STUDY GUIDE - Geneva International Model United...

Disarmament and International Security Committee Evaluating the relevance of sanctions in maintaining peace and international security

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STUDY GUIDE

Disarmament and International Security Committee

Evaluating the relevance of sanctions in maintaining peace and international security

The threat posed by the use of biological and toxin weap-ons in the twenty-first century

President Vice President Moiz Nadeem JAQUELINE GALAN VILLAGRAN Email Requested from SG. Email


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Contents 1. Description of the committee ........................................................................................................... 6

1.1 About DISEC ............................................................................................................................. 7

1.2 Mandate and instruments ........................................................................................................... 7

1.3 Functions .................................................................................................................................... 8

1.4 Recent history ............................................................................................................................ 8

1.5 Countries represented in the committee ..................................................................................... 9

2. Agenda item 1: Evaluating the Relevance of sanctions in maintaining peace and international

security ............................................................................................................................................... 10

2.1 Definitions ................................................................................................................................ 10

2.2 Historical background .............................................................................................................. 11

2.3 further analysis ......................................................................................................................... 12

2.3.1 The relevance of sanctions .................................................................................................... 13

2.3.2 Smart Sanctions..................................................................................................................... 18

2.4 CORE issues ............................................................................................................................ 18

2.4.1 Issue A................................................................................................................................... 18

2.4.2 Issue B ................................................................................................................................... 18

2.4.3 Issue C ................................................................................................................................... 18

2.5 IMPORTANT RESOLUTIONS .............................................................................................. 19

2.6 bloc positions ........................................................................................................................... 20

2.7 Suggested reading .................................................................................................................... 21

3. Agenda item 2: The threat posed by the use of biological and toxin weapons in the twenty-first

century ................................................................................................................................................ 22

3.1 Definition ................................................................................................................................. 22

3.2 Historical background .............................................................................................................. 22

3.3 Historic Biological warfare Events timeline ............................................................................ 24

3.4 analysis & recent uses .............................................................................................................. 25

3.5 The threats posed ..................................................................................................................... 28

3.6 Protection Techniques .............................................................................................................. 31


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3.6.1 The role of government ......................................................................................................... 33

3.7 main problems .......................................................................................................................... 34

3.7.1 How to stop the creation and production of biological weapons completely ....................... 35

3.7.2 how to deal with denials........................................................................................................ 35

3.7.3 research on biological weapons ............................................................................................ 35

3.7.4 Dealing with secret facilities ................................................................................................. 35

3.8 IMPORTANT RESOLUTIONS and protocols ....................................................................... 36

3.9 Country Blocs .......................................................................................................................... 38

3.10 Suggested reading .................................................................................................................. 39

4. Final words ..................................................................................................................................... 40


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Words from the President: Greetings Esteemed Delegates, It is a great honour and pleasure to welcome you all to the DISEC Committee at GIMUN 2017. I'm Moiz Nadeem and I'm in my last year of a Bachelor's degree in Computer Science from IQRA University Islamabad Campus. I’ve been doing different projects of web development and application/game development with many different companies and firms. I’ve been involved in debates for a long time now. MUNs have always been something more than just than a debate for me. It's something I'm quite passionate about and addicted to. I've been involved in several MUNs as a delegate, Organizing committee, Chairperson and also as a Secre-tary General for my own institution’s MUN. I look forward to a great level of debate in my committee, and that debate leading to an innova-tive and effective resolution. Maintain decorum and debate well, and I look forward to seeing your skills of diplomacy and leadership. I hope to give you a memorable experience at GIMUN 2017 that you can be proud of. Regards, Moiz Nadeem Words from the vice-president: I am studying for a Master’s degree in political science at the University of Lausanne in Switzer-land. I did my Bachelor’s degree in Guatemala City, Central America and I did a year of work expe-rience at the Embassy of Morocco in Guatemala. My first MUN was in March and I really enjoyed the experience of sharing opinions and ways of thinking with different cultures, different ideolo-gies. I also perceived that, even if we come from different parts of the world, we share values, ide-als and a desire to live in a world of peace. So this year I decided to apply for GIMUN. I specifically wanted to take part in GIMUN again because it is a real model which takes place at the Palais des Nations. It is also one of the only MUN conferences where I can express myself in French and the topics of discussion are based on real discussions of the committees of the United Nations. To quote Mikhail Gorbachev: “Peace is not unity in similarity but unity in diversity, in the compari-son and conciliation of differences”.


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1. DESCRIPTION OF THE COMMITTEE DISEC (Disarmament and International Security Committee) is the first committee of the United Nations General Assembly (GA) and it deals with international security issues, challenges and threats to peace that can affect the global community. DISEC finds solutions to the threats to in-ternational security. However, it should be mentioned here that there are many differences between DISEC and the Security Council. The Security Council has the power to pass resolutions to intervene in a country in humanitarian crisis situations if allowed and supported by the United Nations, whereas DISEC does not allow any such intervention or actions. In Article 11 of the United Nations Charter it is said that the General Assembly is responsible for maintaining world peace and security around the world. Therefore, to maintain global security, the UN needs to regulate disarmament and avoid arms races. To do this, the UN has established two bodies which are in charge of ensuring the disarmament of the international community. The first of these is the Disarmament and International Security Committee, which is responsible for analysing everything related to disarmament which takes place during General Assembly sessions. The second is the United Nations Disarmament Commission, which examines technical aspects for determining arms and zones which are free from nuclear weapons.

The Disarmament and International Security Committee covers subjects related to nuclear weap-ons, other weapons of mass destruction, disarmament issues related to outer space, conventional weapons, disarmament machinery, international and regional security, among others.

This committee, composed of all the member states of the UN, was created in July 1978 during the first special session of the General Assembly dedicated to disarmament. It considers different problems related to disarmament.


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1.1 ABOUT DISEC

The General Assembly, taking into consideration resolution No. 502[1] of 1952, created the Disarmament and International Security Committee (DISEC). It is the first of the six main committees of the UN. This committee’s aim is to discuss international disarmament and all other issues related to international security as well as to maintain the general principles of coop-eration and peace. DISEC promotes cooperation agreements and measures to strengthen the sta-bility of military expenses. It works together with the UN Disarmament Commission at the Geneva Conference of Disarmament. The committee is expected to focus on topics strictly related to international security and dis-

armament. The first ever General Assembly Resolution 1[2] (I) is the “Establishment of a Commis-sion to Deal with the Problems Raised by the Discovery of Atomic Energy”. This resolution was adopted on 24 January 1946 and focused primarily on dealing with or countering the consequences that the discovery of Atomic Energy could generate. Different problems addressed by the DISEC committee include but are not limited to: the “question of French nuclear tests in the Sahara”, “international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space”, the “report of the International Atomic Agency”, the “suspension of nuclear and thermo-nuclear tests” and the “necessity of ending the economic, commercial and financial embargo imposed by the United States of America against Cuba”. All these resolutions address the challenges to international security and the co-operation between different sovereign states to-wards peace and stability.

1.2 MANDATE AND INSTRUMENTS The purpose of this committee is to disarm and maintain peace throughout the world. DISEC is the main committee of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) working for this purpose. The UN Charter Chapter 4 Article 11 explains that the mandate of DISEC is to promote establishing and maintaining peace while countering threats to international security and taking measures to pro-tect human and economic resources. DISEC has the mandate to make recommendations with re-gard to principles of cooperation in maintaining global peace and security, as well as disarmament and the regulation of armaments. These recommendations can be made to the members of DISEC, the Security Council, or both. Furthermore, its mandate is to consider the different angles of the issues concerning global peace and security. DISEC is also focused on seeking solutions to any “possible and future” challenges that may affect global security at any level.

[1]

United Nations Disarmament Commission: https://www.un.org/disarmament/institutions/disarmament-commission/ [2]

First Resolution of the DISEC: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/1(I)

https://www.un.org/disarmament/institutions/disarmament-commission/

http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/1(I)


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1.3 FUNCTIONS DISEC, being one of the main committees of the General Assembly, follows its functionalities. Mili-tary planning is discussed in DISEC and actions are suggested with respect to the subject. Howev-er, this committee does not have the ability to impose or declare war efforts like the Security Council. Possible solutions to problems are proposed by DISEC, making recommendations like eve-ry committee of the UN. These are not to be imposed on states but to recommend them to act in a certain way in order to preserve world peace or rather resolve conflicts and the issue being ad-dressed. Part of the committee’s function is regulating weapons, the proper use of outer space, the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, disarmament, and other issues related to stability, peace and global security.

