STUDIO ED ESERCITAZIONE - ESP ACTIVITIES 3 · STUDIO ED ESERCITAZIONE – ESP ACTIVITIES 3 ......

Corso di Laurea in MEDICINA E CHIRURGIA

LINGUA INGLESE

PROF. ANGELO BACCARELLA

STUDIO ED ESERCITAZIONE - ESP ACTIVITIES 3

The Greek physician Hippocrates (ca. 460 BCE – ca. 370 BCE),

considered the father of medicine.

STUDIO ED ESERCITAZIONE – ESP ACTIVITIES 3 - ANGELO BACCARELLA 2

Introduction

in Studio ed esercitazione ESP activities 3 we shall look at the respiratory apparatus and the human

digestive system, the grammar structures and the lexicon used and the expressions needed to

describe the organs of the human body, the processes, the systems etc. Furthermore, we shall

introduce new grammar items such as verbs derived from adjectives, phrasal verbs, and

prepositional phrases etc.

We shall also look at graphs and how to describe trends and tendencies; and, lastly medical

acronyms.

All the readings will not only introduce new grammar structures and new lexicon but will also try

to help you to understand how the English language ‘works’ in context through various activities.

These activities are based on teaching vocabulary from context (a set of words and sentences) to

help you understand meaning of what is expressed without knowing every word of sentence or

the whole text. Words are not taught separated from context but in context.

At the same time grammar is revisited through discovery, that is, it is taught implicitly and made

explicit through the process of inductive reasoning and the activities in Studio ed esercitazione ESP

activities 3 have the aim to guide you towards a generalised grammar rule or pattern through a

series of steps (tasks, texts, activities, etc.).

Angelo Baccarella

THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS

The larynx The larynx, commonly called the voice box, is an organ in the

neck of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals involved in breathing, sound production, and protecting the trachea against food aspiration. It manipulates pitch and volume. The

larynx houses the vocal folds (vocal cords), which are essential for phonation. The vocal folds are situated just below where the tract of the pharynx splits into the trachea and the

oesophagus.

Notes:

There are many relative clauses in this text; some are full relative clauses and some are reduced passive relative clauses:

“The larynx, which is commonly called the voice box, … which (the larynx) is involved in …”

The verb “protecting” is in the -ing form because it follows the preposition “in”: “… involved in … protecting …”

The following verbs need a preposition to become transitive: to involve in (prepositional verbs) to split into

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

the voice box sound production to house

pitch the vocal folds to split into

= (lett.) la scatola del suono = produzione del suono = alloggiare / albergare / contenere

= tono (relativo al suono) = (lett.) pieghe vocali (corde vocali) = suddividersi in / dividersi in


Structure

Cartilages

There are nine cartilages, three unpaired and three paired, that support the mammalian larynx and form its

skeleton.

Unpaired cartilages:

• Thyroid cartilage: This forms the Adam's apple. It is usually larger in males than in females. The thyrohyoid membrane is a ligament associated with the thyroid cartilage that connects the thyroid cartilage with the hyoid bone.

• Cricoid cartilage: A ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of the larynx. It is attached to the top of the trachea. The median cricothyroid ligament connects the cricoid cartilage to the thyroid cartilage. • Epiglottis: A large, spoon-shaped piece of elastic cartilage. During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx rise.

Elevation of the pharynx widens it to receive food and drink; elevation of the larynx causes the epiglottis to move down and form a lid over the glottis, closing it off.

Paired cartilages: • Arytenoid cartilages: Of the paired cartilages, the arytenoid cartilages are the most important because they

influence the position and tension of the vocal folds. These are triangular pieces of mostly hyaline cartilage located at the posterosuperior border of the cricoid cartilage. • Corniculate cartilages: Horn-shaped pieces of elastic cartilage located at the apex of each arytenoid

cartilage. • Cuneiform cartilages: Club-shaped pieces of elastic cartilage located anterior to the corniculate cartilages.

Translate the following words and expressions into English:

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

compone la parete inferiore sollevamento parti triangolari a forma di clava / randello

= ………………………………………… = ………………………………………… = ………………………………………… = …………………………………………

paired = appaiati / contrapposti unpaired = spaiati / non accoppiati

wall = parete / muro spoon-shaped = a forma di cucchiaio to swallow = inghiottire to rise = sollevare

a lid = coperchio to close off = chiudere / isolare (phrasal verb)

border = l imite / confine

horn = corno

Translate the following words and expressions into Italian:

unpaired cartilages the Adam's apple during swallowing

= ………………………………………… = ………………………………………… = …………………………………………

Answer the following questions.

How many cartilages are there?

What are their function?

Epiglottis: A large, spoon-shaped

piece of elastic cartilage. During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx rise. Elevation of the pharynx widens

it to receive food and drink; elevation of the larynx causes the epiglottis to move down and form a l id over the glottis, closing it off.


GRAMMAR NOTES

Note the verb “to widen” in the description of the epiglottis; it is a verb ending in -en based on the adjective “wide”.

There are a small number of verbs made from adjectives (or occasionally nouns based on adjectives) with

-en added, meaning to make something more of that quality the adjective describes (rendere più + la qualità descritta dall’aggettivo. Esempio: “sweetness” = rendere più dolce / addolcire).

These verbs fall into a number of categories: Dimensions and shape - lengthen, shorten, straighten, etc.

Light and colour - brighten, darken, whiten, etc. Density and composition - harden, soften, thicken, etc. Others - freshen, ripen, sweeten, etc.

EXERCISE Complete the following table writing the Italian word needed to translate the English word: (Careful – it is not always possible to translate the English word – sometimes an Italian expression is needed)

Adjective Italian Noun Italian Verb Italian

deep profondo depth deepen (rendere più profondo)

high height altezza heighten

wide ampio width widen ampliare

long lungo length lengthen

straight dritto straightness straighten raddrizzare

short

shortage (= not enough) shortness (= not tall)

essere a corto di bassezza

shorten

accorciare

hard duro hardness harden

soft morbido softness soften

tight stretto tightness tighten stringere

loose largo looseness loosen allargare

strong strength forza strengthen

weak weakness debolezza weaken indebolire

fresh fresco freshness freschezza freshen

ripe maturo ripeness maturazione ripen

sweet dolce sweetness dolcezza sweeten

dark scuro darkness / dark oscurità / oscuro darken

bright luminoso brightness brighten

white

bianco whiteness

whiten imbiancare (rendere più bianco)

Exceptions:

heavy pesante weight peso weigh pesare

large grande / ampio enlargement enlarge

low basso lowering abbassamento lower

Further grammar notes:

The interrogative adverb HOW is usually used with adjectives and the interrogative adjective WHAT is usually used with nouns in questions on measurements:

age (età), size (misura), weight (peso), length (lunghezza), breadth (larghezza), width (ampiezza), height (altezza), depth (profondità):

How old is he? (che età ha?) How deep is the water? (quanta è profonda l’acqua?)

What age is she?

What height / length / size is your room?

The verb TO BE is always used in these kinds of questions.


The most important role of the larynx is its protecting function; the prevention of foreign

objects from entering the lungs by coughing and other reflexive actions. A cough is initiated by a deep inhalation through the vocal folds,

followed by the elevation of the larynx and the tight adduction (closing) of the vocal folds. The forced expiration that follows, assisted by tissue

recoil and the muscles of expiration, blows the vocal folds apart, and the high pressure expels

the irritating object out of the throat. Throat clearing is less violent than coughing, but is a similar increased respiratory effort countered by

the tightening of the laryngeal musculature.

There are many adjectives in English that end in -ED or -ING.

-ED adjectives are used to talk about a person’s feelings or opinions; they are also used to indicate the result or effect of an action on someone or something.

An adjective that ends in -ING is used to describe things, people, places, activities. They express the process of the action itself.

