Topic 11.1.1: Outline the concept and characteristics of a system

1.Function and interact in some regular, predictable manner.2.Can be isolated for the purposes of observation and study.

1.1.2: Apply the systems concept on a range of scales•Small scale local habitat – Scrub habitat•Ecosystem – The everglades in South FL•Biome – Tropical Rainforest•The entire planet – Gaia hypothesis

-all organisms and inorganic surroundings on earth are closely integrated to form a single self regulating complex system maintaining conditions for life on the planet

1.1.3: Define the terms open system, closed system, isolated systemOpen: exchange both matter and energy with surroundings (ecosystem)Closed: exchange only energy; not matter (nutrient cycles; biosphere 2)Isolated: exchange neither energy nor matter ( cosmos)

1.1.4: Describe how the first and second laws of thermodynamics are relevant to environmental systems•1st Law: Energy can be transferred and transformed but it can never be created nor destroyed–All energy in living systems comes from the sun–Into producers through photosynthesis, then consumers up the food web•2nd Law: With every energy transfer or transformation energy dissipates (heat) so the energy available to do work decreases–Always less energy at higher trophic levels-- energy/matter go from concentrated to dispersed

1.1.5: Explain the nature of equilibria•A sort of equalization or end point•Steady state equilibrium -constant changes in all directions maintain a constant state (no net change) – common to most open systems in nature•Static equilibrium - No change at all – condition to which most natural systems can be compared but this does not exist•Long term changes in equilibrium point do occur (evolution, succession)•Equilibrium is stable (systems tend to return to the original equilibrium after disturbances)

1.1.6: Define and explain the principles of positive and negative feedback

Positive Feedback Negative Feedback•A runaway cycle – often called vicious cycles•A change in a certain direction provides output that further increases that change•Change leads to increasing change – it accelerates deviationExample: Global warming1.Temperature increases - Ice caps melt2.Less Ice cap surface area - Less sunlight is reflected away from earth (albedo)3.More light hits dark ocean and heat is trapped4.Further temperature increase - Further melting of the ice

•One change leads to a result that lessens the original change•Self regulating method of control leading to the maintenance of a steady state equilibrium•Predator Prey is a classic Example–Snowshoe hare population increases–More food for Lynx - Lynx population increases–Increased predation on hares - hare population declines–Less food for Lynx - Lynx population declines–Less predation - Increase in hare population

1.1.7: Describe transfer and transformation processes•Transfers : flow through the system, involving a change in location•Transformation :lead to interactions in the system, changes of state or forming new end products-Example: Water processesRunoff = transfer, Evaporation = transformationDetritus entering lake = transfer, Decomposition of detritus is transformation

1.1.8: Distinguish between flows (inputs and outputs), and storages (stock) in relation to systems.-Inputs = things entering the system -> matter, energy, information-Flows / throughputs = passage of elements within the system at certain rates (transfers and transformations)

-Stores / storage areas = within a system, where matter, energy, information can accumulate for a length of time (stocks)-Outputs = flowing out of the system into sinks in the environment

1.1.9: construct and analyze quantitative models involving flows and storages in a system(practice) 1.Norwegian Salmon Farm 2.Rice Fish Agriculture 3.Sugar Cane Agriculture 4.Scrub Habitat 5.Sewage

Treatment Plant 6.Amazon Rainforest 7.Slash & Burn Agriculture peasant farm in Costa Rica1.1.10: Evaluate the Strengths and limitations of models

•Used when we can’t accurately measure the real event•Models are hard with the environment because there are so many interacting variables – but nothing else could do better•Allows us to predict likelihood of events•They are approximations•They may yield very different results from each other or actual events•There are always unanticipated possibilities…•Discontinuities, Synergistic interactions, Chaotic events

2.1.1: Distinguish between biotic and abiotic (physical) components of an ecosystem–Abiotic – nonliving components(water, air, nutrients, soils solar energy (insolation))–Biotic – living components(plants, animals, microorganisms)Biota

2.1.2: Define trophic levelThe position that an organism occupies in a food chain, or a group of organisms in a community that occupy the same position in food chains.

2.1.3: Identify and explain trophic levels in food chains and food webs selected from a local environment•Producers (Autotrophs) – Through photosynthesis convert radiant to chemical energy (energy transformation)•Consumers (Heterotrophs) – Must consume other organisms to meet their energy needs–Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores, Scavengers, Detritivores•Decomposers – Break down organisms into simple organic molecules (recycling materials)

TROPHIC LEVEL ESTUARY SYSTEM EVERGLADES HABITATProducer Turtle grass PhytoplanktonPrimary consumer Grass shrimp ZooplanktonSecondary consumer Pin fish Blue gillTertiary consumer Spotted sea trout BassQuaternary consumer osprey Raccoon6th trophic level alligator

2.1.4: Explain the principles of pyramids of numbers, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of productivity, and construct pyramids from given data

•Graphic models of quantitative differences between trophic levels•By second law of thermodynamics energy decreases along food webs•Pyramids are thus narrower as one ascends–Pyramids of numbers may be different - large individuals at low trophic levels – large forests–Pyramids of biomass may skew if larger organisms are at high trophic levels - biomass present at point in time – open ocean•Energy is lost between each trophic level, so less remains for the next level–Respiration, Homeostasis, Movement, Heat•Mass is also lost at each level–Waste, shedding, …

2.1.5: Discuss how the pyramid structure effects the functioning of an ecosystem

Limited length of food chains Vulnerability of top carnivores Biomagnifications•Rarely more than 4 or 5 trophic levels•Not enough energy left after 4-5 transfers to support organisms feeding high up•Possible exception marine/aquatic systems b/c first few levels small and little structure

•Effected by changes at all lower levels•Small numbers to begin with•Effected by pollutants & toxins passed through system

1.Mostly Heavy metals & Pesticides•Insoluble in water, soluble in fats,•Resistant to biological and chemical degradation, not biodegradable2.Accumulate in fatty tissues of organisms3.Amplify in food chains and webs4.Sublethal effects in reproductive & immune systems5.Long term health effects in humans include tumors, organ damage, …

2.1.6: Define the terms species, population, community, niche and habitat with reference to local examples1.Population - a group of individuals of a certain species in a given area at a given time: blue crabs in the Halifax river2.Community- interacting groups of populations in an area: the scrub community on campus3.Species - a group of individuals who can interbreed to produce fertile, viable offspring: FL panthers4.Niche - The role of an organism in its environment (multidimensional): nocturnal predator of small mammals in the forest5.Habitat - Where an organism typically lives: mangrove swamps

2.1.7: Describe and explain population interactions using examples of named species

Intraspecific competition

Interspecific competition

parasitism predation mutualism commensalism

•Competition between members of the same species for a common resource•Resource: food, space, mates, etc.• Territoriality–Organisms patrol or mark an area–Defend it against others–Good territories have•Abundant food, good nesting sites, low predator pop.–Disadvantage = Energy, Reduce gene pool

•2 or more different species involved•Competing for food, space, sunlight, water, space, nesting sites or other limited resource•If resources abundant, they can be shared but in nature they are always limited•If fundamental niches overlap - competition•One of the species must…1.Migrate if possible2.Shift feeding habits or behavior = Evolve3.Suffer a sharp

•One species feeds on part of another organism (the host) without killing it•Specialized form of predation•Parasite Characteristics1.Usually smaller than the host2.Closely associated with host3.Draws nourishment from & slowly weakens host4.Rarely kills the host•Examples = Tapeworms, ticks, fleas, fungi

•Members of one species feed directly on all or part of a living organism of a different species•Individuals - predator benefits, prey harmed•Population - prey benefits: take out the weak, greater resource access, improved gene pool•Predator plays important ecological role

•Symbiotic relationship where both species benefit•Pollination, Nutrition, Protection are main benefits•Not really cooperation, both benefit by exploiting the otherExamples1. Lichens – fungi & algae living together - food for one, structure for the other2.Plants and Rhizobium bacteria - one gets sugars the other gets nitrogen3.Oxpeckers and Rhinos - food for one, less parasites

•One species benefits the other is neither harmed nor helped–Examples1.Herbs growing in the shade of trees2.Birds building nests in trees3.Epiphytes = “Air plants” which attach themselves to the trunk or branches of trees-they have a solid base to grow on and better access to sunlight & rain

population decline4.Become extinct

for the other4.Protists and termites - break down wood for one, nutrients for the other

2.2.1: List the significant abiotic (physical) factors of an ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystems Aquatic life ecosystem-Sunlight• Temperature• Precipitation• Wind• Latitude (distance from equator)• Altitude (distance above sea level)• Fire frequency• Soil

• Light penetration • Water currents • Dissolved nutrient concentrations (especially N and P) • Suspended solids• Salinity

2.2.2: Describe and evaluate methods for measuring at least three abiotic factors in an ecosystem

terrestrial Aquatic (specify marine or fresh)–Light intensity or insolation ( lux) – light meter; consider effect of vegetation, time of day…–Temperature (C) – themometer; take at different heights, points, times of day, seasons…–Soil moisture (centibars) – tensiometer of wet mass dry mass of soil; consider depth of soil sample, surrounding vegetation, slope…

-- Salinity (ppt) – hydrometer; consider role of evaporation–Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) – DO meter, Winkler titration; consider living organisms, water circulation,–pH – pH probe or litmus paper; consider rainfall input, soil and water buffering capacity–Turbidity (FTU) – Secchi disk or turbidity meter; consider water movement,

2.3.1: Construct simple keys and use published keys for the identification of organisms•http://www.earthlife.net/insects/orders-key.html#key•Sample key for insect ID•http://people.virginia.edu/~sos-iwla/Stream-Study/Key/Key1.HTML•Macroinvertebrate key2.3.2: Describe and evaluate methods for estimating abundance of organisms

Mark and recapture method Quadrat method•Used for fish & wildlife populations•Traps placed within boundaries of study area•Captured animals are marked with tags, collars, bands or spots of dye & then immediately released•After a few days or weeks, enough time for the marked animals to mix randomly with the others in the population, traps are set again•The proportion of marked (recaptured) animals in the second trapping is assumed equal to the proportion of marked animals in the whole population•Repeat the recapture as many times as possible to ensure accuracy of results•Marking method should not affect the survival or fitness of the organismN = (# marked in first catch) (Total # in second catch)/