Article 13 of the UN Charter[3]

declares that “the United Nations General Assembly is tasked with initiating studies and making recommendations to promote international cooperation in the politi-cal field, encouraging the development of international law, promoting the implementation of cul-tural, social, and human rights, and promoting fundamental freedoms without any form of dis-crimination".

1.4 RECENT HISTORY Since 2012, DISEC has been working on the issue of nuclear technology with Iran. In terms of pro-gress on the matter so far, a consensus has been reached where both Iran and the western coun-tries are on the same page as far the nuclear talks are concerned. Iran has decided to limit its nu-

clear activities[4]. The Disarmament and International Committee consistently works to tackle dangers of any security breach worldwide. Maintaining peace and security throughout the globe is the agenda of the DISEC Committee and it has addressed issues related to nuclear/atomic programs, terrorism and militarization. DISEC is currently monitoring and discussing the threat ISIS poses to Europe and rest of the world, which has created instability in the Middle East in particular. Recently there has been a focus on ending the economic, commercial and financial embargo im-posed by the USA against Cuba. Co-operation with different international organizations has been suggested in the 71st General Assembly session to improve peace and security.

[3]

. UN Charter, Chapter IV: http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-iv/ [4]

Iran nuclear crisis: Six key points: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32114862

http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-iv/

http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32114862


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1.5 COUNTRIES REPRESENTED IN THE COMMITTEE

1. African Union 2. Arab Republic of Egypt 3. Australia 4. Canada 5. Doctors without Borders 6. Federal Republic of Germany 7. Federal Republic of Nigeria 8. Federative Republic of Brazil 9. French Republic 10. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan 11. Islamic Republic of Iran 12. Islamic Republic of Pakistan 13. Japan 14. Kingdom of Belgium 15. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 16. Lebanese Republic 17. Libya 18. Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) 19. People’s Democratic Republic of Korea 20. People's Republic of Bangladesh 21. Peoples Republic of China 22. Republic of Belarus 23. Republic of Cuba 24. Republic of India 25. Republic of Iraq 26. Republic of South Sudan 27. Republic of Turkey 28. Republic of Yemen 29. Russian Federation 30. State of Israel 31. Syrian Arab Republic 32. Ukraine 33. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 34. United Mexican States 35. United States of America


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2. AGENDA ITEM 1: EVALUATING THE RELEVANCE OF SANCTIONS IN MAINTAINING PEACE AND INTERNATIONAL

SECURITY

2.1 DEFINITIONS The United Nations has created a system of collective security, administrated centrally for the Se-curity Council and which seeks to fulfil its mandate to maintain world peace and international se-curity. It is necessary to define “sanction” in terms of interstate relations, transnational actors and how they are regulated by the world’s biggest International Organization, the United Nations. For DIS-EC, an international sanction is a physical force exercised by the legal community to suppress de-viant acts of a member of such community and to consolidate the values that are in the social ba-sis of legal communication in question. There have been attempts to define “sanction” in terms of international law but a universal concept has not been agreed upon, only the different elements to it. For Roberto Ago, there are three elements that distinguish an international sanction: 1. It must be a response to a previous wrongdoing. 2. It must be a coercive act. 3. It must be aimed at repressing deviant behaviour. The global community, with mutual consensus, can impose sanctions on a country to change its attitude if and only if that country is violating basic human rights, is found to be threatening inter-national peace and security in any way, or is involved in waging war or supporting war terrorists to create disturbance in the region. It should be noted that sanctions can also be im-posed on people and companies. International security can also be referred to as global security. It means following all the parameters and taking measures to ensure the safety and overall growth of the sovereign states. Many international organizations are involved in improving international security. These include but are not limited to: the United Nations, the Arab League, the European Union (EU) and the As-sociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The need for organizations and international securi-ty emerged as a priority after World War II. International security helps all the countries around the world to discuss their issues and proceed towards a peaceful and prosperous future together.


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Due to the changing nature of wars and security over time, it is now difficult to perfectly define international security. The nature of wars and security was more of an external issue over the last 250 years, but after the world wars it is now moving towards internal security as well. These changes have led to a need to re-define international security. There are many different factors to this, some of which are mentioned below:

1. On what terms is international security defined? 2. Is the killing / assassination of a single person also an act against international security? 3. What scale can differentiate between incidents of national and international security? 4. Is “formal” declaration of war necessary to categorize it as a violation of international secu-

rity? Without the proper clarification of these terms it is hard to clearly define international security. It should be noted that for aspects of the United Nations Charter, it uses the term "measures" ra-ther than “sanctions”. There is a debate on whether it is appropriate to use the term "sanction" within the UN. The Charter of the United Nations does not establish the ability to impose punish-ments but to introduce measures to promote the maintenance of peace and security through the Security Council and its committees, such as DISEC.

2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND In terms of sanctions or measures to maintain international peace and security and punish states that violate it, the Security Council has resorted to economic sanctions, trade sanctions or more selective measures such as arms embargoes and financial or diplomatic restrictions. It is important for DISEC to determine which weapons violate international security and peace maintenance. In order to clarify this, we will list some of them alongside sanctions or regulatory measures intro-duced and conventions adopted to ensure compliance by State parties.

Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons[5] (NPT) was opened for signature in 1968 and came into force in 1970. By 1995 the treaty was extended indefinitely. It focuses on preventing the development of nuclear weapons and other weapons technology. A total of 191 states have joined the treaty, including 5 states with nuclear weapons. Chemical weapons: The Chemical Weapons Convention entered into force on 29 April 1997.

[5]

Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons: https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/npt/

https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/npt/


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Biological weapons: The first multilateral treaty prohibiting the development, production, stock-piling and use of an entire category of weapons was signed on 10 April 1972 and entered into force on 26 March 1975. Missiles: This type of weapon has been attracting increasing attention in the debate and interna-tional activity. There is no legally-binding multilateral instrument dealing with the issue of missiles, and therefore groups of experts have been set up to address this. The first was in 2001, the sec-ond in 2004 and the third in 2008. Conventional weapons: An expert group was set up in 2006 to examine the feasibility, scope and possible parameters of a legally-binding instrument establishing common international standards for the import, export and transfer of conventional arms. Its report was concluded in 2008, after which the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly with a view to regulate the trade of conventional weapons. The treaty was adopted on 2 April 2013 and it came into force on 24 December 2014. It helps to maintain international peace and security and encourages responsible action by the international community. Nuclear weapons: Since its foundation the United Nations has pursued the elimination of this type

of weapon. The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons], the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty signed in 1996 have not come into force. The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty1, signed in 1996, has not come into force. The treaty imposes a ban on all nuclear explosion tests for military or civilian purposes.

2.3 FURTHER ANALYSIS Almost three decades ago, the importance of a regional approach to the activities of the United Nations for disarmament was recognized. For sanctions to be applied more effectively, it is envis-aged that international disarmament would not only be seen from a global perspective but also a regional one, since controversies and ways of resolving differences between actors and States are not the same globally. Therefore the value of regional disarmament will be considered from a regional perspective so that it can further contribute to the implementation of international disarmament, regional agreements between Member States, civil society and other disarmament actors, and regional and sub-regional consensus in places where international negotiation issues are not progressing. It can

1 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: https://www.ctbto.org/fileadmin/content/treaty/treaty_text.pdf

https://www.ctbto.org/fileadmin/content/treaty/treaty_text.pdf


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also contribute to expressing concern, understanding and recognising the value of regional dis-armament between regions and sub-regions. There are many types of sanctions, including:

ECONOMIC SANCTIONS: These can be restrictions on loans and credit and can be applica-ble to countries, people and companies. Economic sanctions are imposed on a country if it is involved in taking loans and is not repaying the amount by the given deadlines or refus-ing to repay the amount.

ARMS SANCTIONS: Additional permissions, legal documents, taxes on software, technolo-gy and sensitive goods which can be used in arms programs. Arms sanctions are imposed on a country with the international consensus of other coun-tries if the country in question is involved in waging wars, is using arms against its own people or is threatening peace and international or domestic security at a governmental level. They can also be extended to nuclear sanctions. Iran has been sanc-tioned by the United States of America and the United Nations for working on nuclear en-ergy and has been ordered to suspend its uranium enrichment program.

Diplomatic Sanctions: Restrictions to a particular country’s embassies and other political ties.

Other types of sanctions: Other types of sanctions include taking assets and travel/visa re-strictions. However these type of restrictions are usually only used for specific people or companies (there can be exceptions for 1-2 countries).