Do not confuse the -ED adjectives with the past participles (in the passive voice and the perfect tenses) and the -ING adjectives with the verbal nouns (the -ING form).

In this passage, the adjective “tight” is used as an adjective and then its verb “tighten” is used as a noun: “tightening”.

Notice also the -ING form after prepositions.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

Verbs -ING form

Verbs -ED form

Adjectives Nouns

adduction tissue recoil

to blow to counter musculature

= adduzione = tessuto = ritrarre / ritirare

= soffiare = contrastare / controbattere = muscolatura

entering coughing

initiated followed assisted countered

protecting irritating forced increased

clearing coughing tightening

Answer the following questions.

How does the larynx protect the lungs?

What is a cough? How is a cough initiated?

What happens during coughing?

Is coughing more violent than throat clearing?

The trachea and bronchi The trachea, colloquially called windpipe, is a tube that connects the pharynx and larynx to the lungs, allowing

the passage of air, and so is present in all air-breathing animals with lungs. The trachea extends from the larynx and branches into the two primary bronchi. At the top of the trachea the cricoid cartilage attaches it to the larynx. This is the only complete ring, the others being incomplete rings of reinforcing cartilage. The

trachealis muscle joins the ends of the rings and these are joined vertically by bands of fibrous connective tissue, the annular ligaments of trachea. The epiglottis closes the opening to the larynx during swallowing.

Translate the following words and expressions into English:

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

che permette il passaggio dell’aria si dirama nei due bronchi primari l’epiglottide chiude l’apertura

= ………………………………………… = ………………………………………… = …………………………………………

colloquially = colloquialmente air-breathing = che respira aria

to branch = diramarsi a ring = anello a band = fascia / banda

Translate the following words and expressions into Italian:

air-breathing animals with lungs these are joined vertically by bands

= ………………………………………… = …………………………………………

Inflammation

Inflammation of the trachea is known as tracheitis. When the trachea is inflamed as well as the larynx and bronchi, this is known as croup, which often causes a distinct, barking cough.

Notes: There are two conjunctions used in this passage: as well as = così come / oltre a as = come

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

croup

to bark

= laringotracheobronchite

= abbaiare


Bronchi A bronchus, also known as a main or primary bronchus, is a passage of

airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs. There is a right bronchus and a left bronchus and these bronchi branch into smaller secondary and tertiary bronchi which branch into smaller tubes, known as

bronchioles. No gas exchange takes place in the bronchi.

Notes: Order in terms of importance:

main / primary secondary tertiary

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

airway to take place

= via respiratoria = avvenire / aver luogo (phrasal verb)

Structure

The trachea (windpipe) divides into two main or primary bronchi, the left and the right. … The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left main bronchus. It enters the right lung at approximately the fifth thoracic vertebra. The right main bronchus subdivides into three secondary

bronchi (also known as lobar bronchi), which deliver air to the three lobes of the right lung—the superior, middle and inferior lobe. …

The left main bronchus is smaller in calibre but longer than the right, being 5 cm long. It enters the root of the left lung opposite the sixth thoracic vertebra. … The left main bronchus divides into two secondary or lobar bronchi to deliver air to the two lobes of the left

lung—the superior and the inferior lobe. The secondary bronchi divide further into tertiary bronchi, (also known as segmental bronchi), each of which supplies a bronchopulmonary segment. A bronchopulmonary segment is a division of a lung separated from

the rest of the lung by a septum of connective tissue. This property allows a bronchopulmonary segment to be surgically removed without affecting other segments. …

The tertiary bronchi divide into many smaller bronchioles which divide into terminal bronchioles, each of which then gives rise to several respiratory bronchioles, which go on to divide into two to eleven alveolar ducts. There are five or six alveolar sacs associated with each alveolar duct. The alveolus is the basic

anatomical unit of gas exchange in the lung. The main bronchi have relatively large lumens that are lined by respiratory epithelium. This cellular lining

has cilia departing towards the mouth which removes dust and other small particles. There is a smooth muscle layer below the epithelium arranged as two ribbons of muscle that spiral in opposite directions. … A bronchus has cartilage plates, smooth muscle, and mucus-secreting gland-cells in its wall. It also has lining

cells with cilia departing towards the mouth; this removes dust and other small debris.

Translate the following phrases into English:

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

Entra dentro il polmone destro all’altezza (circa) della V vertebra toracica.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Un segmento broncopolmonare è una sezione di un polmone separato dal resto del

polmone da un setto di tessuto connettivo.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

C’è uno strato di muscolo liscio al di sotto l’epitelio ordinato come due fasce.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

to divide into = dividere in to subdivide into = suddividere in the root = radice

a septum = setto surgically = chirurgicamente to give rise = dare luogo

to go on = continuare a duct = dotto a lumen = lumen

to line = rivestire lining = rivestimento cilia = ciglia dust = polvere

debris = detriti / residui to arrange = ordinare / sistemare a ribbon = nastro / striscia

to spiral = muoversi a spirale a plate = piastra / copertura

Translate the following phrases into Italian:

The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left main

bronchus.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

… which deliver air to the three lobes of the right lung.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

The main bronchi have relatively large lumens that are lined by respiratory

epithelium.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


Bronchitis Bronchitis is defined as inflammation of the bronchi, which can either be

acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis is usually caused by viral or bacterial infections. Most sufferers of chronic bronchitis also suffer from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and is usually associated with

smoking or long-term exposure to irritants.

Notes: Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in different parts of a sentence. For instance, in the following example, the expression either ... or is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in the two clauses represent two alternative choices of action.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

bronchitis a viral infection a bacterial infection

a sufferer chronic obstructive pulmonary disease COPD

= bronchite = un’infezione virale = un’infezione batterica

= un sofferente = broncopneumopatia cronica ostruttiva = BPCO

Aspiration While the left mainstem bronchus departs from the trachea at an angle, the right mainstem bronchus is almost a vertical continuation of the trachea.

This anatomy predisposes the right lung to several problems: if food, liquids, or foreign bodies are aspirated, they often will lodge in the right mainstem bronchus. Aspiration pneumonia may result. …

Notes: The conditional sentence of the first type: Main clause Simple Future + If-Clause Simple Present This type of sentence implies that the action in the IF-CLAUSE is quite probable.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

mainstem bronchi

foreign bodies to lodge

pneumonia

= bronchi principali

= estraneo / straniero = corpi / materie = bloccarsi / incastrarsi / (alloggiare)

= polmonite

Asthma Asthma is hyperactivity of the bronchi with an inflammatory component,

often in response to allergens. In asthma, the constriction of the bronchi can result in a difficulty in

breathing giving shortness of breath; this can lead to a lack of oxygen reaching the body for cellular processes. In this case an asthma puffer can be used to rectify the problem. The puffer administers a bronchodilator,

which serves to soothe the constricted bronchi and to re-expand the airways. This effect occurs quite quickly.

Notes: The modal can has been used to indicate a theoretical possibility. The relative pronoun which introduces a non-defining relative clause adding information to the noun bronchodilator. The infinitives after the verb are infinitives of purpose. Quite is an adverb of degree and modifies both adverbs and adjectives.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

an allergen constriction

shortness of breath a lack an asthma puffer

to administer to soothe

= allergene = costrizione / restrizione

= respiro corto / fiato corto = carenza / mancanza = inalatore per l’asma

= somministrare (med.) / amministrare = lenire / confortare


The pleurae

In human anatomy, the pleural cavity is the potential space between the two pleurae (visceral and parietal) of the lungs. A pleura is a serous membrane which folds back onto itself to form a two-layered membranous structure. The thin space between the two pleural layers is known as the pleural cavity and

normally contains a small amount of pleural fluid. The outer pleura (parietal pleura) is attached to the chest wall. The inner pleura (visceral pleura) covers the lungs and adjoining structures, via blood vessels,

bronchi and nerves. The parietal pleura is highly sensitive to pain, while the visceral pleura is not, due to its lack of sensory innervation.

