microteaching occurs has facilitated much
research on its effectiveness, there has been concern about the extent to which skills
developed under microteaching conditions are transferred to normal classroom situations.
It has been argued that there is no adequate substitute for real experience in normal
classrooms and seldom, if ever, was reliance placed on microteaching as a complete
substitute for actual classroom experience. Indeed, some systems have sought to make
school experience the central component of teacher education in what has become known
as "school-based teacher education" or, at least, by providing much more enduring
periods of school experience at some stage of the teacher education program. A medical
model has sometimes been applied, with student teachers approaching the end of their
programs becoming "interns" attached to schools for a semester, or even a year. Critics
often claimed that professional experiences gained through such innovations as
microteaching and such models as "performance-based" or "competency-based" teacher
education gave too much emphasis to the "performance" or "behavioral" aspects of
55
teaching at the expense of insight and reflection. Accordingly, calls for more reflective
approaches were made and were accepted. The concept of reflective teacher education
generated much literature in the 1980s and 1990s. Marvin Wideen (1998) and
colleagues, after an extensive review of research on the effectiveness of innovations in
teacher education, including reflective practice, found little encouragement for their
adoption and concluded that such innovations have little ability to affect beginning
teachers within teacher education structures common at the end of the twentieth century.
2.13 CHALLENGES FOR TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE TWENTY FIRST
CENTURY
Research on educational issues has brought forward many matters in various
domains of education. Major challenges for teacher education in the twenty-first century
are summarized below:
1. The raising of the status of the teaching profession to a level at which it attracts
the best qualified applicants.
2. Harnessing rapidly developing technology to provide maximum learning
opportunities for student teachers, especially those in remote areas and those in
developing countries, where conventional resources such as libraries are
impossible to resource adequately.
3. Discovering the optimum balance between theory and practice in the curriculum
of teacher education in the many and varying contexts in which it is provided.
4. Developing teacher education structures and curricula that provide optimal
balances among the academic, humanitarian, aesthetic and moral domains of
human experience.
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5. Designing research that takes account of the many complex factors that impinge
upon the process of teacher education, so that a greater understanding may be
gained of the ways in which students learn to teach in the myriad of contexts in
which they live.
2.14 STUDENT TEACHING PRACTICE Student teaching practice component is seen as an essential element to teacher
preparation. The duration of such an experience varies widely and appears to be
influenced by teaching level and sometime the nature of the teacher education program.
Practice teaching experiences for primary teachers is several four week sessions in New
Zealand to a full-year internship in Germany, France, Luxembourg, Belgium and Chinese
Taipei (NCTAF, 1996).
Practice teaching occurs following coursework near the end of the teacher
education program; however, increasingly it is being spread throughout the entire teacher
education program. Candidates are asked to observe classrooms, tutor young people and
to serve as teacher aides prior to actual practice teaching.
In the U.S., student teaching ranges from eight weeks to two full semesters with
most programs averaging 12-15 weeks. Newer graduate-level programs have begun
requiring year-long intensive practice teaching or internship experiences that are school-
based, often in professional development schools.
Teachers preparing in Germany face two full years of internship that include
seminar and classroom experiences. College- and school-based faculties observe and
evaluate at least 25 lessons. At the end of this period candidates go through a variety of
portfolio and paper assessments prior to teaching (Waldrop, 1991).
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In New Zealand and Australia, the cooperating teacher, associate teacher, or
tutoring teacher is responsible for mentoring and evaluating student teachers. In
Germany, the U.S., Canada and Singapore both school- and college/university-based
faculty assess students. The trend towards establishing specific school and
college/university partnerships that create linkages between teacher education
coursework and clinical practice is gaining. (Eric Digest)
Indicators of overall quality are effectiveness, fitness for purpose, efficiency,
accountability and ethical practice and fair dealing. (Schofield 2000). An indicator, as
defined in Oxford Dictionary is that, ‘which points out or directs attention to some thing’
(Hornby, 2003). Webster’s dictionary defines indicator as ‘the exactness.
These definitions are similar and both reflect the essential nature of what, in the
social sciences, should be properly termed an indicator (Albert, 1998). Indicators are
signs that are evidence of the presence or absence of particular qualities.
Murnane (1998) described similarities between economic indicators and
education indicators, particularly with respect to common problems. Van den Berghe
defines quality indicators as performance indicators that refer to a quality characteristic or
objective, which would allude to the broad context of performance evaluation in which
they operate. Being more specific, he goes on” A quality indicator is a figure, which is
helpful for the assessment of a quality characteristic or the achievement of quality
objectives” (Van den Berghe 1997).
In 2002, Aisha carried out analysis of zone of proximal development between the
skills emphasized during teaching training and their application in the classroom.
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Analysis showed significant gap between the two types of skills.
Tehsin conducted a research in 2008 for her Ph.D degree at International Islamic
University on disparity between teaching skill acquired during training and skills applied
in the classroom. Information about the competence in acquired skill was obtained
through a questionnaire from the teachers and application of the skills was observed in
the classroom. Application of test revealed significant disparity between the acquired
skills and application of required skills.
59
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter deals with the methods and procedures of the research.
3.1 DESIGN OF THE STUDY
The present research “A study of teacher competencies and teaching practices for
school effectiveness in the Workers Welfare Model Schools” was a exploratory as well as
descriptive research. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were applied for data
analysis. The primary focuses of the study was to find the causes of the problems
prevailing in the existing system of basic formal education and to recommend
suggestions for its improvement.
Material and documents available on teacher education and school effectiveness
were studied thoroughly. The researcher used focused group discussion, questionnaire,
and classroom observations as its data collection tools.
Table 3.1 Target population
Category Punjab Sind N.W.F.P Baluchistan Total
Schools 44 15 11 05 75
Heads/Principal 44 15 11 05 75
Teachers 1156 400 351 119 2026
3.1.1 Sampling
Multistage sampling technique was used for the study. At first stage, 50% schools
were taken from each province by random sampling. At the second stage 50% principals
were selected randomly from the sampled school. Ten teachers, were selected from each
60
school by judgmental sampling. Class room observations were conducted from 20% of
the selected teachers. For class room observations convenient sampling technique was
used. The study sample is indicated in Table 3.2:
Table 3.2: Sample for study
Category Punjab Sindh N.W.F.P Balochistan Total
Schools 23 08 06 03 40
Principal 12 04 03 01 20
Teachers 230 80 60 30 400
Classrooms 46 16 12 06 80
3.2 TOOLS FOR COLLECTION OF DATA
3.2.1 Document Analysis
For this study, the researcher surveyed the official reports, documents and
education policies of Government of Pakistan for information.
3.2.2 Focused Group Discussion (FGDs) Principals
Twenty senior Principals’ of worker welfare model schools were contacted for
focus group discussion with the permission of the concerned authorities, when they were
in Islamabad for official annual meeting. All participants were requested to assemble in
Worker Welfare Fund (HQs) Islamabad when they came for the annual meeting. This
timing was appropriate otherwise, it was not possible to get all participants assembled at
one place. The discussion was completed in two sessions. During the first session, the
61
participants were apprised of research purpose; general discussion to this context was
held. In the second session, lead questions (Annex-A) were introduced and their point of
view was recorded. It took about five hours to arrive at the conclusion. This was the
exploratory phase of the study to identify and define the concept of school effectiveness.
3.2.3 Survey Questionnaire for Teachers
The standardized questionnaire (developed by P.O. Nwaehutwu, 2006) was taken
by the researcher and after discussion with participants of FGD and supervisor certain
changes were incorporated in the standardized questionnaire keeping in view control
environmental differences (Annex-B).
1. Demographic and Professional Information
2. Educational Competencies in Practice
3. Professional Achievements Opinions
This questionnaire was adjusted / adapted to as the basic purpose of using the
questionnaire to elicit information regarding standards of education taught and
practiced.
3.2.4 Checklist for Classroom Observations
Observations checklist was developed keeping in view the standards of effective
classrooms. This research tool was to observe the actual delivery of lessons in classroom
(Annex-C). Observations checklist is an effective tool of data collection.
3.3 VALIDATION OF THE RESEARCH TOOLS
For the research tool, initially 25 interview questions were formulated for the
principals. After the development of first draft, these tools were improved under the
62
supervision of the advisor and two experts from the relevant field. The items were
reduced to 12 interview questions for principals.
The pre-testing was conducted on 03 principals. The tools were pre-tested to ensure
the validity and reliability of research instruments. In the light of the feedback, some
statements were deleted and some were modified. The final version of the tools was
prepared in close consultation with the advisor.
3.4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
3.4.1 Procedure for Data Collection
As a first step, the questionnaire was dispatched to sample teachers through
principals. It took almost three months to retrieve the questionnaire. Telephonic requests
were also made to almost 50 % of respondents to return the questionnaire. Focused
Group Discussion (FGD) was held in WWF, (HQs).
Classrooms were observed by the researcher and trained observers. The
researcher worked in the province of Punjab and NWFP while trained observers took
observations from Province of Sindh and Balochistan. It took six months to observe all
selected classrooms.
3.4.2 Data Collection and Data Analysis
It took more than one year, to collect the data through above mentioned tools.
Data collected was analyzed quantitatively as well as qualitatively. As data was collected
through multiple sources, the technique of triangulation was adopted to analyze the data
from various standpoints, to place the findings in right perspective. Descriptive statistical
tools were also applied in data analysis.