2.3.1 THE RELEVANCE OF SANCTIONS

Different kinds of sanctions are imposed on countries so that they change their behaviour towards a problem or conflict. It is needless to say that putting sanctions on a country affects its economy. They have a direct impact on its imports and exports. The immediate effect of a sanction is that the targeted country’s goods or services are not purchased abroad. The impact of sanction de-pends on the targeted country’s reliance on imports and exports. In many cases, it has been prov-en that economic sanctions can have crippling effects on the targeted country’s economy. Sanctions can cause complete economic instability that can lead to a state being bankrupt. This can also lead to political demise of the targeted country, eventually creating a power vacuum. If sanctions are imposed on a country by the United Nations, the targeted country’s access to inter-national banks or the World Bank is restricted. Sanctions are imposed on a country to change its behaviour towards a matter, after giving it a warning on the violation. There are many types of violations, for example human rights violations, failing to abide by a UN resolution, creating weapons of mass destruction, or nuclear enrichment programmes that are not permitted by the UN. By imposing sanctions on the targeted country, it


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is forced to change its behaviour and fix the reason why it is being sanctioned in order to maintain international imports and exports as well as bilateral ties with other countries. Sanctions come after the use of verbal warnings but before the use of practical force and are rele-vant because they actually impose rules preventing the targeted country from making internation-al violations. Imposing sanctions on countries addresses a significant problem and since it puts a great burden on the targeted country, it is forced to change its attitude towards the matter. This can either be by stopping its actions or by coming to negotiating table to abide by the rules set by UN. Two types of sanctions can be imposed: unilateral and bilateral. Unilateral sanctions are imposed by an individual country on the targeted country because of diplomatic tensions, border disputes, human rights violations, or any other violations. Bilateral sanctions are imposed by multiple coun-tries and are mostly due to human rights violations or failing to abide by United Nations resolu-tions. Bilateral sanctions have a greater impact than unilateral sanctions since the burden is from multiple countries. Sanctions imposed by the United Nations are of course bilateral because all the states agree to impose sanctions on a country after careful consideration. Iran had been working on nuclear enrichment program that was identified as being extremely

dangerous by not only the US and the European Union, but also the UN[7]. The main problem in this nuclear enrichment program was its safety. The enrichment process is a strict process and it can cause devastating effects in the event of a slight mistake. Moreover, the overall security of the nuclear enrichment program was not satisfactory to the international community. Therefore, the US, the European Union and finally the UN had to impose economic sanctions on Iran to stop it running its nuclear enrichment program. Iran and its economy is dependent on imports, exports and has a fairly high number of political and economic ties in the international community. It took some time for Iran to come to the negotiating table but once the sanctions were imposed and made severe, the burden forced Iran to take part in negotiations and work according to interna-tional community guidelines and the safety of its citizens. Once Iran was ready to negotiate, the international community moved the country towards only a very limited level of nuclear enrich-ment, which was both safe and secure. Another key issue was the fact that the programme was not perceived to be peaceful by many states and that different instances could be considered a threat to international peace and security. Iran had to agree to international terms and conditions due to the increasing pressure from the international community on its nuclear plan. Sanctions played a vital role in changing Iran’s behav-iour and bringing the country to the negotiating table.

[7]

Iran Sanctions: http://www.cfr.org/iran/international-sanctions-iran/p20258


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Another example of successful sanctions was in South Africa. In 1984,[8] the US, Japan and the EC imposed economic sanctions on South Africa due to Apartheid. This was the classification of peo-ple or, in other words, the differentiation of common people on the basis of race and colour. After repeated warnings South Africa failed to respond and the countries had no choice but to impose economic sanctions which led to crippling of South Africa’s economy in 1985. The era of Apartheid was brought to its knees by the bilateral economic sanctions by multiple countries. With the econ-omy collapsing, South Africa had no choice but to finally give up on Apartheid in 1991 and the economic sanctions were lifted soon after. Bilateral economic sanctions created economic tension, which led to the end of the Apartheid in South Africa. A contrasting example is that of North Korea. It has been involved in many violations by perform-

ing underground nuclear tests and reportedly threatening[9] to launch air strikes against the Unit-ed States and South Korea. The sanctions imposed on North Korea are bilateral, tough, robust and unyielding. These are not just limited to economic sanctions but also include travel bans. The fol-lowing bans and restrictions are part of the sanctions imposed on North Korea by the United Na-

tions[10]:

An export ban on certain products and technologies enlisted by the United Nations

An export ban on luxury goods

A complete freeze of foreign economic resources, funds and foreign reserves

A ban on importing technology related to air warfare and others listed by United Nations. Although the sanctions on North Korea are bilateral and imposed by the United Nations, they have failed to bring North Korea to the negotiating table or to stop it carrying out nuclear tests.

The reason for the failure of the sanctions imposed on North Korea is that the country is self-sufficient. The whole purpose of sanctions is to increase international pressure on the targeted state, economically and otherwise. North Korea is self-sufficient economically and in terms of im-ports and exports. North Korea has few international ties and does not depend on international trade. The country has made itself self-sufficient by inter-country investments and that has re-duced or removed the need for trade or economic growth of the country.

Another example of failed sanctions are those imposed by the United Nations following Iraq’s in-

vasion of Kuwait in 1990[11]. Resolution 661[12] of the United Nations Security Council ordered the

[8]

Research Summary on Economic Sanctions against South Africa:

http://www.snf.ch/sitecollectiondocuments/nfp/nfp42p/nfp42p_staehelin-e.pdf [9]

North Korea Sanctions: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/08/world/asia/north-korea-warns-of-pre-emptive-nuclear-

attack.html?_r=0 [10]

Addition to North Korea Sanctions: http://edition.cnn.com/2016/11/30/asia/un-north-korea-nuclear-sanctions/ [11]

Economic Sanctions on Authoritarian States: Lessons Learned, 2nd

Heading Iraq:

http://www.mepc.org/journal/middle-east-policy-archives/economic-sanctions-authoritarian-states-lessons-learned?print

http://www.snf.ch/sitecollectiondocuments/nfp/nfp42p/nfp42p_staehelin-e.pdf

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/08/world/asia/north-korea-warns-of-pre-emptive-nuclear-attack.html?_r=0

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/08/world/asia/north-korea-warns-of-pre-emptive-nuclear-attack.html?_r=0

http://edition.cnn.com/2016/11/30/asia/un-north-korea-nuclear-sanctions/



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quick withdrawal of Iraq’s Militant Forces from Kuwait along and noted that Iraq had failed to abide by previous resolutions of the UN on withdrawal of forces from Kuwait. It therefore imposed sanctions which included but were not limited to:

A ban on imports of products originating in Iraq.

A ban on promoting economic trade or ties with Iraq.

A ban on all sales and services offered by their nationals, including weapons or military equipment.

A ban on providing financial ties or industrial business to Iraq. The United Nations placed a complete ban on all economic ties with Iraq by imposing sanctions but these did not succeed in bringing Iraq to the negotiating table. The dictatorship in Iraq refused to abide by the words of the United Nations.

The sanctions on Iraq had devastating consequences. Iraq lost[13] approximately $175-250 billion in potential oil reserves. The ban on imports from Iraq crippled their economy, GDP fell by 50% and inflation rose by 5000 percent. The price of food for a family increased significantly, causing

over 227,000 deaths amongst children[14]. The overall economic demise increased the dependency of Iraq’s citizens on their government. Saddam Hussein, the ruler of Iraq, was able to control eve-rything in his country, from its people to its forces. After such catastrophic consequences and the complete failure of sanctions imposed on Iraq, the United States invaded the country in 2003 on the basis of their suspicion that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction. However, it should be mentioned that the US invasion of Iraq had no explicit UN authorisation. Sanctions failed at every level in the case of Iraq and only created more problems for its people. The dictator Saddam Hussein took complete control and tried to make his country self-sufficient. If we closely analyse the situation of Iraq and North Korea, we can conclude that sanctions only work when the targeted country is either very much dependent on international economic ties or is ‘concerned’ about its economy. So it can be concluded that in cases where a country has ties with different states within or out-side of its region, sanctions are proven to be useful but only if the country is “mostly” self-sufficient or is not concerned about the economic consequences. The economic sanctions im-posed on Iran and its failing economy gave the country no choice but to come to the negotiating table with the international community. Similarly, in the case of South Africa, when their economy was completely crippled in 1985 it had no choice but to take part in negotiations [12]

Resolution 661: https://documents-dds-

ny.un.org/doc/RESOLTION/GEN/NR0/575/11/IMG/NR057511.pdf?OpenElement [13]

Iraq : http://www.mepc.org/journal/middle-east-policy-archives/economic-sanctions-authoritarian-states-lessons-

learned?print [14]

Eric Hoskins, "Humanitarian Impacts of Sanctions and War in Iraq," in Thomas Weiss, David Cortright, George

Lopez, and Larry Minear, eds., Political Gain and Civilian Pain (Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), 112.

https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLTION/GEN/NR0/575/11/IMG/NR057511.pdf?OpenElement

https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLTION/GEN/NR0/575/11/IMG/NR057511.pdf?OpenElement




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and end Apartheid. For North Korea and Iraq, the failing economy and the death of its citizens had no effect and their attempts to be self-sufficient meant that the sanctions completely failed.