Diseases of the pleural cavity include: Pneumothorax: a collection of air within the pleural cavity

Pleural effusion: a fluid accumulation within the pleural space. Pleural tumours: abnormal growths on the pleurae.


GLOSSARIO MINIMO

The pleural cavity is the potential space between the two pleurae.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

A pleura is a serous membrane which folds back onto itself.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

The outer pleura is attached to the chest wall.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

The inner pleura covers the lungs and adjoining structures.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

The parietal pleura is highly sensitive to pain.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

A collection of air within the pleural cavity.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

serous = sieroso to fold = ripiegare

outer = esterno / esteriore chest wall = gabbia toracica inner = interno / interiore

via = per mezzo di / attraverso a blood vessel = vaso sanguigno sensitive = sensibile

due to = dovuto a / a causa di sensory = sensorio / sensoriale innervation = innervazione pneumothorax = pneumotorace

pleural effusion= effusione pleurale pleural tumour = tumore pleurale

intercostal muscles =

muscoli intercostali chest wall = gabbia toracica rib cage = cassa toracica thoracic vertebrae =

vertebre toraciche sternum = sterno


The lungs The human lungs are the organs of respiration. Humans have

two lungs, a right lung and a left lung. The right lung consists of three lobes while the left lung is slightly smaller consisting of only two lobes (the left lung has a "cardiac notch" allowing

space for the heart within the chest). Together, the lungs contain approximately 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) of airways and 300 to 500 million alveoli.

Estimates of the total surface area of lungs vary from 30-50 square metres up to 70-100 square metres (1076.39 sq ft) (8.4

x 8.4 m) in adults — which might be roughly the same area as one side of a tennis court. However, such estimates may be of limited use unless qualified by a statement of scale at which

they are taken. Furthermore, if all of the capillaries that surround the alveoli were unwound and laid end to end, they would extend for

about 992 kilometres (616 mi). The lungs together weigh approximately 1.3 kilograms (2.9 lb), with the right lung

weighing more than the left. …

Notes:

tennis court = campo da tennis football pitch / field = campo da calcio rugby pitch / field = campo da rugby Answer the following questions:

1) What are the human lungs? 2) How many lungs do humans have and how are they structured?

3) Why is the left lung smaller than the right lung?

4) How long are the airways contained in the two lung?

5) What are the estimates of the total surface area of lungs in adults?

6) How long would all of the capillaries extend for if they were unwound and laid end to end?

7) How much do the two human lungs weigh?

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

cardiac notch to unwind (unwound) to lay (laid)

end to end

= incavo / buco cardiaco = srotolare / distendere = stendere / spiegare

= da capo a piedi / in fila indiana

Lengths Weights

Unit in meters

Metric Unit System

millimetre [mm] 0.001 centimetre [cm] 0.01 decimetre [dcm] 0.1 meter [m] 1 kilometre [km] 1000

Imperial and US Unit System

inch [in] 0.0254 foot [ft] 0.3048 yard [yd] 0.9144 mile [mi] 1609.344 league 4827.93696

Unit in kilograms

Metric System milligram [mg] 0.000001 gram [g] 0.001 decagram [dkg] 0.01 kilogram [kg] 1 metric ton 1000

Imperial and US Unit System ounce [oz] 0.028349523 pound [lb] 0.45359237 stone 6.35029318 US hundredweight [cwt] 45.359237 Imperial hundredweight [cwt] 50.80234544 short Ton [S/T] 907.18474 long Ton [L/T] 1016.0469088 grain [gr] 0.00006479891


1 foot = 12 inches 1 yard = 3 feet 1 mile = 1,760 yards 1 foot = 12 inches 1 yard = 3 feet = 36 inches 1 mile = 1,760 yards = 5,280 feet = 63,360 inches


16 drams = 1 ounce 16 ounces = 1 pound 14 pounds = 1 stone 112 pounds = 1 hundredweight 2240 pounds = 1 ton 2 stones = 1 quarter 4 quarters = 1 hundredweight 20 hundredweight = 1 ton

https://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=5&cad=rja&uact=8&sqi=2&ved=0CEYQFjAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.clara.net%2Fbrianp%2Fweights.html&ei=j4OtVNeuBuTMyAP-2oLoAg&usg=AFQjCNHJ7UlFhXWt8OyVY4xVdjnc7eTwYw&bvm=bv.83134100,d.bGQ


The lungs are prone to infectious diseases. Tuberculosis is a serious infectious disease of the lung as is bacterial pneumonia.

Pulmonary fibrosis is a condition that can prove fatal. The lung tissue is replaced by fibrous connective tissue, which causes irreversible lung scarring.

Lung cancer can often be incurable. Also cancers in other parts of the body can be spread via the bloodstream and end up in the lungs where the malignant cells can metastasise.

A pulmonary embolism is a blood clot that becomes lodged in the lung.

Answer the following questions: 1) What are lungs prone to? 2) What is pulmonary fibrosis? 3) Can cancers from other parts of the body spread to the lungs? 4) How do cancers from other parts of the body reach the lungs?

5) What is a pulmonary embolism?

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

infectious diseases bacterial pneumonia pulmonary fibrosis

irreversible lung scarring lung cancer bloodstream

malignant cells to metastasise pulmonary embolism

blood clot

= malattie infettive = polmonite batterica = fibrosi polmonare

= cicatrizzazione irreversibile polmonare = tumore al polmone = flusso sanguigno

= cellule maligne = metastatizzare = embolia polmonare

= coagolo / trombo


Human digestive system

In the human digestive system, the process of digestion has many stages, the first of which starts in the mouth (oral cavity). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components which can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. The secretion of saliva helps to produce a bolus which can

be swallowed in the oesophagus to pass down into the stomach. Saliva also contains a catalytic enzyme called amylase which starts to act on food in the mouth. Digestion is

helped by the mastication of food by the teeth and also by the muscular contractions of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach is essential for the continuation of digestion as is the production of mucus in the stomach.

Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of muscles that begins in the oesophagus and continues along the wall of the stomach and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract. This initially results in the production of chyme * which when fully broken down in the small intestine is absorbed into the blood. Most of the digestion of

food takes place in the small intestine. Water and some minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood, in the colon of the large intestine. The waste products of digestion are defecated from the anus via the rectum.

*Chyme: the semifluid mass of partly digested food.

Translate the following phrase into English:

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

La digestione comporta la decomposizione del cibo in pezzi sempre più

piccoli che possono essere assorbiti e assimilati dal corpo.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

breakdown = decomposizione to pass down = trasmettere to break down = guastarsi / scomporre

to take place = aver luogo / avenire to defecate = defecare


Mouth

The mouth, is the first part of the alimentary canal and is equipped with several structures that begin the first processes of digestion. These include

salivary glands, teeth and the tongue. The mouth, consists of two regions, the vestibule and the oral

cavity proper. The vestibule is the area between the teeth, lips and cheeks, and the rest is the oral cavity proper. Most of the oral cavity is lined with

oral mucosa - a mucous membrane that produces a lubricating mucus, of which only a small amount is needed. Mucous membranes vary in structure in

the different regions of the body but they all produce a lubricating mucus, which is either

secreted by surface cells or more usually by underlying glands. … Mucus helps in the mastication of food in its ability to soften and

collect the food in the formation of the bolus.