-Used for plants or sessile organisms1.Mark out a gridline along two edges of an area2.Use a calculator or tables to generate two random numbers to use as coordinates and place a quadrat on the ground with its corner at these coordinates3.Count how many individuals of your study population are inside the quadrat4.Repeat steps 2 & 3 as many times as possible5.Measure the total size of the area occupied by the population in square meters6.Calculate the mean number of plants per quadrat. Then calculate the population size with the following equation7.N = (Mean # per quadrat) (total area) Area of each quadrat

# of Recaptures in second catchEVALUATION

You don’t have to count every single organism in the habitat

Best in closed environments

Moving Organisms only

EVALUATIONYou don’t have to count every single organism in the habitat

Quadrats that are randomly placed may never or rarely sample your target species

Sessile Organisms only Size must match the size of organisms sampled

2.3.3: Describe and evaluate methods for estimating the biomass of trophic levels in an ecosystem•Take quantitative samples – known area or volume•Measure the whole habitat size•Dry samples to remove water weight•Take Dry mass for sample then extrapolate to entire trophic level•sample biomass / sample area = total biomass / total area•Evaluation It is an estimate based on assumption that–all individuals at that trophic level are the same–The sample accurately represents the whole habitat–But it prevents you from killing the whole trophic level to get your measurement

2.3.4: Define the term diversityOften considered as a function of two components: the number of different species & the relative number of individuals of each species

2.3.5: Apply Simpson’s diversity index and outline its significanceD = N (N – 1) Σ n (n – 1)•Where D = diversity indexN = total # of organisms of all speciesn = # of individuals of particular species•High values of “D” suggests a stable and ancient site•A low value of “D” could suggest pollution, recent colonization, or agricultural management•Index normally used in studies of vegetation but can be applied to comparisons of diversity of any species

•2.4.1: Define the term BiomeRegions of the earth characterized by specific climates and community types•Real biomes do not have sharply defined boundaries. Ecotones = Transitional zones•Biomes not uniform, instead a mosiac of patches–Vary in microclimate, soil types, disturbances

•2.4.2: Explain the distribution, structure and relative productivity of tropical rainforests, deserts, tundra and any other biome

tundra Temperate grasslands

deserts Tropical rainforest

Climate •Precipitation < 15 cm / yr – mostly snow & summer rain Arid•Bitter cold: -57 – 50 C - permafrost•low insolation gives short growing season

•Precipitation 25-45 cm / yr – enough to grow grass, erratic Semiarid•fire, drought, animals prevent tree growth•May be Tropical, Temperate•Moderate insolation

•Precipitation < 25 cm / yr – scattered unevenly through year Arid•May be Tropical, Temperate and Cold types – always extremes•High to moderate insolation

•Precipitation over 150 cm / yr – Wet – still rainy and dry seasons•Warm humid year round climate - 80 F•high insolation gives long growing season

distribution •60 – 75 N latitude – northern North America, Asia, Greenland•About 20% of the earth’s surface

•9% of earth surface - Temperate Latitudes – Major onesNA tall grass prairie, steppes, pampas, veldt•Grasslands overall up to 40% of earth’s

•30% of earth surface - between 30 degrees north and south of the equator – Major ones Saraha (Africa), Gobi (Asia), Mojave (N. america)

•23.5 N to 23.5 S latitude – Tropic of Capricorn to Cancer•About 2% of the earth’s surface•Three chunks – S. & C. America, C. Africa, SE Asia

surfaceStructure •Simple – low spongy

mat of vegetation, lichens, mosses•Even trees are less than knee high

•Simple – grasses and herbaceous plants

•Simple – very little vegetation•Most complex is temperate desert which has largest cacti

•Complex – stratified layers•High diversity - 50-80% of terrestrial species

Relative productivity

•Low – limited by temperature and insolation

•Medium to high – high turnover of grasses, rich soils

•Low – limited by water availability

•Highest in terrestrial system – unlimited by temperature and insolation

2.5.1: Explain the role of producers consumers and decomposers in an ecosystem•Producers (Autotrophs) – Through photosynthesis convert radiant to chemical energy (energy transformation)•Consumers (Heterotrophs) – Must consume other organisms to meet their energy needs–Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores, Scavengers, Detritivores•Decomposers – Break down organisms into simple organic molecules (recycling materials)

2.5.2: Describe photosynthesis and respiration in terms of inputs, outputs and energy transformations.

2.5.3: Describe and explain the transfer and transformation of energy as it flows through an ecosystem•30% solar energy reflected back into space by atmosphere, clouds, ice•20% absorbed by clouds & atmosphere•50% remaining–Warms troposphere and land–Evaporates and cycles water–Generates wind•< 0.1% captured by producers for photosynthesis•Energy eventually transformed to heat and trapped by atmosphere “Natural Greenhouse Effect”•Eventually reradiated into space

2.5.4: Describe and explain the transfer and transformation of materials as they cycle within an ecosystem

2.5.5: Define the terms gross productivity, net productivity, primary productivity, and secondary productivity1.gross productivity – total biomass produced2.net productivity – total biomass produced minus amount used by organism

3.primary productivity – productivity at 1st trophic level4.secondary productivity – productivity at higher trophic level5.gross primary productivity – rate at which producers use photosynthesis to make more biomass6.net primary productivity – rate at which energy for use by consumers is stored in new biomass

2.5.6: Define the terms and calculate the values of gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP) from given data.

•Gross Primary Production (GPP) - Amount of light energy converted into chemical energy by photosynthesis per unit time–Joules / Meter2 / year•Net Primary Production (NPP)- GPP – R, or GPP – some energy used for cell respiration in the primary producers•Represents the energy storage available for the whole community of consumers•Standing crop = Total living material at a trophic level•NPP = GPP – R

2.5.7: Define the terms and calculate the values of gross secondary productivity (GSP) and net secondary productivity (NSP) from given data.

•Gross Secondary Productivity (GSP) - Total gain by consumers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time through absorption (What they eat, digest and absorb)•Net Secondary Productivity (NSP) - The gain by consumers in energy or biomass per unit time remaining after allowing for respiratory losses (R)•GSP = Food eaten – fecal losses•NSP = change in mass over time•NSP = GSP – R

2.6.1: Explain the concepts of limiting factors and carrying capacity in the context of population growth•Capacity for growth = Biotic potential•Rate at which a population grows with unlimited resources is intrinsic rate of increase (r)•High (r) - (1)reproduce early in life, (2)short generation time, (3)multiple reproductive events, (4)many offspring each time

•Environmental resistance = all factors which limit the growth of populations•Population size depends on interaction between biotic potential and environmental resistance•Carrying capacity (K) = # of individuals of a given population which can be sustained infinitely in a given area•Carrying capacity established by limited resources in the environment•Only one resource needs to be limiting even if there is an over abundance of everything else•Ex. Space, food, water, soil nutrients, sunlight, predators, competition, disease

2.6.2: Describe and explain s and J population curves•Exponential growth - starts slow and proceeds with increasing speed– J curve results–Occurs with few or no resource limitations•Logistic growth - (1) exponential growth, (2) slower growth (3) then plateau at carrying capacity– S curve results–Population will fluctuate around carrying capacity

2.6.3: Describe the role of density-dependent and density-independent factors and internal and external factors, in the regulation of population

•Density Independent Factors: effects regardless of population density•Mostly regulates r-strategists–Floods, fires, weather, habitat destruction, pollution–Weather is most important factor•Density dependent Factors: effects based on amount of individuals in an area•Operate as negative feedback mechanisms leading to stability or regulation of populationExternal Factors–Competition, predation, parasitism–Disease – most epidemics spread in cramped conditionsInternal Factors–Reproductive effects - Density dependent fertility, Breeding territory size

2.6.4: Describe the principles associated with survivorship curves including K and r-strategists•Two idealized categories for reproductive patterns but really it’s a continuum•r-selected & K-selected species depending on position on sigmoid population curve•r-selected species: (opportunists) reproduce early, many young few survive–Common after disturbance, but poor competitors•K-selected species: (competitors) reproduce late, few young most survive–Common in stable areas, strong competitors•Different life expectancies for different species•Survivorship curve: shows age structure of population1.Late loss curve: K-selected species with few young cared for until reproductive age2.Early loss curve: r-selected species many die early but high survivorship after certain age3.Constant loss curve: intermediate steady mortality

2.6.5 – Describe the concept and process of succession in a named habitat•Ecological Succession: the gradual change in species composition of a given area over time•Species do change spatially within an area at a certain point in time, this is zonation not succession•2 Types depending on start point–Primary succession: gradual establishment of biological communities on lifeless ground–Secondary succession: reestablishment of biotic communities in an area where they already existed

2.6.6 – Explain the changes in energy flow, gross and net productivity, diversity and mineral cycling in different stages of succession

1.Diversity•Starts very low in harsh conditions few species tolerate – r selected species types•Middle succession mix of various species types – most diverse (role of disturbance)•Climax – k selected species strong competitors dominate2.Mineral Cycling•Pioneer, physical breakdown & make organic, Later processing increase – cycles expand

3. Gross productivity changes (total photosynthesis)•Pioneer = Low density of producers at first•Middle & climax = high - lots of producers and consumers4. Net Productivity (G – R = N)•Pioneer = little respiration so Net is large - system is growing, biomass accumulating•Middle & climax = respiration increases dramatically - N approaches zero (P:R = 1)5. Energy flow•# of trophic levels increases over time•Energy lost as heat increases with more transfers

2.6.7 – Describe the factors affecting the nature of climax communities•Characterized by K-selected species•Determined by–climate in the area – temperature, weather patterns–Edaphic factors – saturated wet, mesic, arid•Climax community structure is in stable equilibrium for each area•Humans & other factors may maintain an equilibrium below climax–E.g. current warming trends make climax rainforest communities w/ softer wood, faster growing species

2.7.1 – Describe and evaluate methods of measuring change in abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem along an environmental gradient

•Biota = living organisms•Change in benthic (bottom) community of rocky intertidal with increased depth•Gradient in moisture or drying•Use modified quadrat method–run transect into deeper water–At set depths place quadrat and sample organisms–Do repeated transects along your sample area–Calculate differences in communities with depthAbiotic – pick the variable and test samples at different depths

2.7.2: Describe and evaluate methods for measuring change in abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem due to a specific human activity

•Measure a comparable area at the same time1.Pick an area with similar habitat characteristics as your impacted area2.Pick an index to use-Biotic: population numbers, biodiversity, etc-Abiotic: chemical test, DO, specific pollutant3.Choose an appropriate sampling method (CMR, quadrat)4.Monitor over time and compare changes

•Pre and Post impact assessment1.In the area where the impact will take place2.Do steps 2-4 from 3.Start a reasonable amount of time before the impact and continue afterwards

Measuring the effects of Eutrophication•A Method•Compare two ponds of comparable size, habitat etc that differ in proximity to a cattle feed lot•Variables to study = DO, algal density•Take satellite images before and after if possible but specifically over time and see changes in turbidity in both ponds•Sample fixed volume of water and filter out algae – calculate density changes over time•Sample remaining water for DO use as a means of doing BOD experiment•In each case T-tests will show you if the ponds are different•Evaluate• Other factors like temp can effect DO•Satellite images can be inaccurate•Eutrophication is part of natural aquatic succession•GOOD - These variables are good indicators of the amount of eutrophication that is happening

2.7.3: Describe and evaluate the use of environmental impact assessment (EIAs)•An EIS typically has four sections:•An Introduction including a statement of the Purpose and Need of the Proposed Action.•A description of the Affected Environment.