[i] Image displaying the Countries/Non State Actors sanctioned by the United States, the United Nations

and the European Union respectively.

[i]

Sanctions by US, EU & UN: http://fiducia.co.nz/high-risk-jurisdictions-in-amlcft-programmes/

http://fiducia.co.nz/high-risk-jurisdictions-in-amlcft-programmes/


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2.3.2 SMART SANCTIONS Economic sanctions are targeted at the whole country whereas smart sanctions are targeted at the rulers of that country. Smart sanctions do not affect the country’s economy. Their business, international funding, and other reserves are targeted in the event of violations. Smart sanctions can be used as an alternative to economic sanctions when the ruler of the country is to be target-ed rather than the whole country, and can be particularly useful in cases of dictatorship-led regions.

2.4 CORE ISSUES

2.4.1 ISSUE A How should DISEC act against a State which has been sanctioned several times but continues to violate the principles of peace and international security? There should be a discussion on the recommendations DISEC makes to the UN Security Council when a state or non-state actor has violated the principles of peace maintenance and internation-al security and refuses to respect these principles despite having had sanctions imposed by the UN.

2.4.2 ISSUE B Which sanctions are better: economic sanctions, enjoying the right to have weapons that violate peace and security and paying for the right to have them, or trade sanctions, arms embargoes or financial restrictions? Depending on whether the State or non-state actor you are representing has been sanctioned, there should be a discussion on what has been most effective in your country (economic sanc-tions, trade sanctions, arms embargoes or financial restrictions). It should also be decided whether sanctions that are improving, such as embargoes on arms and sensitive goods, travel bans and asset freezes, have been effective or not. And finally, what is the best way to exert pressure on the parties threatening international peace and security in a conflict so that they cooperate in the ongoing political solution process?

2.4.3 ISSUE C Should the United Nations only sanction states or should non-state actors be included in sanctions too?


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In relation to the resolutions mentioned below, determine whether the United Nations, and more specifically the Security Council, has the right to sanction non-state actors. And if sanctions are made to non-state actors, will these sanctions be the same as state sanctions?

2.5 IMPORTANT RESOLUTIONS Resolutions on the 13 sanction regimes imposed on Al-Qaeda, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea-Bissau, Iraq, Iran, Liberia, Libya, So-malia, Sudan and the Taliban.

The resolution on sanctions on UNITA in 1993[15] (the first non-state actor to be sanctioned). Sanc-tions were imposed on the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) after the Security Council observed the situation of the continued civil war in Angola and reiterated that the main cause of the crisis was UNITA. The Security Council gave notice that it would be neces-sary to impose sanctions on UNITA to promote a political settlement and end the conflict.

The resolution of 1999 on the specific sanctions regime for Al-Qaeda[16].

Resolution number 1267[17] was adopted after looking at the situation in Afghanistan. Osama Bin Laden and his associates were designated as non-state actors involved in spreading terror attacks. All the members of Al-Qaeda and their associates were sanctioned irrespective of where they were. Resolutions 1730 and 1822 of 2006 and 2008 on the strengthening of procedural safeguards applicable to persons on the list and the grounds for sanctioning them.

Resolutions 1730 and 1822 on Chapter VII[18] of the UN Charter that all countries should apply all the sanctions imposed in resolution 1267, such as asset freezes, travel restrictions, and arms sanc-tions.

[15]

Resolution on UNITA: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1295 [16]

Sanctions on Al-Qaeda:

http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/27/actualidad/1380303001_760990.html [17]

Resolution 1267: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1267 [18]

Resolutions 1730 and 1822 explained: http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/sc9381.doc.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1295

http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/09/27/actualidad/1380303001_760990.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1267

http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/sc9381.doc.htm


20

Resolution 2270 of 2016 on sanctions against the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea for the nuclear and nuclear tests it carried out on 6 and 7 January 2016.

Regarding these nuclear tests, they were categorized as “in violation and flagrant disregard”[19] of the previous resolutions and the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Treaty (NPT). The member states also questioned the ballistic missile tests and imposed fresh sanctions on North Korea so that it complied with the international use of such technology. Resolutions 1718, 1874, 2087 and 2094, on the reinforcement of arms embargoes and articles for the development of programs of weapons of mass destruction, as well as financial sanctions and embargoes of luxury articles.

Resolution 2270, on the wide list of individuals and entities sanctioned.[20]

2.6 BLOC POSITIONS It is important to stay in the context and position of the state or non-state actor you are representing. It is also important to evaluate whether sanctions for maintaining peace and international security have evolved over time and how have they evolved in each state or for each non-state actor. Finally, it is important to consider whether sanctions imposed by the United Na-tions are putting pressure on the parties involved in the conflict in order to encourage cooperation in the ongoing political settlement process. The United States and the European Union have imposed the most sanctions on different coun-tries for a variety of reasons. Different countries, including the US, have imposed sanctions on Russia due to the Ukrainian con-flict. However, Russia has not imposed any ‘major’ sanction on any country but after being sanc-tioned by the US government various times, it announced sanctions against 10 US government of-ficials. Canada has sanctioned Iran, Iraq and other countries due to human rights violations and other reasons. Japan and China have sanctioned North Korea over human rights violations.

[19]

UN Imposes fresh Sanctions on Korea: http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/sc9381.doc.htm [20]

http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/es/asuntos-globales/organizaciones-internacionales/areas-de-accion-de-la-onu/la-paz-

y-la-seguridad/article/las-sanciones-en-las-naciones

http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/sc9381.doc.htm

http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/es/asuntos-globales/organizaciones-internacionales/areas-de-accion-de-la-onu/la-paz-y-la-seguridad/article/las-sanciones-en-las-naciones

http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/es/asuntos-globales/organizaciones-internacionales/areas-de-accion-de-la-onu/la-paz-y-la-seguridad/article/las-sanciones-en-las-naciones


21

On a very general level it can be said that the US, the UK and the European Union are in favour of sanctions being imposed on countries for violations. Other sovereign states imposing sanctions on other countries often use those imposed by the US and the EU.

2.7 SUGGESTED READING Chesterman, Simon, Pouligny, Beatrice (2003). Are sanctions meant to work? The politics of creat-ing and implementing sanctions through the United Nations. Global Governance. Vol.9, pp. 503-518. Pape, Robert (1996). Why economic sanctions do not work, New York, Cornel University Press, pp. 90-136. Roxey, Margaret (1980), economic sanctions and international enforcement, Mac Millan, Chap. V. pp. 56-73. Wallesteen, Peter., & Staibano, Carina. (2005), International Sanctions: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, London & New York, Part III, P.93-159, in http://samples.sainsburysebooks.co.uk/9781134252398_sample_902238.pdf.

http://samples.sainsburysebooks.co.uk/9781134252398_sample_902238.pdf


22

3. AGENDA ITEM 2: THE THREAT POSED BY THE USE OF BIOLOGICAL AND TOXIN WEAPONS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CEN-

TURY

3.1 DEFINITION Biological and toxin weapons achieve their intended target effects by causing disease or death in human beings, animals or plants. In addition to causing serious illness and death, the use of such

weapons could result in widespread disruption and immense economic harm.[20] Biological agents are living organisms (e.g. bacteria, viruses, fungi) or infective material derived from them. To be effective, biological agents depend on their ability to multiply in the person, animal or plant at-tacked. A toxin is a poisonous substance derived from animals, plants or micro-organisms. Toxins

are not capable of reproducing themselves[21]. Through some means including but not limited to air, water, food and touchable objects, an in-fected virus/bacteria is injected into the victim which reproduces of the virus inside the victim’s body, resulting in death or the victim’s organs being permanently disabled. Biological warfare is the use of viruses, infectious nucleic acids and prions as weapons of war to attack the intended target. Biological warfare makes use of different viruses, bacteria and toxins to destroy human be-

ings, animals, plants and crops[22]. In terms of the dangers of biological and toxin weapons, they pose a great threat to humanity. Re-cent advances in science and technology have considerably lowered the technical barriers to ac-quiring and using biological weapons. Biological and toxin weapons can be used in wars against opponents, or can be used by militant non-state actors against the civilians. The threat is not lim-ited to the use of such weapons; research and development work on biological and toxin weapons poses major hazards.