Translate the following expressions into English:

Il cavo orale = ……………………………………

La mucosa orale = ……………………………………

Translate the following expressions and phrases into Italian :

The first processes of digestion = ……………………………………

Most of the oral cavity is lined with oral mucosa

= …………………………………………………………………………

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

to equip the vestibule underlying

to soften a bolus

= equipaggiare/ fornire = vestibule = sottostante

= ammorbidire = un bolo

Oral cavity There are three pairs of main salivary glands and between 800 and 1,000 minor salivary glands, all of which

mainly serve the digestive process, and also play an important role in the maintenance of dental health and general mouth lubrication, without which speech would be impossible. The main glands are all exocrine glands, secreting via ducts. All of these glands terminate in the mouth. … The glands also secrete amylase a

first stage in the breakdown of food acting on the carbohydrate in the food to transform the starch content into maltose.

There are other glands on the surface of the tongue that encircle taste buds on the back part of the tongue and these produce a serous fluid which contains lipase (lingual lipase). Lipase is a digestive enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of lipids (fats). These glands are termed Von Ebner's glands which have also been

shown to have another function in the secretion of histatins which offer an early defence (outside of the immune system) against microbes in food, when it makes contact with these glands on the tongue tissue. Sensory information can stimulate the secretion of saliva providing the necessary fluid for the tongue to

work with and also to ease swallowing of the food.


GLOSSARIO MINIMO

salivary glands = ghiandole salivari exocrine glands = ghiandole esocrine amylase = amilasi starch content = contenuto di amido

maltose = maltosio to encircle = circondare a serous fluid = un fluido / liquido sieroso

lipase = lipase (enzima) histatins = histatins to ease = alleviare / facilitare

to swallow = inghiottire

Il processo digestivo = ……………………………………

La cura della salute dentale e la lubrificazione generale del cavo orale

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

La secrezione di histatins = ……………………………………

Il sistema immunitario = ……………………………………

La secrezione della saliva = ……………………………………

Facilitare la deglutizione del cibo = ……………………………………


Saliva

Saliva ( /səˈlaɪ.və/ ) functions initially in the digestive system to moisten and soften food into the formation of a bolus. The bolus is further helped by the lubrication provided by the saliva in its passage from the mouth into the oesophagus. Also of importance is the presence in saliva of the digestive enzymes

- amylase and lipase. Amylase starts to work on the starch in carbohydrates, breaking it down into the simple sugars of maltose and dextrose that can be further broken down in the small intestine. Saliva in the

mouth can account for 30% of this initial starch digestion. Lipase starts to work on breaking down fats. Lipase is further produced in the pancreas where it is released to continue this digestion of fats. … As well as its role in supplying digestive enzymes, saliva has a cleansing action for the teeth and mouth,

and has an immunological role in supplying antibodies to the system, such as immunoglobulin A. This is seen to be key in preventing infections of the salivary glands, importantly that of parotitis.


GLOSSARIO MINIMO

La formazione di un bolo = ………………………………………………

Gli enzimi digestivi = ………………………………………………

La saliva nella bocca risponde per il 30 % della digestione iniziale dell’amido

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

La saliva ha una azione ripulente sia per i denti che per la bocca in generale

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

to moisten = inumidire to release = rilasciare

to supply = fornire to cleanse = pulire / detergere parotitis = parotite

Tongue Food enters the mouth where the first stage in the digestive process takes place, with the action of the

tongue and the secretion of saliva. The tongue is a fleshy and muscular sensory organ, and the very first sensory information is received via the taste buds on its surface. If the taste is agreeable, the tongue will go

into action, manipulating the food in the mouth, which stimulates the secretion of saliva from the salivary glands. The liquid quality of the saliva will help in the softening of the food and its enzyme content will start to break down the food whilst it is still in the mouth. The first part of the food to be broken down is the

starch of carbohydrates. The tongue is attached to the floor of the mouth by a ligamentous band called the fraenum and this gives it

great mobility for the manipulation of food (and speech); the range of manipulation is optimally controlled by the action of several muscles and limited in its external range by the stretch of the fraenum. …


GLOSSARIO MINIMO

un organo sensoriale carnoso e muscoloso.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

stimolare la secrezione della saliva dalle ghiandole salivari.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

fleshy = carnoso agreeable = gradevole / favorevole the taste buds = le papille gustative

the floor = il fondo / pavimento the softening = l’ammorbidimento starch = amido

a ligamentous band= un filamento “legamentoso” (lamina tissutale di natura fibro-mucosa)

the fraenum = frenulo (linguale) the range = il raggio / la portata the stretch = l’elasticità


the very first sensory information is received via the taste buds on its surface.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

the tongue is attached to the floor of the mouth.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

the manipulation of food and speech.

= ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………


Taste Taste is a form of chemoreception that takes place in the specialised receptors of taste cells, contained in

structures called taste buds in the mouth. Taste buds are mainly on the upper surface (dorsum) of the tongue. Taste perception is vital to help prevent harmful or rotten foods from being consumed. This is a function of the gustatory system where the taste buds are at the forefront. There are taste buds elsewhere

in the mouth not just on the surface of the tongue. … The brain can distinguish between the chemical qualities of the food. The five basic tastes are referred to as those of saltiness, sourness, bitterness and sweetness, and the most recent addition of a certain savouriness termed umami*.

The detection of saltiness and sourness enables the control of salt and acid balance. The detection of bitterness warns of poisons – many of a plant's defences are of poisonous compounds that are bitter.

Sweetness guides to those foods that will supply energy; the initial breakdown of the energy-giving carbohydrates by salivary amylase creates the taste of sweetness since simple sugars are the first result. The taste of umami is thought to signal protein-rich food. Sour tastes are acidic which is often found in bad food.

The brain has to decide very quickly whether to eat the food or not. … The olfactory receptors are located on cell surfaces in the nose which bind to chemicals enabling the detection of smells. It is assumed that signals from taste receptors work together with the signals from those

in the nose, to form an idea of complex food flavours.

*umami = "grasso": in lingua giapponese significa "saporito" e indica per la precisione il sapore di glutammato .


GLOSSARIO MINIMO

Taste buds are mainly on the dorsum of the tongue.

receptors = ricettori taste cells = cellule del gusto

taste buds = papille gustative upper = superiore harmful = dannoso

rotten = marcio forefront = in primo piano / avanguardia elsewhere = altrove

saltiness = salinità sourness = acidità bitterness = amarezza

sweetness = dolcezza savouriness = saporito detection = rilevamento / scoperta

to enable = permettere to warn = avvertire poison = veleno whether … or … = se … o …

olfactory = olfattivi smell = odore flavour = sapore / gusto

Taste buds are everywhere in the mouth and not just on the surface

of the tongue.

The chemical qualities of the food can be distinguished by the brain.

The control of salt and acid balance is enabled by the detection of

saltiness and sourness.

Those foods that will supply energy are guided by sweetness.

The taste of sweetness is created by the initial breakdown of the

energy-giving carbohydrates by salivary amylase.

To form an idea of complex food flavours, signals from taste receptors

work together with the signals from those in the nose.

GRAMMAR NOTES

Be careful!

The verbs of perceiving: FEEL, HEAR, SEE, SMELL, TASTE (and we

can also include verbs which have as their subject the thing

perceived, such as SOUND and LOOK) are verbs which normally do

not take the progressive (or continuous) form

e.g.: I taste the sweet ( I am tasting the saltiness )


GRAMMAR NOTES

An English word can be divided into three parts: a prefix, a stem, and a suffix.

A prefix is what comes before the stem. For example, the prefix de- (meaning 'reduce' or 'reverse') in dehydrate (meaning 'to reduce of water'). A suffix is what is attached to the end of the stem. For example, the suffix -er (meaning 'someone who') in teacher ('a person who teaches').