63
Data collected through questionnaire, was analyzed at three levels. General
Information regarding principals and teachers was presented in the form of tables. Part B
of questionnaires was analyzed by taking frequency occurrence and percentages at three
point scale.
The points of FGDs were analyzed qualitatively. Data collected from the teacher
was analyzed on three points rating scale the data collected from techniques and ranking
method to get results. Similarly data collected through questionnaire on three point scale
was also analyzed qualitatively.
Data collected through questionnaire was tabulated and analyzed through
statistical treatment Chi- square test (χ2). It is a non-parametric test of significance,
appropriate when the data is in the form of frequency counts. It compares proportions
actually observed in a study with proportions expected to see if they are significantly
different. This test was applied to the responses of teachers of Workers Welfare Model
Schools.
For statistical treatment chi-square was applied using the following formula:
fo = Frequency observed
fe = Frequency expected
df = Degree of freedom
= fe-fo
= ( )2fe-fo
= ( )
fefe-fo 2
64
χ2 = ( )∑ −
fefefo 2
(Garrett, 1997)
From the score of rating scale, percentages and mean score was also calculated.
Qualitative analysis of FGDs were also presented at the end of the analysis.
On the basis of the research methodology presented above, the questionnaires
were administered and the required data was collected. Findings were drawn,
conclusions were made and finally recommendations were proposed.
65
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
This chapter presents data analysis. In the first part of the chapter basic
information is presented in profiles while data collected through various tools is
presented in the form of tables. In the second part of this chapter, data is discussed in
detail.
4.1 PROFILES
Based on the information received from the samples of teachers and principal,
profiles, in various categories, were generated. These profiles are classified into the
following categories.
a) Gender (Male and Female)
b) Qualification (Basic and Professional)
c) Age
d) Service length (10 years, 15 years, 20 years)
66
Table 4.1: Gender wise ratio
Gender N %age
Female 256 77.57%
Male 74 22.43%
Total 330 100%
Table 4.1 shows that the sample of the study comprised (77.57%) of female and
(22.43%) of male. This is also presented in the following figure.
Fig.1. Male and female teacher’s ratio
Female 77.57%
Male22.43%
67
Table 4.2 Age-wise distribution of respondents.
Years (in years) N %age
20-29 74 22.42
30-39 208 63.03
40-49 33 10.00
50 & above 14 4.242
Age not mentioned 1 0.303
Total 330 100%
Table 4.2 shows that majority (63.03%) of the respondents age lay between 30-
39 years age group. This is also presented in the following figure.
Fig.2. Age group of the respondents.
10.0, 10%
63.0, 64%
22.4, 22%4.2, 4%0.3, 0%
20-29 30-39 40-49 50 & above Age not mentioned
68
Table 4.3: Academic qualification wise distribution of respondents
Academic qualification N %age
Bachelors 87 26.36
Masters 238 72.12
M.Phil 4 1.21
Ph.D 1 0.30
Total 330 100%
Table 4.3 shows that majority (72.12%) of the respondents held Master’s degree.
This is also presented in the following figure.
73%
0%1%
26%
BachelorsMastersM.PhillPh.D
Fig. 4.3: Academic qualification wise distribution of respondents
69
Table 4.4: Professional qualification wise distributions of respondents
Professional qualification N %age
B.Ed/BS.Ed 237 71.81
M.Ed 92 27.87
Doctor of education 1 0.30
Total 330 100%
Table 4.4 shows that majority (71.81%) of the respondents held B.Ed/B.S(Ed)
degree. This is also presented in the following figure.
72%
28%0%
B.Ed/BS.EdM.EdDoctor of education
Fig. 4.4: Professional qualification of the respondents
70
Table 4.5: Job experience wise distribution of respondents
Job experience N %age
Less then 3 years 55 16.66
3 to 6 116 35.15
7 to 10 85 25.75
Above 10 years 74 22.42
Total 330 100%
Table 4.5 shows that majority (35.15%) of the respondents had more than 3 to 6
year experience. This is also presented in the following figure.
26%
22% 17%
35%
Less then 3 years3 to 67 to 10Above 10 years
Table 4.5: Job experience of the respondents
71
4.2 INDICATORS OF TEACHERS EDUCATION PROGRAM
Questionnaire – Teachers
Data collected through questionnaire, from the teacher was tabulated and
analyzed through descriptive statistics and by applying χ2 test on each statement. Firstly
response on each scale was calculated % wise and then χ2 test was applied. It is used to
show the acceptability of some indicator as per pre-decided value. Values obtained on
each indicator and subsequent χ2 test are given as under:
Table 4.6: The teacher uses problem solving methods in teaching.
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 94 16 220 330
Percentage 28.48% 4.85% 66.67% 100%
192.65
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.6 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 192.65 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (66.67%) is
towards disagreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher uses
problem solving methods in teaching” is rejected. This is also presented in the following
figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig. 4.6: The teacher uses problem solving methods in teaching.
72
Table 4.7: The teacher uses individual teaching methods for individual differences
A UD D Total χ2
Response 89 14 227 330
Percentage 26.97% 4.24% 68.79% 100% 212.24
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.7 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 212.24 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (68.79%) is
towards disagreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher uses
individual teaching methods for individual differences” is rejected. This is also presented
in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig. 4.7: The teacher uses individual teaching methods for individual
differences
73
Table 4.8: The teacher utilizes teaching situation effectively
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 136 25 169 330
Percentage 41.21% 7.58% 51.21% 100%
103.47
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.8 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 103.47 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (51.21%) is
towards disagreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher utilizes
teaching situation effectively” is rejected. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig. 4.8. The teacher utilizes teaching situation effectively
74
Table 4.9: The teacher appreciates students for correct answers
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 196 19 115 330
Percentage 59.39% 5.76% 34.85% 100%
142.75
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.9 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 142.75 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (59.39%) is
towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher appreciates
students for correct answers” is accepted. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.9: The teacher appreciates students for correct answers
75
Table 4.10: The teacher gives hints to students in order to lead them to the correct answers.
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 212 16 102 330
Percentage 64.24% 4.85% 30.91% 100%
175.49
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.10 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 175.49, which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (64.24%) is
towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher gives hints to
students in order to lead them to the correct answers” is accepted. This is also presented
in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig. 4.10: The teacher gives hints to students in order to lead them to the Correct answers.
76
Table 4.11: The teacher uses reinforcement effectively.
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 102 11 207 330
Percentage 33.94% 3.33% 62.73% 100%
174.68
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.11 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 174.68 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. This means statistically that there is a significant
difference of opinion among the respondents. The inclination of respondents (62.73%) is
towards disagreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher uses
reinforcement effectively” is rejected. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig. 4.11: The teacher uses reinforcement effectively.
77
Table 4.12: The teacher selects appropriate and relevant teaching materials
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 246 21 63 330
Percentage 74.55% 6.36% 19.09% 100%
260.24
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.12 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 260.24 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically course is significant difference in
the opinion of the respondent. The inclination of respondents (74.55%) is towards
agreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher selects appropriate and
relevant teaching materials” is accepted. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.12: The teacher selects appropriate and relevant teaching materials
78
Table 4.13: The teacher uses prescribed teaching tools
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 174 34 122 330
Percentage 52.73% 10.30% 36.97% 100%
91.05
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.13 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 91.05 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference in the
opinion of the respondent. The inclination of respondents (52.73%) is towards agreement
with the statement. Hence the statement "The teacher uses prescribed teaching tools” is
accepted. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.13: The teacher uses prescribed teaching tools
79
Table 4.14: The teacher uses personal teaching tools in addition to the prescribed tools.
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 108 17 205 330
Percentage 32.73% 5.15% 62.11% 100%
160.71
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.14 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 160.71 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (62.11%) is
towards disagreement with the statement. Hence the statement "The teacher uses personal
teaching tools in addition to the prescribed tools” is rejected. This is also presented in the
following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig. 4.14: The teacher uses personal teaching tools in addition to the prescribed tools.
80
Table 4.15: The teacher applies contemporary knowledge and new ideas in teaching
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 119 20 191 330
Percentage 36.06% 6.06% 57.88% 100%
134.02
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.15 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 134.02 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (57.88%) is
towards disagreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher applies
contemporary knowledge and new ideas in teaching” is rejected. This is also presented
in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.15: The teacher applies contemporary knowledge and new ideas in teaching
81
Table 4.16: The teacher uses different questioning techniques
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 195 13 122 330
Percentage 59.09% 3.94% 36.97% 100%
152.53
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.16 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 152.53 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (59.09%) is
towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher uses different
questioning techniques” is accepted. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.16: The teacher uses different questioning techniques
82
Table 4.17: The teacher manages discipline in his/her classroom.
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 235 9 86 330
Percentage 71.21% 2.73% 26.06% 100%
240.02
*Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.17 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 240.02 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (71.21%) is
towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher manages
discipline in his/her classroom " is accepted. This is also presented in the following
figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.17: The teacher manages discipline in his/her classroom.
83
Table 4.18: The teacher uses time management techniques in teaching
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 234 10 86 330
Percentage 70.91% 3.03% 26.06% 100%
235.93
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.18 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 235.93 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (70.91%) is
towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher uses time
management techniques in teaching” is accepted. This is also presented in the following
figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.18: The teacher uses time management techniques in teaching
84
Table 4.19: The teacher manages classroom activities properly.