3.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

[20]

Definition of Biological Agents: https://unoda-web.s3-accelerate.amazonaws.com/wp-

content/uploads/assets/HomePage/ODAPublications/AdhocPublications/PDF/Basic_Guide-2011-web-Rev1.pdf, p.43. [21]

Toxin: https://www.gaia.com/article/what-are-toxins-detox-definition [22]

Biological Warfare-Joshua Lederberg: https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/7/6/01-0636_article

https://unoda-web.s3-accelerate.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/assets/HomePage/ODAPublications/AdhocPublications/PDF/Basic_Guide-2011-web-Rev1.pdf

https://unoda-web.s3-accelerate.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/assets/HomePage/ODAPublications/AdhocPublications/PDF/Basic_Guide-2011-web-Rev1.pdf

https://www.gaia.com/article/what-are-toxins-detox-definition

https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/7/6/01-0636_article


23

Biological warfare has been used in some way since the sixth century, when the Assyrians used to poison the wells of enemies with fungus. Later, in the 1300s, the Mongol warriors were killed by plague thrown on them. These were different eras and different methods, but the story was the same. After World War I,

the Geneva Protocol[23]

(1925) was established which prohibits the use of poisonous gas, and bacteriological methods of warfare. The Ministry of Supply in the United Kingdom established a Biological Warfare program at Porton

Down[24] during the onset of World War II, where Tularemia, anthrax, brucellosis, and botulism toxins were weaponized. The United Kingdom never used the biological weapons they created but the Porton Down project was the first to successfully weaponize a variety of these deadly biological agents on a larger scale. The United States of America approved the creation of a program similar to the one at Porton

Down, which led to the creation of a large industrial complex at Fort Detrick, Maryland[25]. How-ever, the war ended before these weapons could be used. A secretive group called the unit of the Imperial Japanese Army (Unit 731) performed a number of experiments as part of its biological warfare program. This includedfatal tests on prisoners. This program was by far the most brutal attempt to create biological weapons andwas intended to be used against the Chinese military, among others. In 1940, ceramic bombs containing bubonic plague were dropped on the Chinese city of Ningbo but the operation was unsuccessful due to inefficient delivery systems. During the early 1940s,

almost 1700 soldiers died[26]when the disease in their own biological weapon attack rebounded. In 1969, the United Kingdom submitted a first draft of a ‘Convention for the Prohibition of Biologi-cal Methods of Warfare’ to the Conference of the Committee of Disarmament (CCD). In the same year, US President R. Nixon announced the destruction of his country’s stockpile of offensive bio-logical weapons and ordered an end to the production of them across the country. The ban was extended in 1970 to include toxins.

After three years of negotiation, the “Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention”[27] was opened for signature on 10 April 1972 in London, Washington D.C and Moscow.

[23]

Geneva Protocol 1925: http://www.state.gov/t/isn/4784.htm [24]

Porton Down: http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-36606510 [25]

Fort Detrick, Maryland : https://www.military.com/base-guide/fort-detrick [26]

Unit 731: Japan: http://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.html [27]

Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention: https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/bio/

http://www.state.gov/t/isn/4784.htm

http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-36606510

https://www.military.com/base-guide/fort-detrick

http://apjjf.org/-Tsuneishi-Keiichi/2194/article.html

https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/bio/


24

The BWC came into force on 26 March 1975 after the deposit of instruments of ratification by 22 governments, including the three Depositaries (the then Soviet Union, UK and the US). The BWC effectively prohibits the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological and toxin weapons.

[ii] Image displaying countries involved in testing of /using biological and toxic weapons.

3.3 HISTORIC BIOLOGICAL WARFARE EVENTS TIMELINE 1300s – Mongol warriors died from plague thrown on them, causing several deaths. The

disease became uncontrollable, affecting the civilian population too.

1710 – Russian troops “allegedly” used plague against Swedes. The plague is an infectious disease causing lung infections and eventually death. The Black Death of the 1300s era

spread through Europe due to the plague. It killed about 30-60%[27] of the total population of Europe.

1925 – The Geneva Protocol was introduced, prohibiting the use of bacteriological weap-ons.

1939 – The UK successfully established a program to create biological weapons.

1940 – Japanese Army bombed Ningbo with biological weapons. This caused huge, uncon-trollable plague outbreaks.

1942 – The USA established a successful biological weapons production program.

1942 – 1700 Japanese soldiers died from their own biological weapons.

1948 – Secret Operation Harness by the UK to experiment on bacteria.

[ii]

History of biological weapons usage:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/furniture/in_depth/world/2001/anthrax/bio_weapons_anthrax.gif [27]

Black Death: http://www.history.com/topics/black-death

http://news.bbc.co.uk/furniture/in_depth/world/2001/anthrax/bio_weapons_anthrax.gif

http://www.history.com/topics/black-death


25

1954 – Operation Whitecoat by the USA to carry out medical research in bio-defence.

1969 – The UK proposed a comprehensive ban on biological weapons to the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament (CCD) in Geneva.

1970s –

Establishment of ‘Biopreparat’, which served as the main directorate overseeing Soviet BW production efforts.

.

1972 – The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention was opened for signature.

1978 – Project Coast, a secret chemical and biological weapon project by South Africa.

1989 – BW facility at Al Hakum,Iraq, started large scale production of biological weapons. All these incidents leading towards either the creation or use of biological weapons had a cata-strophic impact and caused a number of deaths. The threat posed by biological weapons increases after every successful experiment in creating biological weapons. One country’s actions in order to create biological weapons can ignite a race among other countries to start creating biological weapons, to defend if not to attack.

3.4 ANALYSIS & RECENT USES The offensive use of biological weapons has been debated over time. The reason biological weapons cannot even be produced is that they cannot be controlled and can backfire at any time. Biological weapons are considered by many scientists to be unpredictable in their effects and of uncertain value in combat. Another reason is that they spread very quickly, for example through air or water, and whole cities can be affected in several hours. Biological weapons require special research and studies. If they backfire or are used against an army, developing vaccines is not easy and takes time. Producing the biological agent is quick and easy but weaponizing it, storing it, and delivering it safely and effectively to the target is the hard part because any kind of accident at any time can cause the developers to be instantly affected by their own weapon. In terms of costs, biological weapons are very cheap compared to nuclear weapons. According to the “Reaching Critical Will” fact sheet on Biological weapons, it is estimated that 1 gram of toxin

could kill 1 million people[29]. A biological weapon like Anthrax can be spread up to 1-15km in just

20 minutes30

. Biological and toxin weapons affect humans but can also crops and fisheries.

[29]

Biological Weapons fact sheet: http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/resources/fact-sheets/critical-issues/4579-

biological-weapons

http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/resources/fact-sheets/critical-issues/4579-biological-weapons



26

The United States allegedly used anti-crop diseases to destroy enemy agriculture during the Cold War. Since biological weapons can be spread through water, they also target fisheries and other water-based vegetation. The use of biological weapons extends to livestock, where different ani-mals are injected or fed with the biological disease, which spreads and can kill large numbers of animals. The basic idea of using biological weapons on crops or animals is to eradicate food re-sources. The potential dangers of biological weapons have always been a concern for the United States. During the first Gulf War, the United Nations created a team called “Task force Scorpio” which was created to respond to any use of biological weapon on civilians, but it was never deployed or brought into action. It should be mentioned that biological weapons and chemical weapons are different. Biological weapons use pathogens or organisms that cause disease whereas chemical weapons are devices which use different chemicals to cause death or injury. Other recent events involving biological and toxin weapons and chemicals include:

An attack on Washington DC and New York, attacking the government and other civilian

members of the media. Anthrax-laced letters[31were shipped to federal officers and media offices at different locations. Five people were killed and 17 injured in the attack.

On 26 October 2002, Chechen terrorists took over 700 hostages at a theatre in Moscow[32]

. Russian Soldiers used Fentanyl, killing 124 and injuring 501. All of the terrorists were killed but many hostages were injured due to the gas.

On 11 November 2002, in China[33] a chemical was used in a school. Food was

allegedly poisoned by a group of terrorists, leading to 193 injuries.

From April to August 2010, Islamist terrorists[34] used biological and toxin weapons on a small scale in different cities in Afghanistan to attack the civil population. More than 10 people died and 670 were injured, including school children. During this time period more than 20 gas attacks were carried out on girl’s schools.