PREFIX + STEM + SUFFIX

Prefixes: Negative & positive Size Location Time & order Number

un- semi- inter- pre- mono-

non- mini- super- ante- bi- in- micro- trans- fore- hex- dis- ex- post- oct-

re- extra- multi- peri-

1. Negative and positive prefixes:

Prefix Meaning Examples

Negative: un- not unmagnetized

in- not incomplete

im- not impossible

il- not illegal

ir- not irregular, irrelevant

non- not connected with non-programmable

mis- bad, wrong misdirect

mal- bad, wrong malfunction

dis- opposite feeling disagree

dis- opposite action disconnect

anti- against antiglare, antistatic

de- reduce, reverse demagnetize, decode

under- too little underestimate

Positive: re- do again reorganize

over- too much overload, overdose

2. Prefixes of size: 3. Prefixes of location:

Prefix Meaning Examples Prefix Meaning Examples

semi- half, partly semiconductor inter- between, among interface, interactive

equi- equal equidistant super- over supersonic

mini- small minicomputer trans- across transmit, transfer

micro- very small microscopic ex- out exclude, extrinsic

macro- large, great macroeconomics extra- beyond extraordinary

mega- large, great megabyte sub- under subschema, subtraction

infra- below infra-red

peri- around peripheral, periscope

4. Prefixes of time and order: 5. Prefixes of numbers:

Prefix Meaning Examples Prefix Meaning Examples

ante- before antecedent semi- half semicircle

pre- before preceding, precedent mono- one monochromatic

prime- first primary, primitive bi- two binary

post- after postdated, post-natal tri- three triangle

retro- backward retrograde, retroactive quad- four quadruple

penta- five pentagon

hex- six hexadecimal

sept(em)- seven September

oct- eight octal

dec- ten decimal

multi- many multicoloured

6. Other prefixes:

Prefix Meaning Examples

pro- before, in advance, forward progress, procreation

auto- self automatic

co- together with co-ordinate, co-operate

con- together with connect


Suffixes

Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs

-ance -ize -able -ly

-ence -ate -ible

-or -fy -less -er -en -ic -ist -ify -ical

-ish -ive

1. Noun-forming suffixes: 3. Adverb-forming suffix:

Suffix Meaning Examples Suffix Meaning Examples

-ance state performance -ly in the manner of

logically, comparably, slowly, quickly, -ence quality of independence

-er, -or

a person who a thing which

programmer, operator, processor, calculator

4. Adjective-forming suffixes:

-ist, -yst a person who analyst, typist Suffix Meaning Examples

-ian pertaining to electrician -al having the quality of

computational, logical

-tion, -ation the act of compilation -ar cellular, regular

-ness condition of cleanliness, happiness -ic magnetic, automatic

-ion action/state conversion -ical electrical

-ing activity multiplexing -able

capable of being

comparable

-ment state, action measurement, requirement

-ble divisible

-ity state, quality electricity -ous like, full of dangerous, insiduous,

-ism condition/state magnetism -ful characterized by helpful, careful

-dom domain/condition freedom -less without careless, meaningless

-ship condition/state relationship, partnership -ish like yellowish

-ed having the quality of

computed, processed

2. Verb-forming suffixes: -ive interactive

Suffix Meaning Examples

-ize/-ise

to make

computerize

-ate activate, calculate

-ify simplify

-en widen, shorten

Teeth Teeth are complex structures made of materials specific to them. They are

made of a bone-like material - dentin, which is covered by the hardest tissue in the body - enamel. Teeth have different shapes to deal with different aspects of mastication employed in tearing and chewing pieces of food into

smaller and smaller pieces. Incisors are used for cutting or biting off pieces of food; canines are used for tearing, premolars and molars for chewing and grinding. Mastication of the food with the help of saliva and mucus results

in the formation of a soft bolus which can then be swallowed to make its way down the upper gastrointestinal tract to the stomach.

Dental health is maintained by the salivary secretion of gingival crevicular fluid. The digestive enzymes in saliva also help in keeping the teeth clean by breaking down any lodged food particles.

Answer the following questions:

1) What are teeth made of?

2) Why do teeth have different shapes?

3) What are the different shapes teeth can have?

4) What are incisors used for?

5) What are canines used for?

6) What are premolars and molars used for?

7) How is a bolus formed?

8) Why is it necessary to form a soft bolus?

9) How is dental health maintained?

10) What do the digestive enzymes do?

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

bone-like

tissue shapes to tear

to cut to bite off to chew

to grind gingival crevicular fluid

= simile a osso

= tessuto = forme = strappare

= tagliare = mordere / staccare a morsi = masticare

= triturare = fluido crevicolare gengivale


Epiglottis The epiglottis is a flap that is made of elastic cartilage and attached

to the entrance of the larynx. It is covered with a mucous membrane and there are taste buds on its lingual surface which faces into the mouth. Its laryngeal surface faces into the larynx. The epiglottis

functions to guard the entrance of the glottis, the opening between the vocal folds. It is normally pointed upwards during breathing with

its underside functioning as part of the pharynx, but during swallowing, the epiglottis folds down to a more horizontal position, with its upper side functioning as part of the pharynx. In this manner

it prevents food from going into the trachea and instead directs it to the oesophagus, which is posterior. …

Stimulation of the larynx by ingested matter produces a strong cough reflex in order to protect the lungs.

Answer the following questions: 1) What is an epiglottis? 2) What is the epiglottis covered with?

3) Are there taste buds on the surface of the epiglottis? 4) What is the function of the epiglottis? 5) What is its normal position? 6) Why does the epiglottis fold down to a more horizontal position? 7) What happens when the larynx is stimulated by ingested matter?

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

a flap faces into

upwards underside to fold down ingested matter

= lembo / risvolto = rivolto verso

= verso l’alto / in su = parte / lato inferiore = piegarsi verso il basso = materiale ingerito


Pharynx The pharynx is a part of the digestive system and also

a part of the conducting zone of the respiratory system. It is the part of the throat immediately behind the nasal cavity at the back of the mouth and superior

to the oesophagus and larynx. The pharynx is made up of three parts. The lower two parts – the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx – are involved in

the digestive system. The laryngopharynx connects to the oesophagus and it serves as a passageway for

both air and food. Air enters the larynx anteriorly but anything swallowed has priority and the passage of air is temporarily blocked. …

Muscles in the pharynx push the food into the oesophagus. The pharynx joins the oesophagus at the oesophageal inlet, which is located behind the cricoid

cartilage.


1) What is the pharynx?

2) Where is it located?

3) What is the pharynx made up of?

4) Which parts are involved in the digestive system?

5) What part is connected to the oesophagus and why?

6) What do the muscles in the pharynx do?

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

the conducting zone to make up (to be made up)

a passageway to push into oesophageal inlet

= zona di conduzione = comporre / mettere assieme = (essere composto di)

= passaggio = spingere dentro = ingresso esofageo

Oesophagus (Esophagus) The oesophagus, commonly known as the gullet, is an organ, which

consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. The oesophagus is continuous with the laryngeal part of the pharynx. It passes through the posterior mediastinum in the thorax

and enters the stomach through a hole in the diaphragm at the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra (T10). Its length averages 25 cm, varying with height. It is divided into cervical, thoracic and abdominal parts. The

pharynx joins the oesophagus at the oesophageal inlet which is behind the cricoid cartilage. At rest the oesophagus is closed at both ends, by

the upper and lower oesophageal sphincters.


1) What is the gullet? 2) what does it consist of? 3) Where does it pass through? 4) How long is it? 5) Into how many parts is it divided? 6) What is its position at rest?

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

gullet tube mediastinum

tenth thoracic vertebra cricoid cartilage sphincter

= gargarozzo / esofago = tubo = mediastino

= decima vertebra toracica = cartilagine cricoideo = sfintere

Put the following terms into their correct

position:

Teeth (Incisors);

Trachea; Soft palate;

Pharynx; Hard palate; Tongue;

Oesophagus.