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 174 22 134 330
Percentage 52.73% 6.67% 40.61% 100%
112.87
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.19 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 112.87 which are
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference of
opinion. The inclination of respondents (52.73%) is towards agreement with the
statement. Hence the statement "The teacher manages classroom activities properly.” is
accepted. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.19: The teacher manages classroom activities properly.
85
Table 4.20: The teacher makes clear statement of objectives of lesson to students before starting teaching
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 145 12 173 330
Percentage 43.94% 3.64% 52.42% 100%
134.53
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.20 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 134.53 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference of
opinion. The inclination of respondents (52.42%) is towards disagreement with the
statement. Hence the statement” The teacher makes clear statement of objectives of
lesson to students before starting teaching” is rejected. This is also presented in the
following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.20: The teacher makes clear statement of objectives of lesson to students before starting teaching
86
Table 4.21: The teacher prepares course contents properly
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 185 13 132 330
Percentage 56.06% 3.94% 40.00% 100%
141.07
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.21 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 141.07 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference of
opinion. The inclination of respondents (56.06%) is towards agreement with the
statement. Hence the statement “The teacher prepares course contents properly “is
accepted. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.21: The teacher prepares course contents properly
87
Table 4.22: The teacher uses various evaluation techniques
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 88 4 238 330
Percentage 26.67% 1.21% 72.12% 100%
255.49
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.22 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 255.49 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference of
opinion. The inclination of respondents (72.12%) is towards disagreement with the
statement. Hence the statement “The teacher uses various evaluation techniques” is
rejected. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig. 4.22: The teacher uses various evaluation techniques
88
Table 4.23: The teacher assesses student’s behavior effectively
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 94 19 217 330
Percentage 28.48% 5.76% 65.76% 100%
181.69
*Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.23 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 181.69 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference of
opinion. The inclination of respondents (65.76%) is towards disagreement with the
statement. Hence statement “The teacher assesses student’s behavior effectively” is
rejected. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.23: The teacher assesses student’s behavior effectively
89
Table 4.24: The teacher assesses students own work adequately
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 171 27 132 330
Percentage 51.82% 8.18% 40.00% 100%
100.85
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.24 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 100.85 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (51.82%) is
towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement "The teacher assesses
students own work adequately” is accepted. This is also presented in the following
figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.24: The teacher assesses students own work adequately
90
Table 4.25: The teacher always keeps record of individual students
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 94 24 212 330
Percentage 28.48% 7.27% 64.24% 100%
164.15
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.25 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 164.15 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (64.24%) is
towards disagreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher always keeps
record of individual students” is rejected. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.25: The teacher always keeps record of individual students
91
Table 4.26: Higher academic qualification improves teacher’s job effectiveness.
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 219 17 94 330
Percentage 66.36% 5.15% 28.48% 100%
188.96
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.26 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 188.96 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (66.36%) is
towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement "Higher academic
qualification improves teacher’s job effectiveness” is accepted. This is also presented in
the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.26: Higher academic qualification improves teacher’s job effectiveness.
92
Table 4.27: The ability of a teacher to perform effectively is an inborn quality
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 216 16 89 330
Percentage 67.29% 4.98% 27.73% 100%
191.46
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.27 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 191.46 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference of
opinion. The inclination of respondents (67.29%) is towards agreement with the
statement. Hence the statement “The ability of a teacher to perform effectively is an
inborn quality” is accepted. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.27: The ability of a teacher to perform effectively is an inborn quality
93
Table 4.28: Professional qualification improves teacher’s job effectively
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 209 14 107 330
Percentage 63.33% 4.24% 32.42% 100%
172.96
*Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.28 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 172.96 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference of
opinion. The inclination of respondents (63.33%) is towards agreement with the
statement. Hence the statement " Professional qualification improves teacher’s job
effectively” is accepted. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.28: Professional qualification improves teacher’s job effectively
94
Table 4.29: The teacher uses evaluation data to improve job situation.
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 73 10 247 330
Percentage 22.12% 3.03% 74.85% 100%
273.98
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.29 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 273.98 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference of
opinion. The inclination of respondents (74.85%) is towards disagreement with the
statement. Hence the statement “The teacher uses evaluation data to improve job
situation” is rejected. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
enta
ge
Fig.4.29: The teacher uses evaluation data to improve job situation.
95
Table 4.30: The teacher has direct interaction with his/her students
A UD DA Total χ2
Response 137 10 183 330
Percentage 41.52% 3.03% 55.45% 100%
145.98
* Significant df = 4 χ2 at 0.05 level = 9.488
Table 4.30 shows that calculated value of χ2 was found to be 145.98 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (55.45%) is
towards disagreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher has direct
interaction with his/her students” is rejected. This is also presented in the following
figure.
0
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30
40
50
60
Agree Undecided Disagree
Perc
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Fig.4.30: The teacher has direct interaction with his/her students
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4.3 CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
Table 4.31: Use of problem solving methods in teaching
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 10 23 47 80
Percentage 12.50 28.75 58.75 100
Table 4.31 shows that in most of the classes teachers were not using this
technique during their teaching their teaching was conventional and they did not imply
problem solving methods. Most of the teachers (58.75%) in the classroom never used
problem solving methods. This statement was also rejected by majority of teachers on
questionnaire as they were not aware of this technique; however, this method was
observed in the classroom. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.31: Use of problem solving methods in teaching
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Table 4.32: Use of individual teaching methods for individual differences
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 05 23 52 80
Percentage 6.25 28.75 65 100
Table 4.32 indicates that 65 % of teachers were never using individual teaching
techniques in classrooms to cope with individual differences. The answers of teachers on
questionnaire showed same result because majority of teachers disagreed with the
statement that they use individual teaching methods for individual differences. This is
also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.32: Use of individual teaching methods for individual differences
98
Table 4.33: Utilization of teaching situation effectively
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 10 30 40 80
Percentage 12.5 37.5 50 100
Table 4.33 reflects that 50 % teachers were unable to manage various classroom
situations as it was claimed by teachers on questionnaire as well. As this statement was
rejected by teachers that teachers never use various classroom situations as per the
demands and need of the class. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.33: Utilization of teaching situation effectively
99
Table 4.34: Students were appreciated after correct answers
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 08 53 19 80
Percentage 10 66.25 23.75 100
In contrary to teachers’ claims on questionnaire, table 4.34 indicates that most of
the teachers (66.25%) ‘Sometimes appreciate their students. Although teachers’ claimed
that they appreciate their students but this was not observed at a satisfactorily level.
However, it was observed about 24 % that is one-forth of the teachers who were
appreciative of student’s activities in the classroom. Students were appreciated on correct
response and sometimes they were appreciated on their initiatives. This is also presented
in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.34: Students were appreciated after correct answers
100
Table 4.35: students were given hints for correct answers.
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 06 27 47 80
Percentage 7.5 33.75 58.75 100
This statement was again not proved during classroom observation, as up to 60%
times, it was not observed that teachers provided clues or hints for correct answers. This
table reflects state of reinforcement situations. Most of the teachers claimed but it was not
proved in their classrooms teaching, however, only about in 34% classrooms, it was
observed that teachers were using this approach. This is also presented in the following
figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig. 4.35: Students were given hints for correct answers.
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Table 4.36: Students were given second chance for correct answer.
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 04 25 51 80
Percentage 5 31.25 63.75 100
Table 4.36 indicate that only 5 % teachers gave second chance to students to give
correct answer, while about 63.75 % teachers never give second chance to students. It
was because of the shortage of time and pressure to complete the syllabus. Teachers were
in a hurry while asking questions and getting answers from students were declared either
correct or incorrect without explanation or efforts to identify or lead to correct answers by
students themselves. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.36: Students were given second chance for correct answer.
102
Table 4.37: Used reinforcement effectively.
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 07 32 41 80
Percentage 8.75 40 51.25 100
As this statement was rejected by teachers, while they were asked to reply in
questionnaire and it was also proved that most of the teachers (51.25 %) did not use
techniques to reinforce the lesson contents. However, 40 % teachers were using this
technique and it was quite satisfactory. It means that half the population of teachers, tried
to recapitulate or use other methodologies, to reinforce the subject matter. This is also
presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.37: Used reinforcement effectively.
103
Table 4.38: Selected appropriate and relevant teaching material.
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 51 19 10 80
Percentage 63.75 23.75 12.50 100
Table 4.38 indicates that most (63.75%) of the teachers ‘frequently’ selected
appropriate learning materials for students, while majority of teachers, were of the view
that they select contents, as per the requirement of students. This statement was thus
proved by both tools. Obvious reason for this agreement was syllabus prescribed for
different levels. Teachers select contents from the textbooks recommended for students.
This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.38: Selected appropriate and relevant teaching material.
104
Table 4.39: Used personal teaching tools effectively
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 08 32 40 80
Percentage 10 40 50 100
Table 4.39 indicates that majority of teachers (50%) were not successful in using
even their own teaching methodologies, however, they claimed that they used their
personal methods. It was shown that teachers have difference of styles but they were not
successful in delivering the contents effectively. This is also presented in the following
figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.39: Used personal teaching tools effectively
105
Table 4.40: Used own devised teaching tools
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 08 20 52 80
Percentage 10 25 65 100
Table 4.40 indicate that majority of teachers (65%) ‘never’ used their own
teaching methodologies, as they claimed while responding to this statement in the
questionnaire. This was proved by their teaching methodology which was over and above
the prescribed methodology. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.40: Used own devised teaching tools
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Table 4.41: Applied contemporary knowledge, new ideas in teaching
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 08 20 52 80
Percentage 10 25 65 100
Table 4.41 indicates that most of the teachers (65%) ‘never’ apply or relate
current issues in their teaching. However, one fourth of the population of teachers was
observed using new ideas. They tried to motivate students by giving examples, related
daily life. Some of the teachers while teaching discussed current issues in the classes.