[31]

Anthrax laced letters: http://www.npr.org/2011/02/15/93170200/timeline-how-the-anthrax-terror-unfolded [32]

Moscow theatre crisis: http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hostage-crisis-in-moscow-theater [33]

Attack on children school: http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/terrorism/wrjp39ch.html [34]

Biological weapons and Bioterrorism: http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper342

http://www.npr.org/2011/02/15/93170200/timeline-how-the-anthrax-terror-unfolded

http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hostage-crisis-in-moscow-theater

http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/terrorism/wrjp39ch.html

http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/paper342


27

From April 2012 to June 2013, Takhar, Sar-E-Pul and other provinces in Afghanistan were

attacked by Islamist terrorists[35]. School children were the main targets and different methods of poisoning were used, including water poisoning. 1952 people were injured.

From 19 March to 13 April 2013, the Syrian military allegedly used different chemical

agents on rebel soldiers and civilians[36] in different cities of Syria, killing at least 44 and in-juring 76. The rebels blame the government for the attack but the government blames a rebel attempt to overthrow Bashar-Al-Assad’s regime.

On 21 August 2013, the Syrian Military[37] fired rockets with chemical agents at rebel-held areas in Damascus. Over 1420 people were killed (including 420 children) and 2200 were injured.

[iii] Areas affected by chemical attack in Syria by 21

st August 2013

[35]

Several students poisoned after drinking water in Takhar: https://www.khaama.com/several-students-poisoned-after-

drinking-water-in-takhar-741 [36]

Timeline of Syrian Chemical Weapons Activity: https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Syrian-

Chemical-Weapons-Activity [37]

Over 1500 killed in Syria by Chemical Attacks: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/14/syria-chemical-

weapons-attacks-almost-1500-killed-report-united-nations

https://www.khaama.com/several-students-poisoned-after-drinking-water-in-takhar-741

https://www.khaama.com/several-students-poisoned-after-drinking-water-in-takhar-741

https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Syrian-Chemical-Weapons-Activity

https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Syrian-Chemical-Weapons-Activity

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/14/syria-chemical-weapons-attacks-almost-1500-killed-report-united-nations



28

From 27 March to 22 April 2014, chlorine bombs[38] were used on civilians in two different towns in Syria. The Syrian military is suspected of using chlorine and other agents on civil-ians during the civil war in Syria. 104 people were killed and 200 were injured.

From September to October 2014, Islamic State militants used bombs filled with chlo-

rine[38.1] and other dangerous gases in different cities in Iraq, killing more than 10 people and injuring 40.

On 23 January 2015 Islamic State militants used chlorine and low level toxins on Kurdish

soldiers[39] at the border between Iraq and Syria, with an estimated 30 people injured. A truck bomb containing chlorine-filled tanks was used against the Kurdish troops.

Islamic State used different chemical weapons in different amounts at least 52 times in Syria and

Iraq[40]

. Over 1500 people have been killed in different chemical attacks carried out by the Assad re-

gime[41] in Syria. This figure is only the best estimate known by UN.

3.5 THE THREATS POSED Biological weapons seem to be more usable to governments because they are extremely cheap and do more damage than normal ammunition. It is estimated that a biological agent of just a few dollars in value can cause deaths or injuries across a 500-metre radius. In comparison to nuclear weapons, about $800 of nuclear weapons would be required to cause the same amount of dam-age. The fact that biological agents are cheap and deadly is the reason why it is easy for militant groups to buy them. Biological agents are usually placed in water or food to be activated, although weather is also a major factor in the success of a biological agent. One of the most deadly incidents in history caused due to a disease or plague and which was also

used as a biological agent is the Black Death[42]. An estimated 75-200 million people died. It not

[iii]

Syrian Chemical Attacks: https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/files/2013/09/syria-suburbs-chemical-

weapons.png [38]

Chlorine bombs dropped on Aleppo: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37049555 [38.1]

ISIS Chlorine attacks on Iraq: https://www.rt.com/news/198796-isis-chlorine-attack-report [39]

Islamist State used chlorine attacks: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/14/islamic-state-isis-used-

chemical-weapons-peshmerga-kurds [40]

Islamic State attacks on Syria and Iraq: http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/world/middleeast/isis-chemical-

weapons-syria-iraq-mosul.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FBiological%20and%20Chemical%20Warfare&_r=0 [41]

Assad Regime’s chemical attacks on Syria: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/14/syria-chemical-

weapons-attacks-almost-1500-killed-report-united-nations [42]

Black Death: http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/plague.htm

https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/files/2013/09/syria-suburbs-chemical-weapons.png

https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/files/2013/09/syria-suburbs-chemical-weapons.png

http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37049555

https://www.rt.com/news/198796-isis-chlorine-attack-report/

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/14/islamic-state-isis-used-chemical-weapons-peshmerga-kurds

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/14/islamic-state-isis-used-chemical-weapons-peshmerga-kurds

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/world/middleeast/isis-chemical-weapons-syria-iraq-mosul.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FBiological%20and%20Chemical%20Warfare&_r=0

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/world/middleeast/isis-chemical-weapons-syria-iraq-mosul.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FBiological%20and%20Chemical%20Warfare&_r=0



http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/plague.htm


29

only reduced Europe’s total population by 30-60% but also decreased the world population during from 450 million down to 350-375 million between 1346 and 1352. Like biologi-cal agents that grow over time, the plague also recurred occasionally until the nineteenth century.

[iv] Image showing the spreading of plague in Europe during 1347-1351

From 1962 to 1971 about 19 million gallons of Agent Orange[43] was brought into use by the US military in southern Vietnam to defoliate trees in order to enable US forces to locate communist militants with ease. Agent Orange is a chemical weapon and it removed about 15% of the total vegetation in South Vietnam. Agent Orange is made of dioxin which is a toxic substance. The after effects of Agent Orange on nature can be seen from the fact that even today the highly toxic sub-stance is still detected in the bodies of South Vietnamese people. The toxin contaminated the soil and rivers, which had a significant impact on sea life. It can also have severe effects on health and can cause birth defects.

[iv]

Black Death’s expansion map: https://osjm.wikispaces.com/file/view/black-plague-

map.jpg/320048808/527x374/black-plague-map.jpg [43]

Agent Orange: http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/agent-orange

https://osjm.wikispaces.com/file/view/black-plague-map.jpg/320048808/527x374/black-plague-map.jpg

https://osjm.wikispaces.com/file/view/black-plague-map.jpg/320048808/527x374/black-plague-map.jpg

http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/agent-orange


30

The use of such toxic weapons has deadly consequences on nature and completely erodes the soil in the area it is used. This leads to the rapid loss of vegetation and other agricultural crops. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) dealing with the use of biological and toxic agents as a

weapons lists over 39 agents[44] such as bacteria, toxins, plagues, and viruses which can be used as biological weapons. The use of biological weapons also poses a great threat to nature. It causes complete soil erosion and affects crops, trees, and fertile land. There are other severe consequences including birth de-fects, cancer and other types of diseases. A biological weapon attack on a country’s livestock can have catastrophic effects not only on the specific area and people, but also on the economy due to agricultural losses. The threat of biological weapons extends to wildlife too. Diseases can be trans-ferred between animals just like humans if it is a contagious agent. Only natural resources like air, water and food are required for biological agents to be transferred.

[v] How anthrax spreads in the body

[44]

Departments of the Army. Navy, and Air Force. NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Oper-

ations. Washington: The Department; 1996. [v]

How anthrax works: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-

Q8nHQtSjfAM/UjRnTD65g4I/AAAAAAAAY60/qIFdtIKUpSk/s1600/anthraxattacks.jpg

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Q8nHQtSjfAM/UjRnTD65g4I/AAAAAAAAY60/qIFdtIKUpSk/s1600/anthraxattacks.jpg

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Q8nHQtSjfAM/UjRnTD65g4I/AAAAAAAAY60/qIFdtIKUpSk/s1600/anthraxattacks.jpg


31

This can transfer a small amount of biological agents across hundreds of thousands of hectares, causing devastating effects to human life, animals, crops and trees. One of the characteristics of biological weapons is that it gets more and more powerful over time, which is even more danger-ous and can have consequences years after it was first spread.

3.6 PROTECTION TECHNIQUES

Biological weapons are divided into different categoriesand states can defend themselves[45] against them in different ways, including:

Prevention: Prevention may take several forms. In biological warfare, international dis-armament inspection regimes may question the production of biological agents. Intelligence assets may indicate any threats from the production or use of biological and toxin weapons so that the necessary measures can be undertaken. For prevention the gov-ernment should fully be aware of any experiments being performed on biological or chem-ical agents. The intelligence services should be used and any such activity should be stopped.