The opening of the upper sphincter is triggered by the

swallowing reflex so that food is allowed through. The sphincter also serves to prevent back flow from the oesophagus into the pharynx. The oesophagus has a mucous

membrane and the epithelium which has a protective function is continuously replaced due to the volume of food that passes

inside the oesophagus. During swallowing, food passes from the mouth through the pharynx into the oesophagus. The epiglottis folds down to a more horizontal position so as to

prevent food from going into the trachea, instead directing it to the oesophagus. Once in the oesophagus, the bolus travels down to the stomach via rhythmic contraction and relaxation

of muscles known as peristalsis. The lower oesophageal sphincter is a muscular sphincter

surrounding the lower part of the oesophagus. The junction between the oesophagus and the stomach (the gastroesophageal junction) is controlled by the lower

oesophageal sphincter, which remains constricted at all times other than during swallowing and vomiting to prevent the contents of the stomach from entering the oesophagus. As the

oesophagus does not have the same protection from acid as the stomach, any failure of this sphincter can lead to heartburn.

The oesophagus has a mucous membrane of epithelium, which has a protective function as well as providing a smooth surface for the passage of food. Due to the high volume of food that is

passed over time, this membrane is continuously renewed.

Read the text in detail and decide whether the following statements are TRUE (T) or FALSE (F). (do not read the key to the answers before completing the exercise)

1) The swallowing reflex triggers the opening of the upper sphincter. 2) Back flow is prevented by the oesophagus. 3) The mucous membrane of the oesophagus has a function for the protection of the volume of food that passes inside the oesophagus. 4) The epiglottis folds down to a more horizontal position to direct food into the trachea. 5) Peristalsis is a rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the muscles. 6) The gastroesophageal junction is controlled by a sphincter that remains constricted except when swallowing and vomiting. 7) If this sphincter does not function properly, a person can have heartburn. 8) The oesophagus has a protective mucous membrane of epithelium, which also serves for the passage of food, as it is smooth. 1) T ; 2) T ; 3) F ; 4) F ; 5) T ; 6) T ; 7) T ; 8) T.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

to trigger back flow mucous membrane

junction to constrict failure

heartburn due to over time

= innescare = riflusso = membrana mucosa

= raccordo / collegamento = comprimere / stringere = fallimento / mancanza

= bruciore / acidità di stomaco = dovuto a = nel tempo

Diaphragm The diaphragm is an important part of the body's digestive system. The diaphragm separates the

thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity where most of the digestive organs are located. The

suspensory muscle attaches the duodenum to the diaphragm. … The diaphragm also attaches to the bare area of

the liver, which it anchors. The oesophagus enters the abdomen through a hole in the diaphragm at the level of T10.


1) The body's digestive system is important for the diaphragm.

2) Most of the digestive organs are located between the thoracic and the abdominal cavities, which are separated by the diaphragm.

3) The liver anchors the diaphragm.

1) F ; 2) T ; 3) F .

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

the thoracic cavity

the abdominal cavity the suspensory muscle ascending

bare the liver to anchor

= la cavità toracica

= la cavità addominale = il muscolo sospensorio = ascendente

= nudo / scoperto = il fegato = ancorare / bloccare


Stomach Gastric acid (informally gastric juice), produced in the stomach

plays a vital role in the digestive process; it mainly contains hydrochloric acid and sodium chloride. A peptide hormone gastrin-produced by G cells in the stomach, stimulates the

production of gastric juice which activates the digestive enzymes. Pepsinogen is a zymogen produced by the gastric chief cells and gastric acid activates this to the enzyme pepsin, which

begins the digestion of proteins. As these two chemicals would damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, to

provide a slimy protective layer against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time that protein is being digested, mechanical

churning occurs through the action of peristalsis, waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive

enzymes. … The pylorus, the lowest section of the stomach, which attaches

to the duodenum via the pyloric canal, contains countless glands, which secrete digestive enzymes including gastrin. After an hour or two, a thick semi-liquid called chyme is produced. When the

pyloric sphincter, or valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum, where it mixes further with digestive enzymes from the pancreas, and then passes through the small intestine, where

digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs

in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the large intestine, where the environment is slightly acidic. …

The stomach is a distensible organ and can normally expand to hold about one litre of food.


1) Gastric juice is produced in stomach and is very important for the digestive process. 2) Hydrochloric acid and sodium chloride are contained in the gastric acid. 3) The digestive enzymes are activated by the production of gastric juice, which is stimulated by a peptide hormone gastrin-produced by G cells in the stomach. 4) The stomach secretes mucus to provide a slimy protective layer to protect the stomach wall. 5) Peristalsis allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. 6) Gastrin is a digestive enzyme secreted by glands contained by the pylorus. 7) The chyme which is produced enters the duodenum and the pancreas. 8) The blood absorbs the fully digested chyme. 9) In the colon of the large intestine, slightly acidic Water and minerals are reabsorbed by the blood. 10) The stomach can contain maximum one litre of food. 1) T ; 2) T ; 3) T ; 4) T ; 5) T ; 6) T ; 7) F ; 8) T ; 9) F ; 10) F.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

slimy churning

waves contractions to mix

the pylorus countless glands

valve the environment distensible

= viscido / untuoso = agitare qualcosa / sbattere

= onde = contrazioni = mescolare

= il piloro = innumerevoli = ghiandole

= valvola = l’ambiente = distendibile

The stomach


Spleen

The spleen breaks down both red and white blood cells that are spent. This is why it is sometimes known as the 'graveyard of red blood cells'. A product of this

digestion is the pigment bilirubin, which is sent to the liver and secreted in the bile. Another product is iron,

which is used in the formation of new blood cells in the bone marrow. … Symptoms that include poor appetite, indigestion, bloating and jaundice, are seen

to be indications of an imbalance in the spleen. …


1) Spent red and white blood cells are broken down by the spleen.

2) Iron is a product of bilirubin used in the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. 1) T ; 2) F.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

the spleen blood cells spent (adjective)

graveyard the bile iron

bone marrow bloating jaundice

= la milza = cellule del sangue = esausto / consumato

= cimitero = la bile = ferro

= midollo osseo = gonfiore = itterizia

Liver The liver is the largest organ (after the skin) and is an accessory digestive gland, which plays a role in the body's metabolism. The

liver has many functions some of which are important to digestion. The liver can detoxify various metabolites; synthesise proteins and produce biochemical needed for digestion. It

regulates the storage of glycogen, which it can form from glucose (glycogenesis). The liver can also synthesise glucose from certain

amino acids. Its digestive functions are largely involved with the breaking down of carbohydrates. … The liver produces bile, an important alkaline compound which

aids digestion.


1) The skin is a larger organ than the liver.

2) Some of the many functions of the liver are important to digestion.

3) The liver various metabolites can detoxify and synthesise proteins and produce biochemical needed for digestion.

4) Glucose from certain amino acids can also be synthesised by the liver. 1) T ; 2) T ; 3) F ; 4) T.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

to detoxify metabolite biochemical

storage glycogen glucose

amino acids to aid

= disintossicare = metabolita = biochimico

= immagazzinamento = glicogeno = glucosio

= amino acidi = aiutare

Bile

Bile produced by the liver is made up of water (85%), bile salts, mucus and pigments, 1% fats and inorganic salts. Bilirubin is its

major pigment. Bile acts partly as a surfactant, which lowers the surface tension between either two liquids or a solid and a liquid and helps to emulsify the fats in the chyme. …

Read the text in detail and decide whether the following statements are TRUE (T) or FALSE (F). (do not read the key to the answers before

completing the exercise)

1) Bile is produced by the liver and is made up of many substances among which bilirubin, its major pigment.

2) Fats in the chyme are emulsified by bile.