This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.41: Applied contemporary knowledge, new ideas in teaching
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Table 4.42: Used questioning techniques
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 05 15 60 80
Percentage 6.25 18.75 75 100
Table 4.42 indicate that most of the teachers (75%) ‘never’ used questioning skill,
as a method of teaching. Although there were questions, asked by the teachers but
students were not encouraged to raise questions. Similarly teaching through questioning
techniques was not observed significantly in most of the classes. Purposeful use of
questions as a teaching tool was not observed, however, significant number of teachers
responded to questionnaire that they use this, as a tool for teaching. This is also
presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.42: Used questioning techniques
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Table 4.43: Presented course contents in the classroom properly
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 40 20 20 80
Percentage 50 25 25 100
Table 4.43 indicates that most of the teachers (50%) ‘frequently’ presented course
contents in the classroom properly. However, twenty five percent population of teachers
‘sometime’ presented the course contents in the classroom. Twenty five percent
population of teachers, did not present the course contents in the classroom. This is also
presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.43: Presented course contents in the classroom properly
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Table 4.44: Used time management techniques in teaching
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 15 5 60 80
Percentage 18.75 6.25 75 100
Table 4.44 indicates that most of the teachers (75%) ‘never’ presented course
contents properly and ‘never’ utilized time properly. However, 25% of teachers taught, in
a proper manner, which is quite significant. Proper use of students’ time was not
observed significantly. Teacher excluded many of important contents from syllabus and
most of the teachers arrived late in the class. Similarly they were unable to divide time
for various steps involved in teaching. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.44: Used time management techniques in teaching
110
Table 4.45: Managing classroom.
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 9 53 18 80
Percentage 11.25 66.25 22.50 100
Table 4.45 indicates another important area of school effectiveness was not
observed significantly in 66.25% of the classrooms. In most of the classrooms, teachers
‘sometime’ followed the principles of classroom management effectively. From physical
management to management of knowledge, it was not observed significantly. It was only
observed to the extent 31.25% in classes. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
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20
30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.45: Managing classroom.
111
Table 4.46: Manage discipline in the classroom
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 49 23 08 80
Percentage 61.25 28.75 10 100
Table 4.46 shows that most of the teachers (61.25%) ‘frequently’ managed
discipline in the classroom. Students were not focused while teaching as it was observed
that most of the students were involved in doing their own work while teachers were
writing on blackboard. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
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30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
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Fig.4.46: Manage discipline in the classroom
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Table 4.47: Used various evaluation techniques
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 03 17 60 80
Percentage 3.75 21.25 75 100
Table 4.47 indicates that most of the teachers (75%) ‘never’ used various
evaluation techniques in the classroom. Students were not focused while teaching as it
was observed that most of the students were involved in doing their own works while
teachers were writing on blackboard. Similarly teacher was unable to assess the behaviors
of students particularly their attention towards teacher. This is also presented in the
following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig. 4.47: Used various evaluation techniques
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Table 4.48: Assessed student’s behavior effectively
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 15 30 35 80
Percentage 18.75 37.5 43.75 100
Table 4.48 indicates that 37.50% teachers ‘sometime’ assessed students behavior,
while working in classroom and 43.75% respondents did not care for the same they
simply finished their work. This is also presented in the following figure.
05
10
1520253035
404550
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.48: Assessed student’s behavior effectively
114
Table 4.49: Assessed students own work effectively
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 13 27 40 80
Percentage 16.25 33.75 50 100
Table 4.49 shows that 50% teachers ‘never’ assessed students own work
effectively, whereas only 16.25% teachers checked all assignments properly and even
helped in case of any difficulty 33.75% teachers checked their work randomly. This is
also presented in the following figure.
0
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20
30
40
50
60
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.49: Assessed students own work effectively
115
Table 4.50: Presentation and explanation etc ability
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 12 9 59 80
Percentage 15 11.25 73.75 100
Table 4.48, 4.49 and 4.50 are indicative of state of assessment and evaluation in
sample classrooms. It was observed in most of the classrooms, that teachers’ evaluation
techniques did not have variety and students work was not assessed effectively. Similarly
presentation of ideas and its explanation was not found satisfactory. This is also
presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.50: Presentation and explanation etc ability
116
Table 4.51: Knowledge of subject matter.
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 47 23 10 80
Percentage 58.75 28.75 12.50 100
Table 4.51 indicates that 58.75% teachers ‘frequently’ had knowledge of subject
matter, while working in classroom and 28.75% respondents had ‘sometime’ knowledge
of subject matter. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
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30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.51: Knowledge of subject matter.
117
Table 4.52: General knowledge
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 13 17 50 80
Percentage 16.25 21.25 62.50 100
Table 4.52 indicates the subject proficiency of teachers. Teachers profiles indicate
that most of the teachers (62.50%) ‘never’ qualified and they did have professional
degrees, but while during classroom observation it was not reflected significantly. Apart
from teacher’s subject proficiency, their general knowledge was not exhibited in their
teaching. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.52: General knowledge
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Table 4.53: Teacher student interaction.
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 03 18 59 80
Percentage 3.75 22.50 73.75 100
Table 4.53 shows that 73.75% teachers have no interaction with students, they
simply deliver their lectures. Only a few teachers (3.75%) have close interaction with
students whereas 22.50% interact casually. This is also presented in the following figure.
0
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30
40
50
60
70
80
Frequently Sometime Never
Perc
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Fig.4.53: Teacher student interaction.
119
Table 4.54: Ability to motivate students.
Scale Frequently Sometime Never Total
Frequency 09 25 46 80
Percentage 11.25 31.25 57.5 100
Table 4.54 indicates the state of teacher’s interaction and their motivating
techniques observed in classrooms. It was observed that teacher-student interaction was
not encouraging, although it was observed in certain cases, where students were asking
questions and inquiring. Similarly, teachers did know motivating techniques; but they
were unable to implement the same in class. This is also presented in the following
figure.
0
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30
40
50
60
70
Frequently Sometime Never
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Fig.4.54: Ability to motivate students.
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Focused Group Discussion – Principals
The researcher has made efforts to obtain maximum information about school
effectiveness. These efforts required that the study draws thinking some reliable
standards of school effectiveness. To achieve this, substantial literature was reviewed,
which helped in highlighting these standards, which if practiced would effectively
improve school effectiveness. During the process of literature review, it was felt
necessary to obtain, views of principals also, as they were practically implementing
standards for school effectiveness.
Participation of principals in the study was thus considered as an essential aid and
help in arriving at realistic opinions.
A focused group discussion was thus held with a group of twenty principals,
regarding standards and practices in schools. Detailed results on focused group are
discussed in next chapter under discussion. Leading questions for the focused group
discussion and are given at Annex. A
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 SUMMARY
This research was aimed at studying the teacher competencies and teaching
practices for school effectiveness in Workers Welfare Model Schools (WWMS). The
main objectives of the study were: (a) to evaluate teacher competencies and skills for
school effectiveness (b) to explore indicators of school effectiveness (c) to observe
classroom environment and to assess teacher competence, and (d) to suggest measures to
enhance the school effectiveness in WWMS.
Worker Welfare Fund has been running 75 schools, since 1986, all over Pakistan.
A sample of 40 schools was selected randomly. Judgmental sampling technique was used
for selection of teachers from selected schools. Twenty (20) principals (for focused group
interview), 400 teachers and 80 classrooms (for observation) constituted the population
for this study. Tools were developed in consultation with thesis supervisor to collect data.
Data was collected through questionnaires, classroom observations, focus group
discussions and documents. Technique of triangulation was adopted to analyze the data
qualitatively as well as quantitatively.
5.2 DISCUSSION
In the previous chapter, the researcher has presented the detailed results of the
instruments experimented during this study. Here critical analysis of the results along
with findings, and recommendations are presented. There are a number of research
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studies undertaken in the past in the context of school effectiveness; however, this study
is trying to build a new thesis in Pakistan’s context.
In the school system, whether private or public, traditionally school teachers
possessing a Bachelor’s or Master’s Degree, in a teacher education program, are hired.
The traditional education programs for elementary school teachers, include courses
designed specifically for those opting to teach, and include course for teaching of
mathematics, social sciences, Islamic and Pakistan Studies, Urdu, as well as of education
philosophy, psychology of education and management methods. Based on these courses,
the researcher developed a questionnaire to determine the extent to which these
methodologies were adopted and practiced in the classroom management, for
effectiveness of school as well. In this chapter detailed analysis on the results of the
questionnaire is undertaken. ‘Traditional teachers normally stand in front of the
classroom and pass on what they know to the students. This concept has changed
substantially today and teachers now assist those whom they teach by making satisfying
and worthile adjustments to school work and social groups. Since the basic duty of
teachers, is to get the individual student to acquire, knowledge, it is their responsibility to
remove obstacles in the path to learning. Without making adequate adjustments, removing
friction and frustration will hinder successful learning, which will not be achieved
(Stones, 1966, p. 389).