•A Range of Alternatives to the proposed action. Alternatives are considered the "heart" of the EIS.•An analysis of the environmental impacts of each of the possible alternatives.•While not required in the EIS, the following subjects may be included as part of the EIS or as separate documents based on agency policy.•Financial Plan for the proposed action identifying the sources of secured funding for the action. For example, the Federal Highway Administration has started requiring states to include a financial plan showing that funding has been secured for major highway projects before it will approve an EIS and issue a Record of Decision.•An Environmental Mitigation Plan is often requested by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) if substantial environmental impacts are expected from the preferred alternative.•Additional documentation to comply with state and local environmental policy laws and secure required federal, state, and local permits before the action can proceedSteps will include pre, during and post impact assessments1.Produce a baseline study to see how the environment is in a natural state (done before any environmental development)2.Assessment of possible impacts3.Monitor change during the development4.Monitor change after the development

3.1.1: Describe the nature and explain the implications of exponential growth in human populations•Reasons for the Human Population Explosion•Death rates dropping faster because of•Causes of disease recognized•Improvements in nutrition•Discovery of antibiotics•Improvements in medicine•Increase in number of women who actually reach child-bearing ageImplications of Exponential Growth–Biotic potential exceeds environmental resistance: birth rates exceed death rates–Outstrip our resource base – nonrenewable gone, renewable maybe used faster than replaced–Increase strain on the environment – pollution, sanitation needs, biodiversity loss–Increase food production & land under production

3.1.2: Calculate and explain, from given data, the values of crude birth rate, crude death rate, fertility , doubling time and natural increase rate

•3 factors effecting population birth, death, & migration•Population change = (Birth + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)•Rates more often used•Crude Birth rate = # live births / 1000 people in year population•Crude Death rate = # deaths / 1000 people in year population-(CBR – CDR)/10 = Rate of increase or decrease in population per 1,000 per year-70/Rate of Increase = Doubling Time

3.1.3: Analyze age/sex pyramids and diagrams showing demographic transition models•Analysis by sex, of the proportion of population at each age level•3 main age categories–Prereproductive: 0 – 14 years–Reproductive: 15 – 44 years–Postreproductive: 45 and up•Represent a good comparison between countries•Compare Growth - Rapid, Slow, Zero, Negative

3.1.4: Discuss the use of models in predicting the growth of human populations•As countries become industrialized first death rate then birth rate will decline1.Preindustrial Stage - harsh living conditions = little population growth, high B & D2.Transitional Stage - industrialization starts, better healthcare & food = population growth is rapid, high B & lower D3.Industrial Stage - Industry continues = population grows but slowly, B > D by a little4.Postindustrial Stage - population growth stops, B = D (13% of world) then B < D an may start to decline (this may be stage 5)

3.2.1: Explain the concept of resources in terms of natural income•Term coined by ecologically minded economists•If properly managed renewable & replenishable resources are forms of wealth that can produce “natural income”•“natural income” = indefinitely available valuable goods and services (based off of renewable and replenishable)–Marketable commodities or goods (timber, grain)–Ecological / Life-support services (flood & erosion protection from forests)•Non-renewable resources = forms of economic capital that cannot generate wealth without being liquidated

3.2.2: Define the terms renewable, replenishable, and non-renewable natural capital

3.2.3: Explain the dynamic nature of the concept of a resource•Cultural, economic, and technological factors influence a resource’s status over time and space•Uranium – never valued, but with advent of nuclear technologies now extremely valuable•Bluefin Tuna – prior to 1970 exclusively sport fish (.05 / lb) - Japanese specialty market develops –now a single large fish has sold for $180,000•Solar Power – 1960s space race makes it important - 1970s oil embargo makes it critical - 1990s competes with dropping oil prices - now peak oil and increasing price make it desirable again

3.2.4: discuss the view that the environment can have its own intrinsic value•Ecological, Economic, Aesthetic value•Value assigned based on diverse perspectives•Industrial Societies emphasize monetary & economic valuations of nature•Economic value determined by market price of goods or services produced•Extrinsic Values•It does have intrinsic value though•May not provide goods or services identifiable as commodities so they are undervalued•Ecological processes have no formal value•Still important though - waste elimination, flood & erosion control, nitrogen fixation, photosynthesis•Essential for existence but taken for granted•Value from spiritual, ethical, or philosophical perspective

3.2.5: Explain the concept of sustainability in terms of natural capital and natural income•Living within the means of nature, on the interest or sustainable income generated by natural capital•Societies supporting themselves by depleting essential forms of natural capital are unsustainable•If well being dependent on certain goods or services must harvest with care•Specifically long term harvest or degradation (pollution) should not exceed rates of capital renewal

3.2.6: discuss the concept of sustainable development•Term first used in 1987 in Our Common Future•Development that meets current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs•Economist view - stable annual return on investment regardless of environmental impact•Environmentalist view - stable return without environmental degradationThe Earth Summit (1992) and its aftermath•Rio de Janeiro Conference on the Environment and Development•Agenda 21 - focus on sustainable development for the 21st century•Followed by 2002 world summit on sustainable development in Johannesburg

3.2.7: Calculate and explain sustainable yields from given data and use•Sustainable Yield = SY•SY = Rate of increase in natural capital•Amount to exploit without depleting initial stock or potential for replenishment•SY for a crop = annual gain in biomass or energy•These gains from growth or recruitment (production of offspring)

3.3.1: Outline the range of energy resources available to a societyNon-renewable•Fossil fuels coal, oil, natural gas •Nuclear - fission, fusionRenewable•Solar passive, active •Hydroelectric •Geothermal •Wind•The relative use of different forms depends on the particular area, its needs and its own available resources

3.3.2: Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of two contrasting energy sources

3.3.3: Discuss the factors that affect the choice of energy sources adopted by different societies•Iceland uses geothermal energy because of their location and its low environmental impacts•China, US, Russia use coal because they have a lot of it available and it’s cheap economically•US dependence on oil is cultural because of our insistence on cars, suburbs, bigger, more, better•EU more nuclear power use because of environmental benefits and they have the technology to do it•LDCs use wood, dung other biofuels that are easily collected

3.4.1: Outline how soil systems integrate aspects of living systems•Links to lithosphere, atmopshere, and living organisms•What are they?•Inputs - organic materials, parent materials, precipitation, infiltration, Energy•Outputs - leaching, uptake by plants, mass movement•Transfers - deposition•Transformations decomposition, weathering & nutrient cycling•Surface litter = O horizon–Fresh and partly decomposed organics•Topsoil layer = A horizon–Humus mixed with inorganics–Most life in O & A•Subsoil = E top, B horizon–Broken down Inorganics•Parent material (bedrock) = C horizon

3.4.2: Compare and contrast the structure and properties of sand, clay, and loam soils including their effect on primary productivity

3.4.3: Outline the processes and consequences of soil degradation•Lead to degradation by erosion, toxification, salinization, desertification

Overgrazing Deforestation Unsustainable Ag Irrigation– plants exposed to intensive grazing over long periods of time or without sufficient recovery period•Reduces Biodiversity•Causes Desertification and Erosion•Increases Erosion by loss of cover species and loss of roots that held the soil in place•Erosion leads to loss of organics and drop in productivity•In marginal lands this may lead to desertification as grassland becomes desert when productivity plummets

- Removal of large sections of forest habitat•Increases rates of erosion by increasing runoff and reducing litter protection on the surface•Roads created and machinery used also increases erosion•Roots may hold soil in place and canopies may disperse the force of percipitation•On steep slopes deforestation can cause landslides

– Monoculture using high chemical & fertilizer input and fossil fuels•Characteristics of Modern Agriculture–High water input–High pesticide use–High inorganic fertilizer use•Traditional agriculture where soil is tilled at the end of a growing season•Idea good in practice – add nutrients to the soil – but bare soil exposed to erosion•Tillage also deteriorates soil structure•Can cause increased erosion, toxification and salinization

– especially done in arid areas b/c evaporation leaves everything but H2O behind•Often results from unsustainable agriculture in areas that are too arid•Remember that water includes more than just H2O–Improper drainage or high evaporation leads to salt deposition - crop damage, reduction of productivity–Unirrigated or underirrigated land can lead to build up of toxic agricultural waste products

Erosion Toxification salinization desertification•Erosion = the movement of soil components especially surface litter and topsoil, from one area to another•Caused by WIND and WATER•Plant roots usually anchor soils in place•Effects1.Loss of soil fertility and water holding capacity2.Runoff sediment pollutes water, kills organisms, clogs ditches, channels, lakes3.Increased use of fertilizers4.Increased runoff and flooding

–Toxification of Soil–When nonbiodegradable pesticides and inorganic fertilizers build up in the soil they make it toxic–Kills useful bacteria (N fixing) fungi, and decreases productivity–Can also result from release of toxic metals like Al+3 when acidity increases (N based fertilizers mixing with water forming Nitric Acid)

•Irrigation increases productivity BUT Irrigation water contains salts•Evaporation leaves crust of salts on surface•Accumulation of salts = salinization–Stunts crop growth–Lowers crop yields–Kills plants and ruins land•Reduced crop yield by 21% on irrigated land

•Desertification - enlargement of deserts through human activities•The productive potential of arid or semiarid land falls by 10% due to1.Natural climate change - prolonged drought2.Human activities reducing & degrading soilModerate = 10-25% productivity drop•Severe = 25-50% drop•Very severe >50% drop = sand dunes & gullies