Protection: Protection[45.1] against biological and toxin weapons can involve using protec-tive suits, masks, clothing and filters but this protection is very limited and can only be ap-plicable for a very limited amount of time. Another option is vaccines but vaccination usu-ally provides protection against naturally occurring agents. Vaccines often only offer lim-ited or no protection against genetically-created biological weapons. However antibiotics can be used as a first aid in the event of biological or toxic attacks. Protection from chemical weapons can involve using military gas masks or the filter masks that are used for tuberculosis since they filter out particles in the biological weapon that are using air as a medium to spread. Although for masks to work completely a perfectly fit-ted mask should be used to avoid any kind of exposure of the face. Clothing is a vital aspect in defending against the threat from biological weapons since most biological agents and toxics attach themselves to the skin or clothing. After an attack, properly covering oneself in clothing with no part of the skin left exposed, then removing the clothing and showering with clean water and anti-bacterial soap, can reduce the threat from the particular attack. A safe distance should be kept from people who are already infected by the biological or toxic agent if it is contagious since it can spread by touch or even through the air. People infected with contagious diseases should be kept in private rooms while being treated and doctors should use latex gloves to avoid any possible agent catching onto their own skin.

[45]

Biological weapons, 3rd

Heading How Can biological weapons be defended against? :

http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/resources/fact-sheets/critical-issues/4579-biological-weapons [45.1]

Biological Warfare: Protection: http://www.emedicinehealth.com/biological_warfare/page3_em.htm



32

Antibiotics shall be given to the infected patients immediately because they reduce the ef-fect of biological agents in the body. It is suggested that antibiotics are given to affected patients even before the specific agent is identified. Antibiotics do contribute towards therapy against bacteria but they are not effective against toxins and genetically engi-neered viruses. Vaccinations can be used (but vaccinations only work on identified biological and toxic agents) and there are many for existing toxic agents such as anthrax, small pox, and yellow fever. These can be used immediately after an attack for the decontamination of the toxic agent from the patient’s body.

Detection: With developments in technology, there are many different detection machines which have been created to detect attacks involving biological weapons. The detection equipment can detect different infectious agents. The limitation to detection is whether the infectious biological agent is actually identified or not. Early detection of biological agents can be helpful to keep the infected away in order to stop the spread of such agents. Detection should not only be limited to human but also used on animals, water, air and land. Treatment provided at early stages of detection can stop different biological and toxic agents from creating devastating effects. Comparatively, stopping biological agents at a very early stage is easier than at a later stage, after it has been spread across different me-diums. Doctors must have excellent knowledge of the mediums that biological and toxic agents use in order to prevent mass infections and they should also be able to recognize the pat-terns that the biological agent disease carries. If unusual numbers of deaths among hu-mans, animals, or crops are detected, a biological attack could be suspected and authori-ties should be informed right away. The latest technology should be brought in to detect any possible patterns of biological agents being used. Unusual compounds should be au-tomatically detected and reported so that a cure can be found. Many systems are developed to detect use of potential biological or toxic weapons. Sensi-

tive Membrane Antigen Rapid Test[46] (S.M.A.R.T), Joint Biological Point Detection Sys-

tem[47] (JBPDS) are among the automated systems that can detect biological and toxic agents. However, the treatment depends on whether the biological agent has been de-tected and identified or not. If it has been detected the complete accurate formula of compounds is given to remove the infectious disease. If the agent is not identified then dif-ferent levels and doses of antibiotics are given. It can be concluded that treating the victims of toxic and biological weapons entirely de-pends on how quickly the agent is detected and on the use of technology, maintenance and the establishment of a good health care system.

[46]

SMART: http://www.nhdiag.com/cholera_bt.shtml [47]

JBPDS: http://www.dote.osd.mil/pub/reports/fy2011/pdf/dod/2011jbpds.pdf

http://www.nhdiag.com/cholera_bt.shtml

http://www.dote.osd.mil/pub/reports/fy2011/pdf/dod/2011jbpds.pdf


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Decontamination: Chemical weapons disperse over time, whereas biological agents are said to multiply and grow over time. There are a few possible means of decontamination for biological agents, for example using different chemicals, heat or UV rays. There are bio-logical agents which be decontaminated by using different chemicals with bonding com-pounds which are opposite to those in the biological or toxic agent. One of the most successful ways to decontaminate biological weapons is through heat. Heat at high levels can decontaminate biological agents on a large scale and can even stop them re-emitting. This is the reason biological or toxic agents are said to be unsuccessfully delivered by missiles. When the missiles hit the target, there is a huge explosion creating high levels of heat and decontaminating biological and toxic agents completely.

Ultraviolet (UV) rays[48] can also be used to decontaminate biological agents. UV rays are ultraviolet rays containing electromagnetic radiation that weakens the bonding of biologi-cal and chemical agents. Due to exposure to UV radiation, internal processes in the human body trigger the generation of vitamin D, which is essential for human life. However, ex-cessive exposure to UV rays can damage the skin and eyes. Limited amounts of UV rays can help weaken the bonding of biological agents, and can therefore be used as a defence against biological and toxic agents.

3.6.1 THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT A state should focus on using technology to detect biological and toxic agent attacks at an early stage since the early detection and response to such attacks is very important. It is also the state’s responsibility to keep a check on abuse of normal or naturally occurring viruses in humans and an-imals since the identified viruses are also capable of causing mass destruction and destroying health infrastructure. Preparedness for the outbreak of biological and toxic agents should be made an essential component of the health system. Proper setups shall be maintained to monitor and response to any unusual infection outbreak and protect the public from any infectious diseases in air, water or food. Special monitoring cells shall be introduced to detect and investigate unknown or unidentified diseases. Monitoring cells shall be prepared for any possible attacks involving rare agents and should be able to tackle such agents when they pose a threat. The key focus areas for the government should be:

Preparedness: Detecting infections and injuries at an early stage and providing a cure is a difficult process. To meet this challenge special emergency services shall be created in dif-ferent cities across the country in order to tackle the potential threat that biological and toxic agents pose.

[48]

UV Rays:

http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/sunanduvexposure/skincancerpreventionandearlydetection/skin-cancer-

prevention-and-early-detection-what-is-u-v-radiation


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Detection and Surveillance: Early detection is a basic requirement to curing biological or toxic weapons at the very first stage. Special surveillance systems should be introduced and intelligence assets should be used by the government to monitor any unu-sual deaths or infections. Intelligence assets should also play their part in locating any se-cret facilities being used to produce, create or stockpile any potentially harmful agents. The emergency services should be working on the frontline with hospitals and other health au-thorities. In case of emergencies their role is to coordinate with the health service and pro-vide immediate aid to the public. This partnership with health authorities would also help in detecting and reporting any unidentified agents or any kind of unusual health infections. Water in the area should be monitored and in cases of suspicion tests should be carried out in order to locate any potential threats.

Creating Laboratories: The state should create multilevel laboratories in order to counter any outbreaks of biological agents. These laboratories should examine the infected cases and work out the cure for such agents. In cases of human, animal, or agricultural attacks these labs should contain sufficient first aid that can be given to control the outbreaks of biological or toxic agents. All the testing and experiments can be carried out under surveil-lance in this laboratory, where ways to decontaminate the agents can be worked on.

Creating Response Teams: While different tests are being carried out in the laboratories, governments should ensure response teams are created to respond to biological or toxic attacks. These should carry first aid and take infected patients to private rooms to prevent an outbreak. Response teams should be properly covered and should also be responsible for providing any physical assistance in case of biological agent outbreaks.

Establishing Communication Systems: Proper communication systems should be built which can guide the general public about the symptoms and prevention techniques that can be used against biological terrorism attacks. Seminars should be arranged to increase awareness of hazards that biological and toxic weapons can cause and their prevention. The communication system should also be responsible for communication between the au-thorities and health and response teams in the event of a biological attack. A proper coor-dination system from detection to prevention can then be developed.

3.7 MAIN PROBLEMS Some important problems and issues surrounding the threats from biological and toxin weapons need to be discussed. If addressed properly, these can lead to safer policies and laws preventing the use of biological and toxin weapons in any circumstances.


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3.7.1 HOW TO STOP THE CREATION AND PRODUCTION OF BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS COMPLETELY Almost all the sovereign states stand united against the use of biological weapons. Howev-er, various incidents over time (for example, after the Biological Weapons Convention was signed a few countries were still involved in testing or producing Biological Weapons) have shown that, even though different states have signed an agreement prohibiting the pro-duction of biological and toxin weapons, many states may still have “SECRET” facilities for the production and the testing of such weapons. How do we detect and stop those secret facilities from being developed? And how do we identify if a government is using its re-sources in such facilities?