This questionnaire is based on six basic competencies of the teacher’s teaching
skills and classroom management such as, methodological, motivational, instructional
process, material utilization, teaching evaluation and interaction process. Each of these
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competencies among teachers is analyzed while sub-dividing it into small questions.
According to McDaniel the essence of harmony, lack of friction, a smooth give-and-take,
and interaction that is satisfying to cooperating parts of a social relationship, or in other
words, the reduction of frustration, is to make teaching and learning meaningful for the
child, to be interested in schooling. Ultimately effective school depends on the smooth,
sociable effective teaching-learning relationship of student and teacher. (McDaniel in
Amahala, 1979, p. 231). Researcher is trying to discuss through this discussion that how
far teachers are not only imparting knowledge but also understand other problems related
with personality of the students.
5.2.1 Methodological Competencies
Methodology, in effective teaching, is core to any good teacher. Good and
effective teachers often try to adopt good methods. Teachers use problem solving and
individual teaching methods, keeping in view the individual differences to utilize
teaching situation effectively. A number of strategies and methods are employed so that
all students get equal opportunities to learn, irrespective of their social status. The
following table is showing how far these methodologies are adopted by our teachers in
the school.
Table 5.1 Items analysis of methodological competencies
Percentages
Statements A UD DA Total χ2
The teacher uses problem solving methods 28.48% 4.85% 66.67% 100% 192.65
The teacher uses individual teaching methods for individual differences
26.97% 4.24% 68.79% 100% 212.24
The teacher utilizes teaching situation effectively 41.21% 7.58% 51.21% 100% 103.47
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Data collected through questionnaire, from the teachers was tabulated and
analyzed through descriptive statistics and by applying χ2 tests on each statement. Firstly
response on each scale was calculated % age-wise and then χ2 test is taken. It is used to
show the acceptability of some indicators as per as pre-decided value. Values obtained
on each indicator and subsequent χ2 test have been given in the above table.
In the statement, that “teachers were using problem solving techniques or not”,
the calculated value of χ2 was found to be 192.65, which is greater than the table value at
0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (66.67%) is towards disagreement with the
statement, therefore, this statement is rejected. In the second statement calculated value
of χ2 is found to be 212.24, which is greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The
inclination of respondents (68.79%) is towards disagreement with the statement. This
also shows that our teachers do not use individual methods to overcome individual
differences and problems faced by the students. In the third statement calculated value of
χ2 is found to be 103.47, which is greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The
inclination of respondents (51.21%) is towards disagreement with the statement.
Methodology refers to the processes of teaching and learning which brings the learner
into relationship with the skills and knowledge, that are specified and contained within
the curriculum (Harris & Muijs, 2005).
The above results show that teachers failed to employ teaching methods, which
consider background of students’ knowledge, social considerations, and learning
objectives. All respondents are professionally trained but are not using proper
methodologies. Those involved in teaching, know through their experience, that the
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students acquire knowledge through varying ways. The means or procedures that a
teacher adopts or uses to help in learning a skill or going through an experience, are all
part of teaching methods. (Gutek, 1988: 7) Methodological competencies could further be
defined based on their functional elements: to adapt to effective work methods; to
analyze the task to be performed; to begin the process; to perform the task and to analyze
ones procedures (Ololube, 2005b).
The finding from this table shows that trained teachers partially consider
individual differences among various students and use problem solving techniques in
their teaching. It also leads to the inference that mostly they use “teacher centered” model
while teaching in the classroom. This is a persistent problem and a particular student can
fall behind others in the class an or may not acquire knowledge. This becomes a
deficiency in a student. This fundamental problem leads to many other deficiencies on
part of some of students in persistent failure to acquire, what others in the class achieve,
or in not achieving the academic standards. It is essential part of the professional teacher
to overcome these deficiencies and resolve problems through effective methodology.
5.2.2 Motivational Competencies
It is often observed in schools that teachers, while carrying out their job
assignment, find negative outcomes among students. It is often observed in schools, that
teachers while carrying out their jobs assignment, laid negative outcomes among
students. The inability of the teacher to motivate the student to research for the problem
and encourage to search information from the origination of derivations.
According to the OECD (1989), the slow recruitment of qualified teachers,
inability to recruit the right caliber of teachers and the lack of motivation for in-service
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training activities, in most developing countries are some of the reasons for this unhealthy
development. Generally in the public school system in Pakistan and particularly in the
schools operated by WWF, the teachers who are academically and professionally
qualified are employed to carry the teaching process. The academically qualified teachers
mean, to include teachers, who have academic training, as a result of enrolment into an
educational institution and obtain qualifications such as B.A., B.Sc, M.A, M.Sc., and so
on. While professionally qualified teachers, are teachers who get professional training
that gives them professional knowledge, skills, techniques, aptitude, which is different
from general education. Teachers are grouped into two qualifications; Academic and
professional, the first one includes BA, B.Sc, MA/MSc etc., while professional
qualification include BS (Edu), B.Ed, MS (Ed), which provides educational skills /
techniques, which is substantially, different from normal education. (Marshall 1987)
defines these as meaningfulness, value and benefits of academic tasks to the learner
regarding, whether or not they are intrinsically interesting. The present study was
carried out among professionally trained teacher. The students’ motivation intrinsically
and extrinsically, is directly proportional to class environment. Lumsden 1994, defines
student motivation, as the desire to take part in learning process. Students may be equally
motivated to perform the task, but the sources of motivation may differ (Lumsden 1994).
It has been observed that students often do not utilize their capacity due to lower
motivation. The encouragement for students to learn these are normally dependent on the
competence of teachers and all these can have a positive or negative effect on students in
their urge for academic learning (Reevel 2003 D. Austin, Dwyar & Freedoly). The
learning environment and classroom instructions are dealt separately in this study. Here
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motivation is primarily taken as interpersonal interaction of the teacher with students. To
assess the interpersonal motivation, three statements are developed and experimented,
that how far teacher appreciates students in the classroom for correct answers, and is
helpful in finding out correct answers to the problem by giving them hints. Once they
find out correct solutions to the problems, how for teacher is promoting them to do more
research and reinforce the concepts. The following table shows results, that how far these
motivational skills are used by teachers in WWM schools.
Table 5.2 Items analysis of motivational competencies
Percentages
Statements A UD DA Total χ2
The teacher appreciates students for correct answers 59.39% 5.76% 34.85% 100% 142.75
The teacher gives hints to students in order to lead them to the correct answers
64.24% 4.85% 30.91% 100% 175.49
The teacher uses reinforcement effectively 33.94% 3.33% 62.73% 100% 174.68
The calculated value of χ2 is found to be 142.75, which is greater than the table
value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (59.39%) is towards agreement with
the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher appreciates students for correct answers”
is accepted. It shows that our teachers generally appreciate students for correct answers.
In the second statement calculated value of χ2 is found to be 175.49, which is greater
than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (64.24%) is towards
agreement with the statement, hence the statement “The teacher gives hints to students in
order to lead them to the correct answers” is accepted. In the third statement the
calculated value of χ2 is found to be 174.68, which is greater than the table value at 0.05
level. This means statistically that there is a significant difference of opinion among the
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respondents. The inclination of respondents (62.73%) is towards disagreement with the
statement. Hence the statement “The teacher uses reinforcement effectively” is rejected.
If these three statements are linked with interpersonal skills of the teacher to
motivate, it is found out that our teachers generally appreciate those students whose
answers to problems are correct but if we try to link motivational skills with
pedagogy/methodological skills, whereby teacher uses individual methods of teaching,
use problem solving techniques etc. there is negative relationship in both. Ololube Prince
Nwachukwu in his paper“ Benchmarking the Motivational Competencies of Academically
Qualified Teachers and Professionally Qualified teachers in Nigerian Secondary
Schools” points out three ways for teachers to motivate students, firstly, the teachers can
motivate their students by making use of the surroundings, which is an indirect means to
motivate students by arranging the classroom-learning environment to promote or reduce
the motivation of student. By using the second, methods or means, students can be
motivated by making use of instructional strategies, such as material, scope, interaction
sequence etc. These means are utilized to facilitate; motivational characteristics,
including interest, effective studies, attention to subject mater and perception of the
competence of teachers. Making use of third way, the instructors are able to encourage
students by making use of encouragement strategies, including direct efforts to encourage
individuals or group of students. These strategies are individually focused and are a
result of the instructors personal belief and assessment of each students’ motivational
state and traits. Instructors make use of languages to help students initiate and manage
their class-room activities. By making use of informational, language, teachers develop
students’ inner urge to move forward. Instructors help students to search for reasons,
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requiring them to act as the instructors want, (to think) why to act, rather than take it as
an order of the instructor.
5.2.3 Material Utilization Competencies Little-john and Wind-eatt (1989) argue that materials have a hidden curriculum
that includes attitudes toward knowledge, teaching and learning, attitudes toward the role
and relationship of the teacher and student, and values and attitudes related to gender and
society, etc.
The essential teaching skills involve arrangement of the course material and other
material aids. The material skills involve in selecting and presenting materials intended
for lesson and how best to use it. Good instructors make comprehensive plans for their
lessons to communicate their instructional activities related to a special subject-matter.
These plans contain the basic objective of learning by the students, the procedures to
transmit knowledge, the materials to be used during instructions and in some cases
descriptive procedures to evaluate the students.