3.4.4: Outline soil conservation measures•Goal: Reduce soil erosion, restore fertility•Conventional Tillage Farming is bad plow land in the fall, bare & erodable all winter•Conservation Tillage Farming disturb the soil as little as possible while planting crops•Minimum tillage or No till farming•Using conservation tillage on 80% of farmland would reduce soil erosion by 50%•Stop ploughing / planting on marginal land•Fertilizers: compounds that partially restore important soil nutrients lost by erosion, leaching and harvesting crops•Condition soils with–Organic Fertilizers: made of plant and animal materials–Lime: Increase alkalinity of the soil improves fertility–Inorganic fertilizers: only add in N, P, K nothing else that good, mature soils require

Terracing Contour plowing Alley cropping Shelter beds/wind belts–Convert steep slopes into a series of broad, nearly level

–Plowing and planting crops in rows across the contour of

-Crops planted in strips or alleys between rows of trees

Reduce wind effects1. Less erosion

terraces running across the land contour–Retains water for crops controls runoff–Marginal areas, Poor farmers, little time / manpower

gently sloping land–Each row holds soil and slows runoff

and shrubs which themselves are harvestable for wood or fruit-Trees & shrubs provide1. Shade, reducing evaporation water loss2. Retain and slowly release soil moisture3. Provide fruit, fuelwood, clippings for mulch (green manure)4. Livestock fodder

2. Retain soil moisture3. Supply products4. Habitat for animals including birds and insects that eat pests

3.4.5: Evaluate soil management strategies in a named commercial farming system and in a named subsistence farming system

Florida sugar cane farming (commercial farming) Tropical slash and burn (subsistence farming)•Soils of everglades Agricultural area are rich in organics formed from 4,400 years of sawgrass decomposition•Soils are “muck soils” and must be drained for crop growth•Even with high organic matter need inputs to keep soil fertile – N, P, K all added on the order of 0-30 lbs per acre each year depending on specific area differences•Soil subsidence happening because of uptake of organics•Water is seasonally available so may need suplementation

•Mainly associated with Tropical Rainforest areas (Madascar, Malasia, Central America)•Usually small scale subsistence•Practiced in areas with poor soils•Harvest wood, burn unusable portions•Temporary pulse of nutrients from burning•Ash also increases pH of soil•Burning can drive off pests too•Land only fertile for a few years•Abandoned when fertility declines•Forces burning of more land

3.5.1: Outline the issues involved in the imbalance in global food supply

DISTRIBUTION OF FOOD ECOLOGICAL INFLUENCE SOCIOPOLITICAL INFLUECE ECONOMIC INFLUENCE•Enough food produced in the world for entire population to have 2,720 kcal per day•Many areas no land to grow food or money to purchase it•982 million people living in poverty – actually a decrease in 20% from 1990’s•¼ of the world population consumes ¾ of the food

•Developed countries in temperate areas – plants and soils conducive to growth of high yield cereal crops and livestock• Soil fertility poor in tropical areas•Livestock native to temperate areas in most cases as well

•Poverty is a self sustaining positive feedback process•Governments in LDCs focus on exploitation of resources – Bananas in Costa Rica•Governments in developed nations subsidize fossil fuels•Support use of high yield green revolution crops•Research on and use of GMOs

•Fossil fuels & technology require $$$•Meat in the diet requires more $$$•Luxury foods

3.5.2: Compare and contrast the efficiency of terrestrial and aquatic food production systems

Terrestrial Aquatic•Most food at low trophic levels•Producers or Herbivores•Less energy loss between initial input and level of harvest

•Most food harvested at higher trophic levels•Makes total energy storages smaller•Due to tastes for fish / particularly large predatory ones•Energy conversion in this system is more efficient – sizes and lack of structural material in low trophic levels•Initial amount of sunlight fixed is less efficient because of reflection and absorption by water

3.5.3: Compare and contrast the inputs of materials and energy (energy efficiency), the system characteristics, and evaluate the relative environmental impacts of two named food production systems

•There are many food production systems around the world•They vary depending on the geography, sociopolitical dimensions, culture, needs of the area•They also vary based on the characteristics of the food being produced•We will look at a comparison of two of these many systems•Many areas of the world are dependent on fisheries for food•Fish is a major component of the human diet•Some countries almost exclusively based on seafood – Japan•With wild stocks being increasingly depleted, we are turning to fish farming for various reasons as an alternative

Rice-Fish Farming - China Norwegian salmon Farms•Fish farming in wet rice fields•In China, Han Dynasty plate (2000 years old) shows fish swimming from pond to field•Ecological symbiosis in the system – fish provides fertilizer to rice, regulates micro-climatic conditions, softens the soil, disturbs the water, and eats larvae and weeds in the flooded fields; rice provides shade and food for fish.•Provides balanced food, reduced costs and labor, less use of chemicals in the environment

•Norway and Chile produce 2/3 of the world’s farmed salmon•60% of world’s salmon is farmed•High input system of penned fish in ocean areas or on land – depends on pellet food derived from wild caught fish•High density high waste systems

Inputs – All fish food is in the system, small fish left behind as stock for next year rice requires input of small amounts of urea, N,P,K and optional lime or manure

Inputs – need pellets for feed made from fishing for smaller fish in the ocean

System Characteristics – uses native fish, polyculture using natural principles of ecosystem interaction, sustainable

System characteristics – monoculture – disease susceptible so antibiotics used, may selectively breed stocks, human manipulated

Socio-cultural - tenant farmers improve income, in china industrialization threatens its continued use

Socio-cultural – farming operations provide local jobs, if effecting local fisheries that effects jobs as well

Environmental Impacts – may use pesticides but generally less than alternatives, reducing CH4 emissions compared to normal systems

Environmental Impacts – 100,000’s escape cultivation & threaten native fish, farmed fish less effective reproducers than natural but their offspring are more successful

Outputs – fish and rice, 2 rice crops per year Outputs – antibiotics, nutrients causing eutrophication

3.5.4: Discuss the links that exist between social systems and food production systems

Modern US Asia Rice Field System–Developed, high tech, high fossil fuel input–Value speed and convenience–Capitalism based revenue generation–Removed from food production so don’t see negative results–We are willing to compromise environmental health for the benefits now from pesticides, inorganic fertilizers, machine harvest etc.

–Tied to asian cultures as a historical practice–But asian culture is changing more cosmopolitan more movement to cities–Could threaten this model system–It is a form that keeps soil fertility high in areas with high population density this can be used on the outskirts to maximize production per area.

•3.6.1: Describe the Earth’s water budget

Fresh water•97.4% of water is saline•Remaining 2.6% fresh water–80% is in ice caps & glaciers–0.59% inaccessible ground water•Remaining 20% of fresh water is in lakes, soil water, water vapor, rivers and biota in order of decreasing amount stored•0.014% of the total available for use•Patchy distribution on earth Canada = 20% of total, China = 7%

•Worldwide 70% of reliable water from surface and ground for Irrigation–18% of crop land producing 40% of world food•Industry uses 20%•Residential use 10%•Consumptive water use water not reusable in basin it came from – evaporation or pollution•Global Warming may disrupt rainfall patterns and water supplies

•3.6.2: Describe and evaluate the sustainability of freshwater resource usage

Facts •Humans get fresh water from the hydrologic cycle•We are withdrawing/ degrading water sources with waste at a faster rate than it is being replenished•Demand is increasing

Sources 1.Surface water-Precipitation that does not infiltrate the ground or return to atmosphere-Forms wetlands, lakes, rivers & resevoirs-1/3 of total runoff = reliable runoff a steady source of water-Watershed or drainage basin is a region of runoff flowing into a surface water body2.Groundwater-Precipitation infiltrates, percolates and fills voids in soil and rock-Zone of saturation = depth where voids are filled-Top of zone of saturation is water table-Above = zone of aeration-Porous layers where groundwater flows are aquifers-Recharge zone = area where water returns to aquifer

uses •Provide drinking water for 1/3 world’s people•U.S. - 51% drinking water, 43% of irrigation water from aquifers•Over pumping largely since 1950•US groundwater is being withdrawn 4X faster than it is being replaced•Also being degraded with pollutants that leach in from agriculture & other systemsDisadvantagesWater table lowering, Aquifer depletion, Aquifer subsidence (sinkholes), Salt water intrusion, Reduced stream flowAdvantagesTapping aquifer can be done year round, Not lost by evaporation, Less expensive to develop

Case studyColorado River

•6 states and 2 countries depend on water from this system•Colorado River compact formed to execute interstate agreements•Divided into upper and lower basin areas•Allocated 7.5 MAF each (million acre flow)•Lower basin almost maxed out, upper less developed and less used•Water is held behind dams and transported in aqueduct systems•Large surface area exposed for evaporation•Current growth in areas like NV will exceed ground and river water in 10 years – where will they borrow from?•Glen Canyon Dam being decomissioned to limit evaporation•River is dry by the mexican border now•Some historical droughts have limited flow to 9.5 MAF in the entire river

solutions 1.Desalinization - 2 methods distillation & reverse osmosis–13,300 desalinization plants worldwide–Expensive and high energy, produces brine2.Water conservation•65% of water used is wasted through evaporation, leaks & losses•Causes of waste–Water subsidy policies – low prices discourage conservation–Water laws – legal rights of water users–Fragmented watershed management – different distributors3.Improved Irrigation•57% irrigation water never reaches target crops – flood irrigation method–Center pivot low pressure sprinklers, Low energy precision application. Time controlled valves, Soil moisture detectors water only when necessary, Drip irrigation systems

3.7.1: Explain the difficulties in applying the concept of carrying capacity to local human populations•Environmental resistance = all factors which limit the growth of populations (limiting factors)•Population size depends on interaction between biotic potential and environmental resistance•Carrying capacity (K) = # of individuals of a given population which can be sustained indefinitely in a given area•Should be able to estimate this by examining the requirements of a species and the resources available in the environment1.Use a wide range of resources2.If a resource becomes limiting humans readily substitute others3.Requirements vary according to lifestyle (Differ in time, by populations, by areas)4.Technology impacts resources used and available5.Import and export moves resources beyond local boundaries

-Import and export change K for an area but have no impact on its global level3.7.2: Explain how reuse, recycling, remanufacturing and absolute reductions and material use can affect human carrying capacity