1) T ; 2) T.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

salts

surfactant tension to emulsify

= Sali

= tensioattivo / detergente = tensione = emulsionare


Gallbladder The gallbladder is a hollow part of the biliary system that sits just beneath the liver. It is a ………… organ where the

bile produced by the liver is stored, before it is released into the small intestine. The bile flows from the liver

………….. the bile ducts and into the gallbladder for storage. It is divided ……….. three sections: fundus, body and neck. …

At the neck of the gallbladder is a mucosal fold called Hartmann's pouch, where gallstones commonly get stuck. The gallbladder ……….. to store bile in a natural,

semi-liquid form at all times. … The ……….. purpose of the gallbladder is to store and

release bile, or gall. The liver ……….. the bile and then it flows through the bile ducts into the gallbladder. When the bile is released, it is released into the small intestine

and its purpose is to ………….. large fat molecules into smaller ones. After the fat is ………… , the bile is also absorbed and transported back to the liver for reuse.

Fill in the gaps with EIGHT words from the list below. Use the correct word just ONCE. (do not read the key to the answers before completing the exercise)

absorbed break down into main needs produces small through

The

gallb

lad

der

is

a h

ollo

w p

art

of

the

bili

ary

syst

em

that

sit

s ju

st b

enea

th

the

liver

. It

is

a sm

all

org

an

wh

ere

the

bile

pro

du

ced

by

the

liver

is s

tore

d,

bef

ore

it

is

rele

ased

in

to t

he

smal

l in

test

ine.

Th

e b

ile f

low

s

fro

m t

he

liver

th

rou

gh t

he

bile

du

cts

and

in

to t

he

gallb

lad

der

fo

r st

ora

ge.

It

is

d

ivid

ed

into

th

ree

se

ctio

ns:

fu

nd

us,

bo

dy

and

nec

k.

At

the

nec

k o

f th

e ga

llbla

dd

er i

s a

mu

cosa

l fo

ld c

alle

d

Har

tman

n's

po

uch

, w

her

e ga

llsto

nes

co

mm

on

ly g

et

stu

ck.

… T

he

gallb

lad

der

n

eed

s to

sto

re

bile

in

a

nat

ura

l, se

mi-

liqu

id f

orm

at

all

tim

es.

The

mai

n p

urp

ose

of

the

gallb

lad

der

is

to s

tore

an

d

rele

ase

bile

, o

r ga

ll. T

he

liver

pro

du

ces

the

bile

an

d

then

it

fl

ow

s th

rou

gh

the

bile

d

uct

s in

to

the

gallb

lad

der

. W

hen

th

e b

ile i

s re

leas

ed,

it i

s re

leas

ed

into

th

e sm

all

inte

stin

e an

d i

ts p

urp

ose

is

to b

reak

d

ow

n la

rge

fat

mo

lecu

les

into

sm

alle

r o

nes

. A

fter

th

e

fat

is

abso

rbed

, th

e b

ile

is

also

ab

sorb

ed

and

tran

spo

rted

bac

k to

th

e liv

er f

or

reu

se.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

gallbladder

hollow to sit to flow

biliary system bile ducts mucosal fold

pouch gallstones to get stuck

= cistifellea

= cavo / vuoto = sedersi / stare / essere posto = scorrere

= sistema biliare = dotti biliari = piega mucosa

= tasca / borsa = calcoli della cistifellea = rimanere bloccato

Gallstones


Pancreas The pancreas is a ……….. organ functioning as an

accessory digestive gland in the digestive system. It is both an endocrine gland and an exocrine ……….. . The endocrine part secretes insulin when the blood sugar

becomes high; insulin moves glucose ………. the blood into the muscles and other tissues for use as ……….. . The exocrine part releases glucagon when the blood sugar is

low; glucagon allows stored sugar to be broken down into glucose ………. the liver in order to re-balance the

sugar levels. Digestive enzymes are ………. produced. The pancreas lies below and at the back of the ……….. . It connects to the duodenum via the pancreatic duct

where it can act on the ………… that is released from the stomach into the duodenum.

Fill in the gaps with EIGHT words from the list below. Use the correct word just ONCE. (do not read the key to the answers before completing

the exercise)

also

by chyme energy

from gland

major stomach

The

pan

crea

s is

a

maj

or

org

an

fun

ctio

nin

g as

an

ac

cess

ory

dig

esti

ve

glan

d

in

the

dig

esti

ve

syst

em.

It is

bo

th a

n e

nd

ocr

ine

glan

d

and

an

ex

ocr

ine

glan

d.

The

end

ocr

ine

par

t se

cret

es

insu

lin

wh

en t

he

blo

od

su

gar

bec

om

es h

igh

; in

sulin

m

ove

s gl

uco

se

fro

m

the

blo

od

in

to

the

mu

scle

s an

d

oth

er

tiss

ues

fo

r u

se

as

ener

gy.

The

exo

crin

e p

art

rele

ases

gl

uca

gon

w

hen

th

e b

loo

d

suga

r is

lo

w;

glu

cago

n a

llow

s st

ore

d s

uga

r to

be

bro

ken

d

ow

n

into

gl

uco

se

by

the

liv

er in

ord

er to

re-

bal

ance

th

e su

gar

leve

ls.

Dig

esti

ve

enzy

mes

ar

e al

so

pro

du

ced

. Th

e p

ancr

eas

lies

bel

ow

an

d a

t th

e b

ack

of

the

sto

mac

h.

It

con

nec

ts t

o t

he

du

od

enu

m v

ia t

he

pan

crea

tic

du

ct w

her

e it

can

act

on

th

e ch

yme

that

is

rele

ased

fro

m t

he

sto

mac

h i

nto

th

e d

uo

den

um

.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

accessory endocrine

insulin sugar glucagon

re-balance to lie

= accessorio = endocrino

= insulina = zucchero = glucagone

= ribilanciare = giacere / trovarsi / (mentire)

Lower gastrointestinal tract The lower gastrointestinal tract (GI), includes the small

……….. and all of the large intestine. The intestine is also ……….. the bowel or the gut. The lower GI ……….. at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach and ………. at the anus.

The small intestine is subdivided into the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum. The caecum marks the division

……….. the small and large intestine. The large intestine includes the rectum and anal canal.

Fill in the gaps with FIVE words from the list below. Use the correct word just ONCE. (do not read the key to the answers before completing the exercise)

between

called intestine

finishes starts

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

The

low

er

gast

roin

test

ina

l

trac

t (G

I),

incl

ud

es t

he

smal

l

inte

stin

e an

d a

ll o

f th

e la

rge

in

test

ine.

Th

e in

test

ine

is

also

cal

led

th

e b

ow

el o

r th

e

gut.

Th

e lo

wer

G

I st

arts

at

th

e p

ylo

ric

sph

inct

er o

f th

e

sto

mac

h a

nd

fin

ish

es a

t th

e

anu

s. T

he

smal

l in

test

ine

is

sub

div

ided

in

to

the

d

uo

den

um

, th

e je

jun

um

and

th

e ile

um

. Th

e ca

ecu

m

mar

ks t

he

div

isio

n b

etw

ee

n

the

smal

l an

d

larg

e

inte

stin

e.

The

larg

e

inte

stin

e in

clu

des

th

e

rect

um

an

d a

nal

can

al.

bowel gut anus

duodenum jejunum ileum

rectum

= intestino / viscere = budella = ano

= duodeno = intestino digiuno = ileo

= retto


Large intestine In the large intestine, the passage of the digesting

food in the colon is much ……….. , taking from 12 to 50 hours until it is removed by defecation. The colon mainly serves as a site for the ……….. of digestible

matter by the gut flora. The time taken varies considerably between individuals. The remaining semi-solid waste is termed faeces and is removed

……….. the coordinated contractions of the intestinal walls, termed peristalsis, which propels the excreta

forward to reach the rectum and ……….. via defecation from the anus. The wall has an outer layer of longitudinal muscles, the taeniae coli, and an inner

layer of circular muscles. The circular muscle keeps the material moving forward and also prevents any ……….. of waste.