Data was collected to find how far teachers are using relevant teaching material and
whether they are using prescribed teaching tools, such as text books. The results to these
queries are shown below in the table.
Table 5.3 Items analysis of material utilization competencies
Percentages Statements A UD DA Total χ2
The teacher selects appropriate and relevant teaching materials
74.55% 6.36% 19.09% 100% 260.24
The teacher uses prescribed teaching tools 52.73% 10.30% 36.97% 100% 91.05
The teacher uses personal teaching tools in addition to the prescribed tools.
32.73% 5.15% 62.11% 100% 160.71
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Calculated value of χ2 is found to be 260.24, which is greater than the table value
at 0.05 level. Statistically course is significant difference in the opinion of the respondent.
The inclination of respondents (74.55%) is towards agreement with the statement. Hence
the statement “The teacher selects appropriate and relevant teaching materials” is
accepted. The second statement that teachers are using prescribed teaching tools and
material, calculated value of χ2 is found to be 91.05, which is greater than the table value
at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference in the opinion of the respondent.
The inclination of respondents (52.73%) is towards agreement with the statement. Hence
the statement "The teacher uses prescribed teaching tools” is accepted. Calculated value
of χ2 in the third statement found to be 160.71 which is greater than the table value at
0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (62.11%) is towards disagreement with the
statement. Hence the statement "The teacher uses personal teaching tools in addition to
the prescribed tools” is rejected. The results show mixed trends, generally traditional
teachers avoid using teaching materials other than that prescribed in the curriculum.
Allwright (1990) argues that materials should enable students to learn, that they should be
the resource books for ideas and activities for instruction/learning, and that they should
give teachers the rationales for what they do. From Allwright's point of view, textbooks
are too inflexible to be used directly as instructional material.
O'Neill (1990), in contrast, argues that materials may be suitable for students'
needs, even if they are not designed specifically for them & that textbooks make it
possible for students to review and prepare their lessons. Textbooks are efficient in
terms of time and money, and can and should allow for adaptation and improvisation.
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The above discussion indicates that teachers should be flexible in selecting teaching
material, other than the text books and prescribed curriculum.
5.2.4 Instructional Process Competencies
The capacity of teachers to organize classrooms and manage behavior of students
therein is crucial to achieve positive results. It is true that sound behavior management
does not guarantee effective instructions, but it does establish the environmental context
that makes good teaching possible. Looking it differently, we may say that highly
effective teaching reduces, but does not eliminate, classroom behavior problems (Emmer
and Stough, 2001).
Instructional process involves overall classroom management skills. It is the
ability of teachers to effectively manage classroom behavior; and necessitate a systematic
approach to the preparation undertaken by the instructor. Professionally trained teachers
can narrow down to effective instructional strategies so as to avoid academic and
behavioral problems of the students. Instruction that is effective in encouraging high
rates of academic engagement and on-task behavior is characterized by several key
features (Carnine, 1976):
1 Instructional material that students find educationally relevant;
2 A planned, sequential order that is logically linked to development of sills at
students’ instructional level
3 Frequent opportunities for students to respond to academic workload. For
example, the use of response cards, choral responding and peer tutoring are ways
to increase such opportunities (Christle & Schuster, 2003; Greenwood, Delquadri,
& Hall., 1989; Lambert, Cartledge, Heward, & Lo, 2006);
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4 Guided practice;
5 Immediate feedback and error correction;
On the basis of the key features of instructional process, a questionnaire was
prepared and experimented to find, how far teacher applies contemporary knowledge and
new ideas, in teaching and management of classroom discipline etc. the results of are
shown in the following table
Table 5.4 Items analysis of instructional process competencies
Percentages
Statements
A UD DA Total χ2
The teacher applies contemporary knowledge and new ideas in teaching
36.06% 6.06% 57.88% 100% 134.02
The teacher uses different questioning techniques 59.09% 3.94% 36.97% 100% 152.53
The teacher manages discipline in his/her classroom. 71.21% 2.73% 26.06% 100% 240.02
The teacher uses time management techniques in teaching
70.91% 3.03% 26.06% 100% 235.93
The teacher manages classroom activities properly. 52.73% 6.67% 40.61% 100% 112.87
The teacher makes clear statement of objectives of lesson to students before starting teaching
43.94% 3.64% 52.42% 100% 134.53
The teacher prepares course contents properly
56.06% 3.94% 40.00% 100% 141.07
The calculated value of χ2 in application of the contemporary knowledge and new
ideas during instructional process is found to be 134.02, which is greater than the table
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value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (57.88%) is towards disagreement with
the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher applies contemporary knowledge and
new ideas in teaching” is rejected. Providing instructions to student with appropriate
material and knowledge is extremely important. Moreover instructional process becomes
more interesting when teacher is using questioning techniques to arouse students’ interest
in the lesson. This question was also asked with teachers who possess pre-service
professional training. Calculated value of χ2 was found to be 152.53 which is greater
than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (59.09%) is towards
agreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher uses different
questioning techniques” is accepted.
The use of rules is a powerful, component of classroom organization and
management plans. Rules establish the behavioral context of the classroom by specifying
expected behaviors from the student, what behavior will be reinforced, and the
consequences for inappropriate behavior (e.g. reteaching the behavioral expectation). If
rules are sated or worded positively to describe the expected behavior, rather than what
not to do, problem behavior is more easily prevented (Colvin, Kame’enui, & Sugai, 1993;
Kerr and Nelson, 2002). To enquire about the skill of the teacher for maintaining
discipline in the classroom calculated value of χ2 was found to be 240.02 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (71.21%) is
towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher manages
discipline in his/her classroom “is accepted.
During instructional process, time management or time division in another
important feature and to know how far teachers are keeping proper time management in
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the class calculated value of χ2 is found to be 235.93, which is greater than the table
value at 0.05 level. The inclination of respondents (70.91%) is towards agreement with
the statement. Hence the statement “The teacher uses time management techniques in
teaching” is accepted. There is another linked question to classroom management, that,
how far teachers are able to manage overall classroom activity or not and calculated
value of χ2 was found to be 112.87 which are greater than the table value at 0.05 level..
The inclination of respondents (52.73%) is towards agreement with the statement. Hence
the statement "The teacher manages classroom activities properly” is accepted.
One of the significant elements of the instructional process is how a teacher
makes opening statement of the lecture. Clear opening of lesson to student at the
appropriate levels is also necessary. If teacher is able to make clear statement of
objectives before starting teaching and prepares the contents of the lesson accordingly,
effectiveness of the teaching is enhanced. The calculated value of χ2 is found to be
134.53. This is greater than the table value at 0.05 levels. Statistically, there is significant
difference of opinion. The inclination of respondents (52.42%) is towards disagreement
with the statement. Hence the statement” The teacher makes clear statement of objectives
of lesson to students before starting teaching” is rejected. The calculated value of χ2
whether, teachers prepares course contents properly is found to be 141.07 which is
greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically, there is significant difference of
opinion. The inclination of respondents (56.06%) is towards agreement with the
statement. Hence the statement “The teacher prepares course contents properly “is
accepted. Out of the seven statements asked to professional teachers, five are accepted
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and two are rejected after application of the test. It is leading to the inference that
generally teachers are controlling the classroom instructional process.
5.2.5 Teaching Evaluation Competencies
The purpose of effective school and effective teacher is to provide every student
the opportunity for quality education. An effective school always attracts and retains high
quality teachers. Similarly, it is required from the students that they come prepared and
want to learn. The student must be made to realize that he / she will be responsible for
his / her family, community and ultimately the country. Teachers are role models,
mentors for the students. They use instructional process to ensure effectiveness and goals
and standards of the school. Important elements of quality instruction include methods
effective delivery, time management, assessing and providing additional / advanced
opportunities in learning process.
The teacher is committed to provide resources, material support to the students.
Once teacher is providing quality instructions, it is necessary to evaluate teachers’
performance. Evaluation here has two fold meanings, one evaluation relates to teachers’
own competency to evaluate and assess students during the classroom instructional
process and after class as well. The other is teacher’s own evaluation. Here the researcher
observed that how teacher judges students. This evaluation differs from tests and other
forms of students assessment and is aimed at overall improvement of the student rather
than achieving grades only. The basic goal of teaching evaluation is to understand more
about the learning, made by them and to improve teaching practices. The questionnaire
developed and results are shown in the following table.
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Table 5.5 Items analysis of teaching evaluation competencies
Percentages
Statements A UD DA Total χ2
The teacher uses various evaluation techniques 26.67% 1.21% 72.12% 100% 255.49
The teacher assesses student’s behavior effectively 28.48% 5.76% 65.76% 100% 181.69
The teacher assesses students own work adequately 51.82% 8.18% 40.00% 100% 100.85
The teacher always keeps record of individual students 28.48% 7.27% 64.24% 100% 164.15
Higher academic qualification improves teacher’s job effectiveness.
66.36% 5.15% 28.48% 100% 188.96
The ability of a teacher to perform effectively is an inborn quality 67.29% 4.98% 27.73% 100% 191.46
Professional qualification improves teacher’s job effectively 63.33% 4.24% 32.42% 100% 172.96
The teacher uses evaluation data to improve job situation. 22.12% 3.03% 74.85% 100% 273.98
The teacher has direct interaction with his/her students 41.52% 3.03% 55.45% 100% 145.98
It was asked how far teachers are using various evaluation techniques, the
calculated value of χ2 is found to be 255.49, which is greater than the table value at 0.05
levels. Statistically there is significant difference of opinion. The inclination of
respondents (72.12%) is towards disagreement with the statement. Hence the statement
“The teacher uses various evaluation techniques” is rejected. It is very important that the
teacher should use evaluation techniques, in order to assess student understanding level.