•Human carrying capacity determined by–Rate of energy and material consumption–Extent of human interference in global life support systems – environmental degradation–Levels of pollution created•Recycling, Reuse and Remanufacturing–Reduce these impacts–BUT can increase carrying capacity as well•Reduce–Absolute reductions in energy and material consumed are necessary – do you really need another pair of ____________, hot water use….•Reuse–Replace disposable society with multi use system – refillable bottles, tool banks•Recycle–Feedback management type – waste is a raw material to be used – curbside collection, metals are profitable

3.8.1: Explain the concept of an ecological footprint as a model for assessing the demands that human populations make on their environment

•Model for quantifying the demands that human populations make on their environment•The area of land in the same vicinity as the population that would be required to provide for all of the population’s resources and assimilate all of it’s wastes•It is the inverse of the carrying capacity

3.8.2: Calculate from appropriate data the ecological footprint of a given population, stating the approximations and assumptions involved

•Calculations are approximations•Total area required is the sum of these two per capita requirements multiplied by total population•ignores land and water needed–for aquatic and atmospheric resources–for the assimilation of waste other than CO2

–For production of energy or materials needed to support arable land in an area–To replace productive land lost by urbanization and so on

3.8.3: Describe and explain the differences between the ecological footprints of two human populations, one from an LEDC one from an MEDC

LEDC MEDC•less economically developed country: a country with low to moderate industrialization and low to moderate average GNP per capita•Congo DR•Footprint = .7 hectares•Almost 100% land for food and fiber growth

•more economically developed country: a highly industrialized country with high average GNP per capita•The United States•Footprint = 9 hectares•~6/9 is carbon sink•In general 2x as much diet energy in animal products•More grain b/c intensive agriculture•More fossil fuel use

3.8.4: Discuss how national and international development policies and cultural influences can affect human population dynamics and growth

Policies targeting death rate Policies targeting birth rate- Stimulate rapid growth–Agricultural development–Improving public health and sanitation–Improved service infrastructure•These policies lower mortality without significant effects on fertility•Examples = Oxfam, UNICEF

–Economic growth itself may lead to decreasing birth rates (Demographic Transition Hypothesis)–Education about birth control–Family planning service development–Increasing women’s education - more economic & personal freedoms–Removing parental dependence on children in old age

3.8.5: Describe and explain the relationship between population, resource consumption and technological development, and their influence on carrying capacity and material economic growth.

•Carrying capacity may be expanded through continuous technological innovation•Increase efficiency of energy & material use 2X - double use or population without increasing impact•But with population growth predictions and necessary economic growth - efficiency will have to increase 4X to 10X to compensate•Remember that sometimes technology itself can tax carrying capacity too•New resources can be imported with transportation technology•Globally technology is used to intensify food production systems (GMOs, green revolution crops)•Developing alternative energy technologies•Technology can reduce populations as well•Attitudes on resource use must change too because technology is not enough.

4.1.1: Define the terms biodiversity, genetic diversity, species diversity, habitat diversity1.Biodiversity = the amount of biological or living diversity per unit area. It includes the concepts of species diversity, genetic diversity and habitat diversity2.Genetic diversity = the range of genetic material present in a gene pool or population of a species3.Species diversity = variety among species per unit area. Includes both the number of species present and their abundance.4.Habitat diversity = The range of different habitats or number of ecological niches per unit area in an ecosystem, community or biome. Conservation of habitat diversity usually leads to conservation of species and genetic diversity

4.1.2: Outline the mechanism of natural selection as a possible driving force for speciation•Natural Selection = survival of the fittest•Fitness = a measure of reproductive success•If all individuals are variable; And populations produce large numbers of offspring without increase in population size; And resources are limited; And traits are heritable•Then those individuals who are best adapted to the environment will survive and pass on their genes•Gradually the gene frequency in the population will represent more of these “fit” individuals-Environmental Pressures select for some genotypes over others-Alleles resulting in a beneficial trait will become more common-Heritable traits that increase survival chances are called adaptations-There are many niches or habitats and roles available in the environment-As populations adapt they fill new niches and over time may develop into new species

4.1.3: State that isolation can lead to different species being produced that are unable to interbreed to yield fertile offspring

1. Geographic isolation groups of a population of the same species are isolated for long periods

2.Reproductive Isolation mutation and natural selection operate independently on the 2 populations to change allele frequencies = divergence

–A group may migrate in search of food to an area with different environmental conditions–Populations may be separated by a physical barrier (mountain range, river, road)–Catastrophic change by volcano eruption or earthquake–A few individuals carried away by wind or water to new area

•If divergence continues long enough genetic differences may prohibit (1) interbreeding between populations and/or (2) production of viable, fertile offspring•One species has become 2 through divergent evolution•For most species this would take millions of years•Difficult to

4.1.4: Explain how plate activity has influenced evolution and biodiversity•Speciation processes rely on physical separation of organisms•Plate tectonics–can lead to separation of gene pools – mountain ranges form, faults separating land masses–Can link species and land areas e.g. land bridges•Plate tectonics generates new habitats–Island chains over hotspots – Hawaii–Mountain habitats – Himalayan mountains – also associated effects on surrounding areas–Hydrothermal vent communities–Changes climate on land masses – continents drift into new climate zones - e.g. antarctica was once covered by tropical rainforest now barren polar ice fields

4.1.5: Explain the relationships among ecosystem stability, diversity, succession & habitat

Ecosystem stability

Complex ecosystems with a variety of nutrient & energy pathways provides stability•Energy is key to the function of all ecosystems•Biogeochemical cycles recycle necessary materials through system•More pathways for energy & matter = more stable•Insurance against natural or human changes–Resilience – the ability to bounce back after a disturbance (grassland regrowth days after a fire)–Inertia – the ability to remain unchanged in the face of disturbance (Caribbean forests have palm trees which sway in the wind instead of snapping)

habitat Habitat diversity influences species & genetic diversity•More complex areas (more diverse habitats) often have higher species & genetic diversity•Ex. Tropical rainforest & Coral reef•In both cases, high degree of structural / spatial complexity•Promotes coexistence by niche partitioning & diversification

Succession •Succession – gradual establishment or reestablishment of ecosystems over time•Pioneer species - Climax species–Low diversity at first, few species can tolerate harsh conditions (r selected species)–Most diverse in middle of succession, slower growing species start to fill in–Medium / high diversity at the end, climax species often strongest competitors (K selected species)•Diversity is a function of disturbance - intermediate disturbance hypothesis

Human activities

•Modify succession by adding disturbance•Logging, Grazing, Burning – all prevent natural successional processes•Fragmenting habitats by development•Isolate populations - more likely to get diseases, succumb to local disturbances•We simplify ecosystems - tall grass prairie converted to wheat farms - more vulnerable

4.2.1: Identify factors that lead to a loss of diversity•Natural Processes–Natural hazards (volcanoes, drought, mudslide)–Global catastrophies (ice age, meteor impact)•Human Processes

–Habitat degradation, fragmentation & loss–Introduction/escape of nonnative species, genetically modified organisms, monoculture–Pollution–Hunting, collecting, harvesting. overfishing

4.2.2: Describe the perceived vulnerability of tropical rainforests and their relative value in contributing to global biodiversity

General info •2% of the land surface with 50-80% of the terrestrial species•Characterized by warm constant temperature, high humidity & rainfall•Vertical stratification provides niche diversification•Decomposition rates are extremely fast - little litter, thin nutrient poor soil•Nutrients stored in biomass of organisms

threats •Most of destruction since 1950•Brazil has ½ remaining world rainforest•At current rates of deforestation Brazil’s rainforest will be gone in 40-50 years•Total loss yearly to deforestation is 50,000 to 170,000 km2•1.5 ACRES LOST PER SECOND worldwide•Cutting & degradation at even faster rates

Ecology •Pollinator relationships – reproduction depends on other organisms•Poor, thin soils – easily eroded once trees removed, little chance for regrowth•Regeneration rates estimated around 65-4000 years (low end is to get some species high end is a fully functioning system)

Location •Surrounded by rapid population growth of developing countries – pollution, waste, space•Poor economy benefits from any resources that are harvestable

politics •Green Politics = a political ideology that places a high importance on environmental goals and achieving them through grassroots participatory democracy.

4.2.3: Discuss current estimates of numbers of species and past and present rates of species extinction-About 1.5 - 10 million Species live on Earth-18000 to 50000 species lost per year-1 species lost every 20 minutes-Estimates differ but over 50 species lost per day is probably accurate

Permian Cretaceous-Permian Period (286-248 million years ago) - Formation Of Pangea- Terrestrial faunal diversification occurred in the Permian-90-95% of marine species became extinct in the Permian (largest extinction in history)- Causes? = Formation of Pangea reduced continental shelf area, glaciation, Volcanic eruptions

- Numerous evolutionary radiations occurred during the Cretaceous (144-65 million years ago) - 1st appearance of dinosaurs, mammals, birds, angiosperms- A major extinction occurred at the end of the period - 85% of all species died in the End-Cretaceous (K-T) extinction (2nd largest in history)- Causes? = Meteor impact in the Yucatan, Volcanic eruption - both supported geolocially,

cause climate change, atmospheric changes

4.2.4: Describe and explain the factors that may make species more or less prone to extinction•Vulnerability of species affected by …–Numbers – low numbers = automatic risk–Degree of specialization = generalists adapt better than specialists–Distribution = widely distributed organisms, may migrate out of harms way & different effects by area–Reproductive potential – if low = vulnerable–Reproductive behaviors – how complex, picky, …–Trophic level – higher are more vulnerable to biomagnification & trophic cascades

4.2.5: Outline the factors used to determine a species’ Red List conservation status•Organisms are classified for conservation purposes Traditionally into 2 groups1.Endangered•So few individuals that it could become extinct over all of its natural range•Without protection - critically endangered - extinct2.Threatened•Still abundant in range but declining numbers•Ecological warning signs•Red Data Books•List the species in the red – the ones most in jeopardy of extinction•Various factors contribute to identifying species as threatened, of concern, endangered, extinct•Examples - population size, reduction of population size, numbers of mature individuals, geographic range and degree of fragmentation, quality of habitat, area of occupancy, probability of extinction

4.2.6: Describe the case histories of three species: one that has become extinct, another that is currently endangered, and a third whose conservation status has been improved by intervention

African Elephant

Endangered1.Ecological pressures – shrinking habitat2.Socio-political pressures – recovery of elephants in smaller habitats = widespread habitat destruction, other species now poached for ivory3.Economic pressures – poaching for ivory•Ecological Role – keystone species, maintains grassland community by removing trees•Consequences – loss of ecosystem type

Passenger Pigeon

Extinct September 1, 19141.Ecological pressures – clearing virgin forests for agriculture lost food & nests, 1 egg laid per year2.Socio-political pressures – Supply meat for growing east coast cities3.Economic pressures – easy capture in large dense flocks, roosts -markets in the east•Ecological Role – once most numerous bird on the planet•Consequences – linked to spread of lyme disease

American Crocodile

Recovered June 4 19871.Ecological pressures – shrinking habitat2.Socio-political pressures – alligator nuisance, sustainable use, tourism3.Economic pressures – confused with American Crocadile hunted for skins•Ecological Role – keystone predator, gator holes in everglades, top carnivore•Consequences – loss of fish & bird populations & change whole everglades ecosystem structure / now healthy systems

4.2.7: Describe the case history of a natural area of biological significance that is threatened by human activities

Facts •The Amazonian Rainforest covers over a billion acres, encompassing areas in Brazil, Venezuela, Columbia and the Eastern Andean region of Ecuador and Peru.