3.7.2 HOW TO DEAL WITH DENIALS

No government would accept that it is creating or stockpiling biological weapons or its in-volvement in an incident. For example, the Syrian government used chemical weapons against its civil population even after the report by different teams confirming this use, and the government still denies using any such weapon. What policies or actions need to be taken against the use of biological and toxin weapons?

3.7.3 RESEARCH ON BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS

Multiple states use biological and toxin agents in very small amounts to research and study them. The purpose of research can lead to two totally different uses. 1. There can be further identification of known infectious biological and toxin agents and a prevention method or technique can also be researched for possible future use as a vac-cine or protective measure. 2. The other possibility can be research for the creation and production of biological agents to be used in attacks. The Biological Weapon Convention allows research into specific types and quantities of biological weapons. Should any of these types of biological weapons and research on small amounts of them be allowed or not? Also, how can there be complete certainty that biological research will not fall into the hands of militant non-state actors and be used to produce and stockpile biological agents in order to attack food resources or human lives directly?

3.7.4 DEALING WITH SECRET FACILITIES If governments are working on biological and toxic agents or stockpiling them in their se-cret facilities, how can they be located? On what basis shall a government be held respon-sible in the event of an outbreak of biological agents? Should an international joint intelli-gence service investigate if a government is allegedly involved in the production or stock-


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piling of biological agents? If a government is allegedly using biological or chemical weap-ons, should an international service be responsible for investigating and giving a final ver-dict? How can secret facilities be located? What if a government’s involvement in biological warfare is proven but it refuses to stop or take any action?

3.8 IMPORTANT RESOLUTIONS AND PROTOCOLS

The “Geneva Protocol”[49] drafted on 17 June 1925, signed on the same date and effective from 8 February 1928 is the “Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare”. The Geneva Protocol prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons in International conflicts. Although the Geneva Protocol addresses the problem of the use of these weapons di-rectly, it does not address the production, storage or transfer of such weapons sufficiently.

“The Biological Weapons Convention”[50] was opened for signature in 1972 and came into effect in 1975. The Biological Weapons Convention prohibits the development, production and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons and it addressed all the issues which were left out of the Geneva Protocol.

[49]

Geneva Protocol: https://www.state.gov/t/isn/4784.htm [50]

The Biological Weapons Convention: https://www.un.org/disarmament/geneva/bwc/7

https://www.state.gov/t/isn/4784.htm

https://www.un.org/disarmament/geneva/bwc/7


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[vi] Map of signed and unsigned states of the Biological Weapons Convention 1975.

The resolution A/RES/58/72[51] adopted by the General Assembly in 2004 was about the “Conven-tion on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biologi-cal) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction”. This resolution not only addressed the issue of prohibiting the development and production of biological and toxin weapons but also stressed the need for the destruction of existing weapons.

Resolution A/RES/70/74[52] adopted by the General Assembly on 7 December 2015 was also about the “Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacterio-logical (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction”. By 2015 there were 173 state

[vi]

Biological Weapons Convention signatories: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-

L79up_kw5eE/U_J1F3VCJbI/AAAAAAAADHs/PAngQniI2GM/s1600/BWC1972.tiff [51]

Resolution A/RES/58/72 http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/58/72 [52]

Resolution A/RES/70/74 http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/74

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-L79up_kw5eE/U_J1F3VCJbI/AAAAAAAADHs/PAngQniI2GM/s1600/BWC1972.tiff

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-L79up_kw5eE/U_J1F3VCJbI/AAAAAAAADHs/PAngQniI2GM/s1600/BWC1972.tiff

http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/58/72

http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/74


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parties who had agreed to the convention on biological and toxin weapons. This number includes all the permanent members of the Security Council. All these states agree to the destruction of any existing biological weapons and a ban on the production and stockpiling of other biological and toxin weapons.

Resolution A/C.1/71/L.56[53] was drafted by Hungary and presented on 13 October 2016 during

the Seventy First Session with the title “Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Pro-duction and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruc-tion”.

3.9 COUNTRY BLOCS Although all countries do agree to the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons, there are some political elements to it as well. For example, the civil war in Syria led to many questions being raised about the use of biological weapons by Bashar-Al-Assad’s regime. However, Russia and China vetoed different resolutions which could have enabled action to be taken against Assad’s regime.

[vii] Countries with probable or known involvement in Chemical/Biological weapons. Many other countries are also

suspected.

[53]

Resolution A/C.1/71/L.56 http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/C.1/71/L.56 [vii]

Countries involved in Chemical/Biological warfare attacks:

http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/biochem.weapons/

http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/1com/1com16/resolutions/L56.pdf

http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/1com/1com16/resolutions/L56.pdf

http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/C.1/71/L.56

http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/biochem.weapons/


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Overall, the main issue to consider when looking into country blocs is the fact that many of the countries have been accused of producing and stockpiling biological and toxin weapons even after signing the Geneva Protocol (1925) and the Biological Weapons Conventions (BWC). The accused states will lobby against the states which have never proven the accused to be guilty.

3.10 SUGGESTED READING “Biological warfare, bioterrorism, biodefence and the biological and toxin weapons convention”, Vol. 2 No. 3, December 15, 1999, Edgar J. DaSilva (http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0717-34581999000300001&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en) Byers, Michael. War Law: Understanding International Law and Armed Conflict. Grove/Atlantic, Inc. ,2007. Dando, M. (2002). Preventing Biological Warfare: The Failure of American Leadership. London: Palgrave Macmillan. http://bradscholars.brad.ac.uk:8080/handle/10454/2848 Davis CJ. Nuclear blindness: an overview of the biological weapons programs of the former Sovi-et Union and Iraq. Emerg Infect Dis. 2000;5:509–512. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol5no4/davis.htm. Accessed September 8, 2006

http://bradscholars.brad.ac.uk:8080/handle/10454/2848

http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol5no4/davis.htm


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4. FINAL WORDS

Delegates should be aware that the attire for the committee is business attire. As the pres-ident of DISEC, I would suggest that you dress to impress.

Be sure of your speaking skills and be confident about what you are saying.

Do not limit your research to this study guide only. The study guide plays a vital part in terms of groundwork for the committee but be very well prepared and carry out in-depth research into your country.

Research your country, its stance and the impact these issues have had on it, as well as its involvement over different time periods. You should also know the basics about your coun-try, foreign relations with other countries and your allies.

Research the most recent developments on both issues and any actions that have been taken..

Find and use facts and figures about your country’s stance to support your points, rather than just giving your opinions about it.

Maintaining the decorum is the most essential part. Do not interrupt a person when they have been recognized to speak.

Do not use the word “I”, use “we”. For example, instead of saying “I believe that Russia has always…”, say “We believe that Russia has always…”. “I” represents your personal view but in the United Nations you are representing your state, therefore “we” is preferred.

Instead of addressing the committee members as “Ladies and Gentlemen”, use “Fellow delegates” or “People of the United Nations”. Ladies and Gentlemen is considered as a sex-ist remark and discrimination.

You do not need to worry about the rules of procedure. If it is the first time you have taken part in this type of event, you can ask about the proceedings of the committee using “Point of parliamentary inquiry”. You can then inquire about how a certain process works.

Make sure you support your country’s stance on the topic based on its constitution. Never go against your own country’s constitution or its stance.


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Finally, be clear and make sure you are calm before you speak. Even if you are raising ques-tions for the other bloc or the other state, be sure about your facts, never try to manipu-late facts and figures, and bear in mind that the President and Vice-President hold the mandate to ask you for a copy of the facts in the statements you make.

From the Vice-President:

International disarmament is one of the most difficult issues to discuss and is of great glob-al importance. This is why we suggest you use the different United Nations resolutions so that you can deepen your knowledge about how this problem is currently being tackled and has been a priority for maintaining peace and security worldwide.

We must question the fact that many powerful states invest a great amount in maintaining their military arsenal. This is considered to be purely for defence, and no na-tion wishes to return to the nuclear confrontations of the Cold War.

As Vice-President of DISEC, I recommend that you vary your sources of information and do not limit yourself to this Study Guide or its bibliography. There are various ways of framing this problem, including the impact that disarmament has on human rights, environmental and climate change, reducing conflicts in the Middle East and ending the North-South ine-qualities in terms of the distribution of military arsenal.

As vice-president of DISEC, I invite you to take risks, learn, research and nurture your knowledge on the subject. Do not limit yourself to the information required by the actor you represent but learn how this topic has developed over time and how promoting disarmament and security could be useful to the Security Council. You will have an unfor-gettable experience acquiring new knowledge and new insights into the topics.

MUN simulations are an academic learning tool which allow us to grow as future profes-sionals and consider realities that are very different from our own lives. You are welcome to contact me with any questions you have or about any information you need.

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