There is another way of evaluation that is by assessing the behavior of the student. It is
very important to make overall assessment, the class behavior and an individual student’s
interest in the class. The calculated value of χ2 is found to be 181.69 which is greater
than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically there is significant difference of opinion.
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The inclination of respondents (65.76%) is towards disagreement with the statement.
Hence statement “The teacher assesses student’s behavior effectively” is accepted. The
other student evaluation by the teacher is to assess student work quality. Another question
is also asked about the assessment of the student work by the teacher and the calculated
value of χ2 is found to be 100.85 which is greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The
inclination of respondents (51.82%) is towards agreement with the statement. Hence the
statement "The teacher assesses students own work adequately” is accepted. The results
show that teachers are generally engaged in evaluation process, in a traditional manner
and not using new and innovative evaluating techniques. It was also tried to know, that
teachers are in the habit of keeping individual record of the students or not. The
calculated value of χ2 is found to be 164.15, which is greater than the table value at 0.05
level. The inclination of respondents (64.24%) is towards disagreement with the
statement. Hence the statement “The teacher always keeps record of individual students”
is rejected.
As discussed earlier the evaluation has two parts. First is the evaluation of the
students by the teachers. The second part of the evaluation process is teacher’s
evaluation. Good quality of teaching is important to improve student outcomes and
overall school effectiveness. It reduces gaps in student learning. Evaluating the
performance of teacher evaluation enables meaningful appraisals, that results in
professional learning and growth. The process develops teacher development and
identifies further openings, for additional qualifications. The basic purposes of these
questions asked from teachers are whether they believe in the process of achieving higher
qualification to improve their teaching skills or not. The calculated value of χ2 was found
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to be 188.96 which is greater than the table value at 0.05 level. The inclination of
respondents (66.36%) is towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement
"Higher academic qualification improves teacher’s job effectiveness” is accepted. It is
generally believed that teachers have inborn quality to teach and in case teachers don’t
have this inborn quality then they can improve by learning process. The calculated value
of χ2 is found to be 191.46 which is greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically
there is significant difference of opinion. The inclination of respondents (67.29%) is
towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement “The ability of a teacher to
perform effectively is an inborn quality” is accepted. Teachers were also asked that how
far professional development enhances the teaching skills. The calculated value of χ2
was found to be 172.96 which is greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Statistically
there is significant difference of opinion. The inclination of respondents (63.33%) is
towards agreement with the statement. Hence the statement " Professional qualification
improves teacher’s job effectively” is accepted.
5.2.6 Focused Group Discussions – Principals
The researcher has made efforts to obtain maximum information about school
effectiveness. These efforts required that the study draws reliable information on
standards of school effectiveness. To achieve this, substantial literature was reviewed,
which helped in highlighting these standards, which if practiced would effectively
improve school effectiveness. During the process of literature review, it was felt
necessary to obtain, views of principals also, as they were practically implementing
standards for school effectiveness.
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Participation of principals in the study was thus considered as an essential aid and
help in arriving at realistic opinions.
A focused group discussion was held with a group of twenty principals, regarding
standards and practices in schools. Leading questions for the focused group discussion
are given at Annex-A. Summary of discussion is given below:
a) What are the major standards of school effectiveness?
Majority, were of the view that there is no single answer to these standards and it
is rather a contested concept. According to the discussion, the standards of school
effectiveness depend on many factors, including educational philosophy of particular
nation, demographic and cultural development, standards set by national educational
policies, as per the needs of society and the socio-economic development etc.
After detailed discussion, the participants of Focused Group Discussion (FGDs) agreed,
on the following major standards for school effectiveness.
1 Effectiveness of Teacher’s training
2 Students achievement – as reflected in annual results
3 Overall personality development of students
Seventy percent of participants were of the view, that the above mentioned
standards can only be achieved through effective teacher. They were of the view, that
without effective teacher, it is not possible that students can get good marks or his
personality can be groomed effectively.
These points generated further discussion, as to, what are the major areas of
teacher effectiveness, which need to be focused. The participants agreed on the
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following competencies, which if developed, will make a teacher, an effective agent of
school effectiveness.
1 Appropriate subject knowledge
2 Professional Training
3 Understanding of students needs
4 Professionalism and commitment
b) What is the role of a teacher in school effectiveness?
Sixty five percent of the participants, were of the considered view, that teacher
has to play, a leading role in school effectiveness, while 35% were of the view, that the
leading role is not limited to the teacher alone. They were of the view that there are
many other factors, which have to be considered for school effectiveness.
These include infrastructure and other physical facilities, funds and grants,
parental involvement and national educational policies. Majority emphasized on the
importance of teacher and teacher’s training and considered it as a major component of
school effectiveness.
The focused group was also of the view, that a teacher can play a leading role in
school effectiveness, if he / she is well trained. According to them the training will help
him / her, to become an effective teacher. A trained teacher will produce better results
and better groom students’ personality.
It was further opined, that role of a teacher can be viewed from various angles,
which include teacher’s ability to create interest and love of learning among students, his
/ her role in grooming and giving sense of proportion & purpose to students. This group
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placed more importance on personality development, which encourages other faculties.
These factors will contribute in obtaining, good results, by the students.
c) What are the problems in implementation?
The participants were of the view, that teacher’s willingness and motivation is a
major problem in implementation of the required standards. It was also agreed that
teacher training is a problematic area, and that teachers have to be motivated, to focus on
the students, to inculcate the spirit of competition and achieving higher results.
Majority of the participants agreed, that most of the teachers are not properly
trained, as per required and accepted standards of an effective teacher.
Most teachers are lacking in pedagogical competencies. Besides, the teacher’s
subject knowledge is not adequate and satisfactory. It was also pointed out that
knowledge of the teacher regarding children psychology is not sufficient. They are
unable to handle the behavior of students or suitably advise and direct them.
5.3 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
This research study aimed at finding out the relationship between teacher
competencies and school effectiveness. Research questions were developed to determine
professional competencies of the teachers. This is to find out how far these teaching
competencies are practiced by the professionally trained teachers in Workers Welfare
Model Schools. WWF has been hiring traditionally trained teachers who have graduated
from the teachers training institutes in the country, awarding B.Ed and M.Ed Degrees.
Workers Welfare Fund also launches in its own in-service training programs from time to
time, which has not been touched in this study due to delimitation.
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Teachers’ student relationship is fundamental in school effectiveness. Valuable
researches have been done during the last two decades in school effectiveness. The term
‘school effectiveness’ has been used to describe educational research concerned with
exploring differences within and between schools (Goldstein, 1997).
These researches are mainly focusing on the student’s progress. The effective
school is described as "one in which pupils progress further than might be expected from
consideration of its intake" (Mortimore, 1991a, p.9). Various researches are continuing
to measure school effectiveness, which has already been covered in the literature review.
1. The ‘multi-level modeling’ is the statistical technique of quantitative research,
which is adopted from school effectiveness researchers, in order to investigate
various factors that might influence pupils’ performance (Goldstein, 1987).
Keeping in view this technique, one factor, dealing with how far professionally
developed and trained teachers are adding value in school effectiveness has been
studied in this research.
2. This research study is aimed at how teachers can make the normal school more
effective. The research question that how do teaching skills contribute in school
effectiveness? Results of all the teaching competencies show that teachers are
using pedagogy in a very traditional manner. Findings show that teaching
competencies in WWF professionally trained teachers are not fully utilized. The
majority of teachers disagreed that they used problem solving methods in
teaching; they used individual teaching methods for individual differences and
they also utilized teaching situation effectively. Same was the result found by the
researcher in his observation of actual classroom teaching. The other findings also
143
show that good a teachers make schools more effective and there is direct
relationship between teachers and effective schools.
3. Second research question relates to the essential qualities required of
professionally trained teacher. This research proves that effective teacher is one
who manages the classroom effectively and can earn respect of the students.
Professionally trained teachers are those who know what they are doing and do
the right thing continuously. An effective and efficient teacher needs all teaching
competencies, such as positive expectations, good classroom management,
designing lessons and material use competencies etc. Teachers always have high
expectations from the students. Effective instruction can be defined as
transmitting knowledge to others and not the knowledge possessed by an
individual. It is essential for teachers to encourage their students, manage the
classroom properly, clearly assess previous knowledge of students, consider the
individual characteristics of the students, assess outcomes of the teaching and
evaluate the feedback and standards of all students.
4. A teacher should have the knowledge of the principles of good teaching, which
can be applied in the classroom. This includes proper knowledge of the subject
matter and availability of teaching resources, analytical thinking and problem
solving skills, background knowledge about the students, and good teaching and
communication skills. Majority of teachers were in agreement with the statement
that the teacher appreciates students for correct answers. Most of the teachers
agreed that the teacher gave hints to students in order to lead them to the correct
answers. The results of observations done by the researcher showed that majority
144
of the teachers ‘sometimes’ appreciated their students for correct answers and it
was also concluded through classroom observations, that sixty percent teachers
did not give hints to students for correct answers. Most of the teachers never gave
second chance to students for correct answer of question asked by them.