•If Amazonia were a country, it would be the ninth largest in the world.•The Amazon Rainforest has been described as the "Lungs of our Planet" because it provides the essential environmental world service of continuously recyling carbon dioxide into oxygen.•More than 20 percent of the world oxygen is produced in the Amazon Rainforest.•More than half of the world's estimated 10 million species of plants, animals and insects live in the tropical rainforests. One-fifth of the world's fresh water is in the Amazon Basin.•One hectare (2.47 acres) may contain over 750 types of trees and 1500 species of higher plants.

Effects •1/3 of rainforest destruction from shifting cultivation•Rest cleared for pasture- then planted with African grasses for cattle•When pasture price exceeds forest prices - incentive for land clearing•Government subsidized agriculture and colonization•Improved infrastructure for transport•In Brazil alone, European colonists have destroyed more than 90 indigenous tribes since the 1900's.

pressures •Economic – raw materials, exports, cattle, oil & gas•Socio-political – Pressures of population growth, subsidize tree plantations, colonization•Ecological – Invasive species, climate change, soil degradation

•4.3.1: State the arguments for preserving species & habitatsA.Ethics = we know what we are doing and its negative effects - is it right to continue this?B.Aesthetics = the natural world is more beautiful than strip malls and roads - should we keep it around?C.Genetic resources = end result of millions of years of evolution – unique gene combinations for disease resistance, chemical production, etcD.Commercial = many of the products we rely on result from the biotic component of the planet- opportunity cost - value of the next best alternative forgone as a result of making a choice-implies choice of results that are mutually exclusiveE. Life support = plants produce the oxygen we need to survive, soil provides the means for growing food, organisms/processes cycle and purify the water we needF. Ecosystem support = the interactions of the world are all connected - effect one effect it all

•4.3.2: Compare the role and activities of governmental & non-governmental organizations in preserving and restoring ecosystems and biodiversity.

WWF •Established in 1961•“to conserve the natural environment and ecological processes worldwide”.

•WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by:–conserving the world’s biological diversity–ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable–promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.•Role – Promoting awareness & conservation of wildlife•Activities – Directed mostly at wildlife conservation, work with companies like Nike in reducing CO2 emissions, Aid•Use of the media – International, internet, newsletters•Speed of Response – stays current on issues•Diplomatic constraints – international law & coordination•Enforceability – Limited, no real governmental power, but broad passive influence

Green-peace

•Greenpeace is a non-profit organization, with a presence in 40 countries across Europe, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific.•To maintain its independence, Greenpeace does not accept donations from governments or corporations but relies on contributions from individual supporters and foundation grants.•As a global organization, Greenpeace focuses on the most crucial worldwide threats to our planet's biodiversity and environment.•We campaign to: --Stop climate change , Protect ancient forests, Save the oceans, Stop whaling --Say no to genetic engineering•Role - More extreme environmental activist group•Activities – Greenpeace's history began in 1971. A group of ecologists opposed to the war in Vietnam contested US nuclear testing in the north Pacific. They decided simply to position themselves in the middle of the testing zone.•Use of the media - Embarked on a campaign to save the whales. Using Zodiac inflatables, they put themselves between the whales and the harpoons, generating images too sensational not to broadcast and creating new public pressure.•Speed of Response – rapid, high profile, technological approach•Diplomatic constraints – Nonviolent but radical group - Greenpeace's scientific and market research becomes pressure tools.•Enforceability - Creative nonviolent action mobilizes public opinion against the unsustainable practices of governments or corporations. The objective is to obtain as much coverage as possible through the media in order to mobilize public opinion on certain issues.

UNEPUnitedNationsEnvrioprogram

•Established in 1972•To provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.•Role – negotiate, monitor, implement environmental treaties•Activities – focus on consumption issues, energy, food, youth programs•Use of the media – limited, website•Speed of Response – slower, through government action•Diplomatic constraints – tied to the UN•Enforceability – underfunded, undersupported

Convent-ions/ RioEarthsummit

•The 1992 Rio Earth Summit was attended by 152 world leaders + led to the signing of conventions on biological diversity +desertification, a framework convention on climate change, principles for sustainable forestry + Agenda 21.•Agenda 21 is a programme run by the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development and was the planet's first summit to discuss global warming related issues. It is a comprehensive blueprint of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organizations of the UN, governments, and major groups in every area in which humans directly affect the environment.•The Millennium Development Goals were agreed by 152 heads of state. These leaders pledged to moderate globalisation, foster better governance, 1/2 the number of people living in poverty by 2015, prevent conflict + protect the vulnerable, secure life on earth + strengthen the UN

•In 2002 Johannesburg Summit extended this

•4.3.3: State and explain the criteria used to design reserves1.Ecosystems are rarely at a stable point – hard to lock them and protect them from change (nonequilibrium state)2.Ecosystems which experience frequent, moderate disturbance have the greatest diversity (intermediate disturbance hypothesis)3.View most reserves as habitat islands in a sea of developed or fragmented lands•Island Biogeography•Diversity on islands is a function of size and distance from mainland (balance extinction vs. colonization)•Help determine …–Areas in greatest danger–Size of reserve that will be necessary–How closely must small reserves be spaced to allow immigration

–Size & # of protective corridors connecting parks–Globular because the core is more buffered from outside effects–One large – less fragmented and less surface area for human interference (multiple small if you have many dif. Habitats that you cannot preserve otherwise)–Heterogeneous - diversity = stability-corridors help wildlife move for food, migration, etc and also help them respond to global climate change–Buffer zones ensure that human impact doesn’t reach the core preserve area

•4.3.4: Evaluate the success of a named protected area.

facts •South Florida – once 100 km wide knee deep sheet of water moving from Lk. Okeechobee to FL Bay•On its way south it created various wetlands with a wide variety of species•Slight changes in elevation (only inches), water salinity, and soil create entirely different landscapes, each with its own community of plants and animals.•Sawgrass is the dominant plant species•Today 56 endangered & threatened species reside there•Supplies drinking water directly or through Floridian & Biscayne aquifers for 6-10 million people•Since 1948 most of water flow has been diverted by 2,250 km. of canals, pumping stations, etc.•In 1960s meandering 103 mile long Kissimmee R. reformed into straight 84 mile canal by army corps of engineers•Below Okeechobee intensified agriculture of sugar cane developed•Now seeing (1) greater inputs of nutrients from fertilizer use (nitrogen & phosphorous)•(2) Decreased volume of water, moving faster through the system•(3) Increases in exotic & invasive species•1947 Everglades National Park established to preserve the lower end of the system•Contains 20% remaining everglades•Didn’t work because of all of the influences on the water to the north•90% of parks wading birds have disappeared•Other vertebrate populations are down 75-90%•Now the country’s most endangered national park•Florida Bay suffering from less fresh water as well as cultural eutrophication•Threatens reefs & fisheries in the Keys

Successful? 1.Has the protection of the everglades been successful thus far?2.Does the local community support it? Think about the farmers in the area, the cities of south

east FL, etc.3.Is there enough funding?4.Where did the research fail in the past? Where might it fail in the future?

•4.3.5: Discuss & evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the species based approach to conservation

strengths weaknessesCITES Helped reduce international trade in many

organisms, organized international awareness, protected habitats

Enforcement is difficult, Consequences are weak, Countries have a choice, value of organisms may increase

Captivebreeding

1.Organisms safe from poachers2.Ensure good chance of offspring survival3.Artificial insemination possible4.Cross fostering is possible – raised by parent of similar species

1.It is artificial2.Organisms not born in the wild may not be able to survive reintroduction3.Few actually returned to wild4.Lack of habitat to return them to

AestheticValue

1.Tourism & recreation – use promotes interest2.“Sexy megafauna” get public interested in conserving whole habitats3.Personal approach appeals to people“Save the manatee”

1.More interactions with people – more damage potentially2.People may overlook the deeper values

Ecological value

1.Shows people the true critical value of species2.See how it effects us – food web links, nutrient cycling, keystone species

1.May go over the heads of the general public2.May be hard to quantify this for some species

5.1.1: Define the term pollutionThe addition to an environment of a substance or an agent (such as heat) by human activity faster than it can be rendered harmless by the environment and which has an appreciable effect on organisms within it

5.1.2: Distinguish the terms point source pollution and non-point source pollution and outline the challenges they present for management

Point Source Non Point source challenges•Discharge pollutants at specific locations•Factories, sewage treatment plants, mines

•Cannot be traced to a single point of discharge•Acid deposition, surface runoff•Agricultural forms – sediment, fertilizer, manure•64% total pollutants entering in US

•Point sources are easier to manage because effects are localized•Allows emission control•Allows determination of responsibility and taking legal action

5.2.3: State the major sources of pollutants•Combustion of fossil fuels - carbon, sulfur, & nitrogen oxides; particulates; heavy metals•Domestic and industrial waste -garbage; sewage, materials, toxic waste•Manufacturing - others above plus chemicals and toxins; packaging; shipping•Agricultural systems - pesticides; animal and plant wastes; fertilizers; others above

5.2.1: Describe two direct methods of monitoring pollution

In the Water In the air•Coliform testing•Coliform bacteria from feces – maybe from natural animals but also input from sewage•Take water samples at desired locations (here taken

•Monitoring ozone, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, particulates•Capture known volume•Measure amount of target chemical with - Gaseous

along the beach)•Plate out a know volume of water on a nutrient medium (some media allow staining of colonies)•Incubate overnight then count number of colonies observed

sampling probes, spectrometers, etc.•Set sampling points – monitor over time•Observe changes taking place

5.2.2: Define the term biological oxygen demand (BOD) and explain how this indirect method is used to assess pollution levels in water

•BOD = Biological oxygen demand - A measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down organic matter in a given volume of water through aerobic biological activity•Indirect means of measuring pollution levels in the environment•Usually measured in context of sewage pollution - more sewage = more decomposable material = higher BOD•Sewage carried with it disease organisms, detergents & nutrients•Causes enrichment (excess nutrients we’ll deal with this in eutrophication section) and oxygen demand•Degraded through decomposition by microorganisms through process of cell respiration into H2O, CO2•Requires oxygen which is also used by other aquatic organisms•Oxygen has limited ability to dissolve into water•With excess organics little oxygen left for organisms•In extreme situations all fish die•May lead to dead zone formation•Sewage and other organic wastes are measured in terms of their BOD•This is amount of oxygen microorganisms need to decompose wastes•Usually expressed in mg/L•When there is a high BOD, the DO is low•Microorganisms also produce compounds with unpleasant odors

5.2.3: Describe and explain an indirect method of measuring pollution levels using a biotic index

•We can use other aspects of populations and communities as rough indices too•Biomonitoring – who’s there•Abundance – How many of each organism•Biodiversity calculations work well•Simpson’s Index in two areas – polluted and unpolluted

5.3.1: Outline approaches to pollution management with respect to figure 5

•Human pollutants produce long term and far reaching effects•Strategies for reducing impacts can be directed at three different levels in the process1.Altering the human activity2.Reducing the quantity of pollutant released at the point of emission

3.Cleaning up the pollutant and restoring the ecosystem after pollution occurs•Of course the earlier action is taken the better – stopping the emissions altogether would be best•Remember the need for collaboration in the management of pollution–National, state and local policy working in concert

5.3.2: Discuss the human factors that affect the approaches to pollution management

Value limitationsHuman activity

•Stop pollution before it’s produced•Can generally have multiple good effects – conserving home energy reduces greenhouse gasses, acid deposition, photochemical smog, conserves resources

•Requires behavior changes and people resist that•Individuals sometimes miss big picture importance of their actions

Pollutant into environment

•Same production but with limit on the pollution•Removes it at emission source – easy to identify necessary location

•Pollution not gone – still retained in the slurry material•Must be disposed of – landfill•Still producing just as much CO2•Expensive

Long termimpact

•Negative effects can be mitigated•Get the value of the process along the way•May be cheaper short term than cost of scrubbers

•Impact happens•Behaviors don’t change•It’s hard to get back to the pristine state•If pollution continues to happen then this is only temporary

5.3.3: Evaluate the costs and benefits to society of the World Health Organization’s ban on the use of the pesticide DDT

General •DDT - dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane is one of the most well-known synthetic pesticides•Use as insecticide starts in 1939 resulting in drops in malaria and typhus & other insect transmitted diseases•1962 Rachel Carson writes Silent Spring•Resulting public outcry about potential linkage to human cancer and food web effects•1972 banned in US, worldwide in Stockholm convention (2001) under guidance of UNEP

Costs •WHO in 1955 tried to eradicate malaria worldwide through extensive use of DDT – resistance in insects started to develop•Now malaria kills 2.7 million per year and moderate spraying or paint infusion or bed nets dipped in it might help without negative health effects•Critics say worldwide ban based on people who have little to lose in comfort of developed countries banning what could help people in the “poor tropics”

benefits •Recovery of raptors like bald eagles who were effected by thinning eggshells from biomagnification•In humans avoid the–Shown linkages to breast and other cancers–Acute and chronically toxic – links to diabetes too–Developmental issues, premature births

5.4.1: Outline the process of eutrophication•The natural or artificial enhancement of a body of water, particularly with respect to nitrates and phosphates, that results in depletion of the oxygen content of the water•It is accelerated by human activities that add detergents, sewage or agricultural fertilizers to bodies of water1.Increase in nitrates and phosphates2.Rapid growth of algae3.Accumulation of dead organic material4.High rate of decomposition

5.Decrease in oxygen5.4.2: Evaluate the main impacts of eutrophication

-positive feedback loop•Death of Aerobic organisms•Increased turbidity•Loss of macrophytes•Reduction in the length of food chains•Loss of biodiversity•Formation of Dead Zones

5.4.3: describe and evaluate pollution management strategies with respect to eutrophication

Alter the activity

•Phosphate free detergents in the home•Reduced residential use of lawn fertilizers•Move agriculture away from inorganic broad scale fertilizers to specifically applied organic fertilizers and manures•Soil conservation

Stop it at its source

-Sewage treatment modifications-Traditionally remove solids and purify but leave nutrients in effluent-Advanced (more $$$) but removes nutrients for agricultural application-Treatment marshes on farms-Use natural wetland capabilities for farm waste treatment

Clean up after

•Mud can be pumped out of eutrophic lakes•Plants can be reintroduced to restart natural nutrient cycling•Once that takes hold reintroduce fish

5.5.1: Outline the types of solid domestic waste

5.5.2: Describe and evaluate pollution management strategies for solid domestic (municipal) wastes

incineration •16% of MSW is combusted in mass burn incinerators•80% of hazardous waste is burned in commercial incinerators•The benefits–Reduced landfill volume, Reduced water pollution,•Use of incineration has decreased–High cost, Air pollution & health concerns, Public opinion is poor

Land disposal

•54% MSW disposed of in landfills in US•Sanitary landfill–Waste spread in thin layers; compacted; covered daily with fresh foam or clay•Lined landfills prevent groundwater contamination•Pipes vent gasses which build up•Leachate from older landfills contaminates water bodies & aquifer•Disadvantages

–Groundwater contamination, CH4 and other gases released, encourages waste production•Benefits–No open burning, little odor, low cost, large capacity, easy to construct

Recycling •Every ton of recycled paper saves 17 trees, 7,000 gallons of water, 4,100 kWh energy and 3 cubic yards of landfill space•30.1% of US municipal solid waste is now recycled–45% of paper, 26% of glass, <20% plastic, 55% aluminum cans–Plastic is hard because there are 46 different kinds•Some areas promote it by a pay per bag approach to non recycled trash•Recycling problems – toxic sludge residue, some things can’t be recycled

Composting •Allowing for the complete breakdown of biodegradable materials•Creates humus – highly valuable fertile material•Example of upcycling of waste

5.6.1: Outline the overall structure and composition of the atmosphere•Layered structure – Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere•Troposphere is layer next to earth’s surface – 75-80% of mass of earth’s air•Atmospheric composition 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, trace amounts of water, argon, carbon dioxide•Lapse rate – rate at which temperature declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere

5.6.2: Describe the role of ozone in the absorption of UV radiation.•Ozone is O3 formed from O + O2•Found in the lower Stratosphere as the ozone layer – good protective qualities•Found in the Troposphere as a result of human pollution – bad qualities photochemical oxidant•UV radiation is absorbed in its formation and destruction•What kind of resource is it? REPLENISHABLE•When UV strikes O3 it is absorbed and its energy used to break the chemical bond•O3 + UV - O + O2•So UV doesn’t make it to the earth’s surface•Layer in the lower stratosphere•Keeps 95% of harmful UV radiation away•Seasonal depletion of ozone layer above Arctic & Antarctic, overall thinning everywhere but tropics•Depletion is serious long term threat to (1) humans, (2) other animals, (3) sun driven producers (plants) supporting food webs

5.6.3: Explain the interaction between ozone and halogenated organic gasses.1.Discovered in 19302.Chemically stable, odorless, nonflamable, nontoxic, noncorrosive - dream chemical in the troposphere3.Coolants, Propellants, Sterilants, Fumigants4.1974 discovered to be lowering concentrations of stratospheric ozone5.Immediate ban called for•Large quantities being released – use, leaks, production of plastics•Remain in troposphere – unreactive, insoluble very stable•11-20 years to rise to stratosphere•Release high energy Cl atoms when exposed to UV which speed up breakdown of ozone•Each CFC lasts 65-385 years in stratosphere•Can break down up to 100,000 molecules of ozone•THEY ENHANCE THE DESTRUCTION OF OZONE = UPSETTING THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE OZONE PRODUCTION SYSTEMSummary of ReactionsCCl3F + UV Cl + CCl2F Cl + O3 ClO + O2 Cl + O Cl + O2Repeated many times

5.6.4: State the effects of UV radiation on living tissues and biological productivity.-On living tissues

DNA mutation - cancer, Immune suppression, Cataracts, Sunburn, Decrease populations sensitive to UV, Food web effects-On Biological ProductivityDirect damage to phytoplankton and other photosynthetic organisms, Reduced crop yield, Leads to less CO2 uptake - increases Global Warming

5.6.5: Describe three methods of reducing the manufacture and release of ozone-depleting substances•Refrigerants can be recycled•Alternatives to gas blown plastics can be used•Alternative propellents – hydroflourocarbons – better but a potent greenhouse gas•Alternatives to methyl bromide can be used for fumigation and pesticides•Problems include:–Existing stockpiles were ok to use after the phase out–Old CFCs continue to leak out of junked cars and fridges–Black market trade in CFCs increasing because they are not made but still useful–China, India, Mexico have increased use and production of CFCs

5.6.6: Describe and evaluate the role of national and international organizations in reducing the emissions of ozone-depleting substances

National in the us international•Government ratified Montreal Protocol agreeing stop production of CFC propellents•Taxes levied on CFC production and use•Corporations changing their ways•McDonalds (1987) – stopped use of styrofoam packaging•Caused foam packaging industry to stop use of all CFCs by 1988

•Montreal Protocol (1987 – 36 nations) - pledge cuts and awakens awareness•Copenhagen Protocol (1992 – 177 nations) - agree to complete phase out good model of international cooperation•UNEP helps forge these agreements as well as helping LEDCs make the change•Montreal Multilateral Fund helps in transition

5.7.1: State the source and outline the effect of tropospheric ozone.•Combustion of Fossil fuels Produces two major pollutants–Hydrocarbons and nitrogen monoxide•Nitrogen monoxide reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide - brownish choking gas = urban haze•Nitrogen dioxide can absorb sunlight and break –releasing free oxygen•Free oxygen combines with O2 to make ozone•Tropospheric ozone is a photochemical oxidant•Toxic gas and an oxidizing agent•Damages crops and forests, irritates the eyes, causes breathing difficulties, may increase the susceptibility to infection•Highly reactive – attacks fabrics and rubber