5. Certain other things which are being identified through this study which make a
teacher outstanding. One of these things is purpose and intention to be a good
teacher. Mostly teachers agreed that they know the students but do not apply
innovative solution and problem solving techniques. Effective teachers are those
who are constantly thinking about the outcomes, they would expect from their
students. They consider how each decision, they take, enables their students to
come closer to the expected results. Effective teachers use a number of methods,
experiences, assignments and materials to ensure that the students are achieving
the required objectives. In this study, it is concluded that majority of teachers
disagreed that the teacher used reinforcement effectively, selected appropriate and
relevant teaching materials, the teacher uses prescribed teaching tools, the teacher
used personal teaching tools in addition to the prescribed tools. The actual
observation, however, done by the researcher in classrooms showed a contrary
picture, that most of the teachers did not use reinforcement techniques effectively.
Most of the teachers selected appropriate learning materials for students
frequently. Majority of teachers were not using even their personal teaching tools,
and never used devised teaching tools. It leads to the conclusions that teachers in
WWMS do not make efforts in making their school more effective
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6. It was concluded by the results of both questionnaires and observations, that most
of the teachers prepared course contents properly, majority of teachers managed
discipline in his/her classroom, teachers were following the principles of
classroom management effectively.
7. The researcher concluded that teachers were not using evaluation techniques
properly, effectively and efficiently because they were not assessing students’
behavior and students’ own work in an effective manner. Though they had ability
to select and present course contents in a good manner, they could not write or
make clear lesson objectives, they did not exhibit their general knowledge and
new ideas in their teaching. They had no interaction with students.
8. It was concluded that majority of teachers were in favour of higher qualification
academically as well as professionally, because according to them these paved the
way to improvement of their job effectiveness.
The researcher on the whole is convinced that most teachers took cognizance of
most standards of school effectiveness, however, it was verified through
classroom observations that most teachers were not practicing these standards.
3.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the present research study, there are recommendations, which may not
only improve the present competencies of the teachers but may also enhance the school
effectiveness programme particularly in WWMS and Federal / Provincial Governments,
Private Sector institutions and Civil Society Organizations directly or indirectly, most
importantly the policy makers.
146
There is need to revisit the theme of school effectiveness in WWMS system in
particular and generally in Pakistani educational system & schools in Pakistan which are still
functioning on the traditional concept of learning academics only. It is, therefore,
recommended to consider what counts for effective education, beyond academic achievement
to include such areas as student engagement, participation in community & social capital.
There is a need to explore more serious approaches to meet the “value added school” need of
the society.
There is peculiarity in WWM schools. These are having different mission as
compared with other public sector school systems. WWMS system is providing opportunities
of education to children of industrial workers. To be good and effective, WWB schools
should setup, a well defined organization, characterized by clearly defined goals and
objectives, values, and expected performance standards.
Workers Welfare Fund has to make efforts to create a professional environment for
teachers to facilitate the accomplishment of their work. Teachers who participate in decision
making which effects their work must have reasonable autonomy to carry out their required
function, develop a sense of purpose, be recognized, and treated with respect and dignity.
They should enjoy a sense of pride and fulfillment in their profession and achievement. With
this purpose behind, there is, a need to establish a Teachers Training Institute, within the
WWMS system. The institute may cater for B.Ed and M.Ed etc., programme along with short
courses. This institute may be named as National Institute of Teacher Education (NITE).
Recognizing the importance of teacher professional development, there is strong need
to examine current professional policies for teachers, at the entrance level and programs for
training of teachers on job or during the service. It is suggested that standards for professional
development of the teachers be carefully observed. There is need to set career development
147
direction through certificates, degrees, and career ladders, linked to compensation
commensurate with experience and qualifications. These achievements have to be adequately
compensated financially, based on achievement and experience.
It is suggested that the teachers go beyond traditional definition of professional
development. Today the professional development does not include 'training' which includes
learning skills, rather it includes both formal and informal measures for a teacher to learn
newer practices and a more deeper knowledge of pedagogy, their own practices and acquiring
advance understanding of the contents and resources includes. This requires support for
teachers as they face challenges when practically applying those, specially in the use of
technology. The use of current technologies and resources supplement the efforts for
continued professional development. It includes various means, “informal & formal” to
enable teachers to learn new skills as well as develop additional skills in pedagogy, how they
on practicing these, and to acquire more knowledge, about the advances made in the contents
and available resources. Teachers need to learn all formal and informal methods of imparting
knowledge among students to make their school more effective.
A future research may also be conducted, as to why most of the teachers do not
follow the concepts and standards of school effectiveness, in their teaching, despite having
knowledge and information about these concepts.
In-house seminars, workshops and conferences may also be held on different areas of
school effectiveness.
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160
Annexure A
QUESTIONS FOR FOCUSED GROUP DISCUSSION
1) What are the major standards of school effectiveness?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2) What is the role of a teacher in school effectiveness?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3) What are the problems in implementation?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
161
RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE TO DESIGN
TEACHER EDUCATION MODEL FOR SCHOOL EFFECTIVE FOUNDATION UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS &
SCIENCES
RAWALPINDI
Dear Respondent,
I am undertaking research for Ph.D on development of Teacher Education model, to
facilitate the process of school effectiveness. In this regard I have prepared a
questionnaire. The questionnaire is purely for a Ph. D dissertation (academic purposes)
and designed to help me, to find out teachers’ competencies for effective teaching.
I request you to spare some time in filling it and return the filled questionnaire in 15 days,
to enable me to meet my dead lines.
The Information supplied will be treated in strict confidence.
Thanking You,
Sincerely,
Tahir Kaleem Siddiqui
PhD Scholar
Foundation University College of
Liberal Arts & Sciences
Rawalpindi (Cantt)
Email: tahirksiddiqui@hot mail.com
162
Annexure-B
PART “A”
PERSONAL DATA
Please THE APPROPRIATE BOX
1. Gender: (a) Male (b) Female
2. Age: (a) 20-29 years (b) 30-39
(c) 40-49 (d) 50 and above
3. Designation: (a) Principal (b) Teacher
(c) Supervisor
4. Subject taught: (a) Social Sciences (b) Sciences
(c) Humanities
163
5. Higher academic and professional qualification:
(A) Academic Qualification
(a) Bachelors Degree (b) Master’s Degree
(c) M. Phil (d) Ph. D
(B) Professional Qualification
(a) B. Ed / B.Sc (ED) (b) M. Ed
(c) Doctor of Education
6. Job Experience: Years
PART “B” Please give your responses to the following items and mark the column ( ) you consider
as the most appropriate.
A= Agreed, UD= Undecided, DA= Disagree
METHODOLOGICAL COMPETENCIES
DA UD A
• I use problem solving methods in my
teaching.
• I use individual teaching methods keeping in
view the individual differences.
• I utilize teaching situation effectively.
164
MOTIVATIONAL COMPETENCIES
• I appreciate students for correct answers.
• I give hints to lead to the correct answers.
• I give second chance to give correct answers.
• I use reinforcement effectively.
MATERIAL UTILIZATION COMPETENCIES
• I select appropriate and relevant teaching
materials
• I use prescribed teaching tools effectively
• I use my own teaching tools over and above
the prescribed tools.
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS COMPETENCIES
•11 I apply contemporary knowledge, new ideas
in my teaching.
• I use different questioning skills.
• I manage discipline in my classroom.
• I use time management techniques in my
teaching.
• I manage and arrange classroom activities.
• I clearly state my objectives.
165
• I develop course contents properly
TEACHING EVALUATION COMPETENCIES
• I use various evaluation techniques
• I assess student’s behavior effectively
• I assess students own work effectively.
• I keep record of individual students
• Higher academic qualification improves
teacher’s job effectiveness.
• Ability to perform effectively is inborn in
teaching.
• Professional qualification improves teacher
job effectively?
• I use evaluation data to improve job
situation.
INTERACTION PROCESS COMPETENCIES
• I have direct interaction with my students
166
Annexure-C
CLASSROOM OBSERVATION SHEET
1. Name
____________________________________________________________
2. School
____________________________________________________________
3. Subject
____________________________________________________________
4. Topic
____________________________________________________________
5. Duration
____________________________________________________________
6. Class Size
____________________________________________________________
7. Date
____________________________________________________________
8. Time
____________________________________________________________
167
F= Frequently, S= Sometime, N= Never
F S N
• Used problem solving methods in his/her
teaching
• Used individual teaching methods
• Utilized teaching situation effectively.
• Students were appreciated for correct
answers.
• Students were given hints for correct
answers.
• Students were given second chance to correct
answers.
• Reinforcement effectively.
• Selected appropriate and relevant teaching
materials
• Used prescribed teaching tools effectively
• Used his/her own devised teaching tools over
and above the prescribed methods
• Applied contemporary knowledge, new
ideas in his/her teaching.
• Used questioning skills.
• Presented course contents in the classroom
properly
• Used time management techniques in his/her
teaching.
• Managed and arranged classroom.
168
• Managed discipline in the classroom.
• Clearly stated his/her objectives.
• Used various evaluation techniques
• Assessed student’s behavior effectively.
• Assessed students own work effectively.
• Assessed Presentation and explanation etc
ability
• Knowledge of subject matter
• Organization(effective learning environment)
• General knowledge
• Teacher students Interaction
• Ability to motivate students
• Ability to assess and evaluate students’ and
their own work