5.7.2: Outline the formation of photochemical fog

What is it? •Any reaction activated by light is a photochemical reaction•Photochemical Smog = mix of primary & secondary pollutants formed under influence of sunlight•100 chemical mixture dominated by photochemical ozone•Combustion of fossil fuels in cars and industry initiated this process

How made? 1.N2 + O2 -> 2NO = in combustion process2.2NO + O2->2NO2 = tropospheric process producing choking yellowish gas- NO2 = brownish haze hanging over cities = smog3.3NO2 + H2O ->2HNO3 + NO = some nitrogen dioxide forms nitric acid4.NO2 + UV radiation ->NO + O = UV produces free oxygen atoms5.O2 + O ->O3 = ozone produced in the troposphere6.Hydrocarbons + O2 + NO ->PANs = Peroxyacyl nitrates from reaction with hydrocarbons7.Also includes hydrocarbons, VOCs & aldehydes

PhotoChemicaloxidants

•NO2 & O3 & PANs are photochemical oxidants•Oxidize compounds in atmosphere, damage lungs, damage crops & trees•Hotter temp increase concentrations of photochemical smog – early afternoon peak•Most common in cities with sunny, warm dry climate with many cars - LA, Denver, Mexico City, Buenos Aires•Influenced by:–Local climate & topography–Population density–Concentration of industry–Fuels used for industry, transportation & heating homes•Precipitation washes it out of the air and winds disperse it•When thermal inversions happen it can trap the air in valley areas–Usually air is warmest near the surface and gets colder with increased altitude–Occasionally a warmer air mass moves in above a colder air mass near the surface–Since warm air is less dense it sits on top trapping the colder air & any pollution it contains at the surface–The Great Smog in London in 1952 resulted in 1000s of deaths from inversion trapped air pollution

5.7.3: describe and evaluate pollution management strategies for urban air pollution•Alter the human activity: Reduction of Fossil Fuel Combustion by–Reduce demand for electricity–Reduce Demand for private cars – public transportation, car sharing (zipcar)–Switch to renewable energy•Reduce the pollution as it is released–Catalytic converters on cars – removes toxins from car emissions•Clean up the environment after the effect–Vacuum and filter the air–Blowers to disperse it

5.8.1: Outline the chemistry leading to the formation of acid precipitation•Coal burning power plants, smelters, cars & industrial plants emit sulfur dioxide & nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere•Remain in atmosphere for 2-14 days before descent•May mix with water in atmosphere - wet deposition as nitric acid and sulfuric acid•May be converted into particulate compounds as sulfates and nitrates in dry deposition

5.8.2: Describe three possible effects of acid deposition on soil, water & living organisms

5.8.3: Explain why the effect of acid deposition is regional rather than global•Not a global problem – because it is linked to patterns of air circulation•Problem in regions downwind from factories & large urban areas•Remember the pollutants fall out of the air within 2-14 days so can’t circulate around the globe•Eastern U.S., China•Ohio river valley industry major pollution source

•E.x. sulfur dioxide produced in industrial plants in Detroit area with automobile industry - forests in Me, NH, VT experiences effects of acid deposition•Typical Eastern U.S. precipitation 4.2 – 4.7 compared to natural precipitation pH = 5.6

5.8.4: Describe and evaluate pollution management strategies for acid deposition

Alter human activity

•Best solution because it prevents the pollutants from entering the atmosphere1.Use cleaner energy production technologiesA. Reduce demand for electricity & private carsB. Switch to alternative energy / renewable energy•2. Practice energy conservation•Hard because coal rich countries have an incentive to use it

Reduce pollutants

•Install scrubbers on the end of the pipe•Pre-clean coal before burning•Good because it removes the acid causing chemicals•Bad because it still encourages coal use which releases CO2 for global warming

Clean up after

1.Limestone & lime can be used to neutralize soils & water bodies•Expensive, temporary remedy; kills aquatic plants esp. those needing acidic conditions; hard to know how much to use•Used in Sweden in early 1980’s•Cost effectiveness is the question2.Add Phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes•Further input of inorganic fertilizer to the environment•Potentially leads to eutrophication and harmful algal blooms

6.1.1: Describe the role of greenhouse gasses in maintaining mean global temperature.•Balance heat moving in & out of atmosphere•Keep constant moderate average temperature normal & necessary for life•Greenhouse gas molecules trap energy as IR radiation and heat lower atmosphere–Gasses = water, methane & carbon dioxide–Water relatively constant, CO2 fluctuates•Really a tropospheric heating effect•With natural cooling average global temp = 59 ˚F•Past CO2 levels determined from ice core data – analyzing content of gas bubbles trapped in different layers of glaciers• CO2 has varied historically but is peaking presently•Correlation between CO2 and temperature has been show dating back 460,000 years

6.1.2: Describe how human activities add to greenhouse gasses.•Since 1750, Industrial Revolution–Sharp rise in fossil fuel use, landfills - CO2 & CH3–Deforestation, Clear & burn grasslands - CO2 & N2O–Rice paddies, inorganic fertilizer use - N2O–CFCs – entirely human caused•Mostly cars (700 million) & coal power plants•Increased greenhouse gas from humans–Enhance natural Greenhouse effect–Raise average global temperature of atmosphere near earth’s surface - Global warming

6.1.3: Discuss qualitatively the potential effects of increased mean global temperature1.Affect water availability, altering precipitation & evaporation patterns2.Shift areas where crops will grow3.Change average sea levels – coastal inundation (thermal expansion & melting ice)4.Alter the structure & location of the world’s biomes5.Effect human health and the spread of disease•Natural & Human influenced factors will effect the future of global climate•Factors may amplify current trends - positive feedback

•Factors may dampen current trends - negative feedback•These factors could influence how fast and how much temperatures change•Also effect regional differences

6.1.4: Discuss the feedback mechanisms that would be associated with an increase in mean global temperature

positive negative•Increase Temp•Melt Permafrost•Increased release of methane•Increase Temp more•Melt more Permafrost…

•Increased Temp•Increased evaporation in Tropics•Increased snowfall in poles•Increase icecap cover•Increased albedo•Decreased Temp

6.1.5: describe and evaluate pollution management strategies to address the issue of global warming

Alter human activity

- preventative approach–Switch to alternative fuels, conserve energy, consume less,

Reduce pollution

– preventative but less effective–Switch from coal to oil/natural gas, organic agriculture, feed cows garlic

Clean after – reactive and unproven–Plant trees to suck in CO2, capture it out of the atmosphere and pump it into deep ocean etc. for sequestration

Local •Waste less energy•Rely more on cleaner energy sources•Choose transportation wisely•Shifting to organic farming and sustainable agriculture•Gradually integrate solutions to decrease global warming, air pollution, deforestation & biodiversity loss

Global •Phase in output based carbon taxes & input based energy taxes•Increase government subsidies for energy efficiency & renewable energy technologies•Fund transfer to renewable fuels•Place global & national caps on emissions levels•Sell & trade emissions credits on open market•Remove CO2 from atmosphere – tree planting•1997 – Kyoto agreement

implications •MEDCs•Stand to lose the most economically•But have the technology to change•Also some of biggest polluters•LEDCs•Rapidly increasing their contribution – China & India•It’s their turn, why should they curb emissions•Cheaper energy like coal is used – lack technology for other methods

6.1.6: Outline the arguments surrounding global warming–There are various and conflicting arguments about global warming because of–The complexity of the problem – so many variable are having effects–The uncertainty of computer models – we are trying to see the future with this–percieved potential harm that will be caused economic cascade caused by doing something about it–The need to admit we are wrong and doing something bad•Reduction in the insolation of the earth’s surface –post 9/11 evidence

•Seen in 1960s-1990s•Caused by increase in anthropogenic particulates like sulfate aerosols•When aerosol levels started to decline in the 1990’s dimming switched to a brightening trend•Can create a cooling effect to counter global warming•Potential Engineering Solution for us

6.1.7: Evaluate contrasting human perceptions of the issue of global warming•For this be sure that you can describe and defend your own position•Regardless of where you stand have evidence to back it up•Make sure you can describe and defend 2 other view points that may conflict with your own

Topic 77.1.1 – State what is meant by an environmental value system

•This is a world view or set of paradigms that shapes the way an individual or group perceives and evaluates environmental issues•Influenced by cultural, religious, economic and socio-political factors•Input – education, cultural dogma, religious doctrines, media•Transfers and Transformations – Processing of information, thinking, discussion, regurgitation•Outputs – decisions, perspectives, courses of action

7.1.2 – Outline the range of environmental philosophies with reference

7.1.3 – Discuss how these philosophies influence the decision-making process with respect to environmental issues covered in this course

•Establishing the national park system•Not signing Kyoto, not having a climate bill in place currently•Dealing with the oil spill in the gulf right now•Consider US and international responses

7.1.4 – Outline key historical influences on the development of the modern environmental movement

Bhopal disaster -1984 India

Publication of Rachel Carson’s Slient Spring

Chernobyl Meltdown (1986 Ukraine)

1950’s Minamata Japan

Whaling currently

Union Carbide pesticide plant released 42 tonnes of toxic methyl isocyanate gas - 500,000 exposed, 8,000 dead within a week, >16,000 dead since

Awakens the world to the perils of DDT and other toxins in the environment

•Reactor tests conducted•Required shutdown ofsafety systems•Cooling system failure•Leading to meltdown•Explosion releasingradioactive cloud•Permanent evacuation in 30 km radius•Eventual deaths 8,000-400,000

•Suddenly people develop acute mercury poisoning – numbness, muscle weakness, coma death•Minamata disease – 2,300 officially recognized victims•Chisso corporation dumping methyl mercury into local bay•Biomagnification of Hg through food chain into people

•Historically hunted for blubber, whale oil•Now hunted for meat•International Whaling commission forms in 1946 – moratorium in 1986•Now whaling by Inuits & Norway & Iceland (legitimate?) & Japan (Scientific?)

7.1.5 - Compare and contrast environmental value systems of two named societies

•Native Americans•Deep respect for the natural world•Thought of themselves as part of it not lords over it•Much of their religion was tied to nature so spiritual connection as well

•European pioneers•Frontier economics•Exploitation of seemingly unlimited resources•Becomes Manifest destiny – expansion not only good but obvious and certain

7.1.6 - Justify your personal viewpoint on environmental issuesSee figure 6