Fill in the gaps with FIVE words from the list below. Use the correct word just ONCE. (do not read the key to the answers before completing the exercise)

back flow

by exit

fermentation slower

In t

he

larg

e in

test

ine,

th

e p

assa

ge o

f th

e

dig

esti

ng

foo

d

in

the

colo

n

is

mu

ch

slo

wer

, ta

kin

g fr

om

12

to

50

ho

urs

un

til

it i

s re

mo

ved

by

def

ecat

ion

. Th

e co

lon

m

ain

ly

serv

es

as

a si

te

for

the

ferm

enta

tio

n

of

dig

esti

ble

m

atte

r b

y

the

gut

flo

ra.

The

tim

e ta

ken

va

rie

s

con

sid

erab

ly b

etw

een

in

div

idu

als.

Th

e

rem

ain

ing

sem

i-so

lid

was

te

is t

erm

ed

faec

es

and

is

re

mo

ved

b

y th

e

coo

rdin

ated

co

ntr

acti

on

s o

f th

e

inte

stin

al

wal

ls,

term

ed

per

ista

lsis

,

wh

ich

pro

pel

s th

e ex

cret

a fo

rwar

d t

o

reac

h

the

rect

um

an

d

exit

vi

a

def

ecat

ion

fro

m t

he

anu

s. T

he

wal

l h

as

an o

ute

r la

yer

of

lon

gitu

din

al m

usc

les,

the

taen

iae

coli,

an

d a

n i

nn

er l

ayer

of

circ

ula

r m

usc

les.

Th

e ci

rcu

lar

mu

scle

keep

s th

e m

ater

ial

mo

vin

g fo

rwar

d a

nd

also

pre

ven

ts a

ny

bac

k fl

ow

of

was

te.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

waste

faeces excreta

= rifiuti / scorie

= feci = escrementi

Clinical significance Each part of the digestive system is subject to a wide range of

disorders. A common disorder of the bowel is diverticulitis. Diverticula are small pouches that can form inside the bowel

wall, which can become inflamed to give diverticulitis. This disease can have complications if an inflamed diverticulum bursts and infection sets in. Any infection can spread further

to the lining of the abdomen (peritoneum) and cause potentially fatal peritonitis.

Crohn's disease is a common chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which can affect any part of the GI tract, but it mostly starts in the terminal ileum.

Ulcerative colitis, an ulcerative form of colitis, is the other major inflammatory bowel disease which is restricted to the

colon and rectum. Both of these IBDs can give an increased risk of the development of colorectal cancer. Ulcerative colitis is the most common of the IBDs.

There are several idiopathic disorders known as functional gastrointestinal disorders that the Rome process has helped

to define. The most common of these is irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).


1) Diverticulitis is an inflammation of the small pouches that can form inside the bowel wall. 2) Crohn's disease mostly starts in the terminal ileum and can affect any part of lower gastrointestinal tract. 3) Ulcerative colitis is an inflammatory bowel disease but is restricted to the colon and rectum. 4) The Rome process helped to define several irritable bowel syndromes. 1) T ; 2) T ; 3) T ; 4) F.

GLOSSARIO MINIMO

disorder diverticulitis

to burst to set in peritonitis ulcerative colitis

colorectal cancer idiopathic irritable bowel syndrome

= disturbo / malattia = diverticolite

= scoppiare / rompersi = prendere piede / insediarsi = peritonite = colite ulcerativa

= cancro del colon = idiopatico = sindrome dell’intestino irritabile


PHRASAL VERBS

Essi consistono di un verbo e un’altra parola o frase, di solito una preposizione. Nascono spesso dall’uso “casuale” e poi diventano dei

verbi “veri e propri” di uso generale. I Phrasal verbs possono essere sia transitivi: Our teacher called off the lesson. (Il nostro docente ha sospeso la lezione.) She looked up her old boyfriend. (Lei rintracciò il suo ex ragazzo.)

che intransitivi: The students were sitting around, doing nothing. (Gli studenti stavano seduti, facendo nulla.)

I phrasal verbs sono morfologicamente completi: possiedono cioè regolarmente un infinito e le forme coniugate. Dal punto di vista

morfologico essi sono composti da un verbo di base e una o più "particelle" (avverbi o preposizioni).

Il problema con i Phrasal verbs è che spesso il loro significato, all’inizio, non è chiaro e, inoltre, possono avere diversi s ignificati: se qualcuno sceglie to turn up the street, questa è una combinazione di un verbo e una preposizione ma non è un Phrasal verb; invece se degli amici unexpectedly turn up (appear) ad un party o il vicino turns up his radio, questi sono phrasal verbs.

I verbi possono essere combinati con diverse preposizioni o avverbi (e/o altre parole) cambiando completamente il significato :

stand against stand by stand fast stand for stand in

(essere contro qlcs – qlcn), (essere pronto per assistere / aspettare), (essere fermo / deciso), (rappresentare qlcs – qlcn), (sostituire),

stand off stand out stand up stand up for stand up to

(rifiutare / dimettersi), (essere in evidenza), (alzarsi / non rispettare un appuntamento), (sostenere), (resistere).

To look, che da solo significa sembrare, (you look tired today - sembri stanca oggi) assume un significato diverso a seconda della preposizione che segue.

To look at = guardare look at that picture. (Guarda quel quadro) To look for = cercare What are you doing? I am looking for my keys. (Cosa stai facendo? Sto cercando le chiavi) To look after = badare a Can you look after my son until I am back? (Puoi badare a mio figlio fino al mio ritorno?) To look forward to = non vedere l'ora di… I am looking forward to seeing you. (Non vedo l'ora di vederti)

To find significa trovare ma to find out significa scoprire.

E' interessante sapere che trovare qualcosa o qualcuno per caso, cioè mentre si stava cercando qualcun altro o qualche altra cosa, in

inglese si dice to come across. Vedi la differenza nelle frasi seguenti:

I had lost my key, but now I've found it. (avevo perso la chiave ma adesso l’ho trovata) Eventually the police managed to find out who the murderer was. (Alla fine la polizia è riuscita a scoprire l’assassino.) While I was looking for my suitcase in the attic, I came across the little teddy bear I used to play with when I was a child. (Mentre cercavo la mia valigia in soffitta, ho trovato per caso l’orsacchiotto con il quale giocavo da bambino. )

1. I phrasal verbs non devono essere confusi con le espressioni idiomatiche, che sono espressioni e non verbi.

È vero che i phrasal verbs hanno generalmente un carattere idiomatico, però sono idiomatici in misura variabile.

2. A volte è possibile confondere un phrasal verb con un verbo semplice seguito da un sintagma avverbiale o preposizionale. In altre parole, la "particella" (le "particelle") fa parte del verbo stesso oppure no?

Esempio 1: a. He ran up | a huge bill at the restaurant. phrasal verb b. He ran | up the hill. single-word verb

Esempio 2: a. The athlete fell behind | the group. phrasal verb b. The pen fell | behind the desk. single-word verb

Per determinare se una combinazione verbo+preposizione o verbo+avverbio è un phrasal verb oppure no, si può provare a sostituire il verbo di base con un verbo sinonimo composto da una sola parola. Se la frase risulta priva di senso, allora l'originale è un phrasal verb

(es. 1a e 2a). Al contrario, se la frase è dotata di senso, l'originale è un verbo di una parola sola (es. 1b e 2b).

Esempio con sostituzione:

a. He walked up a huge bill at the restaurant. Non ha senso = phrasal verb

b. He walked up the hill. Ha senso = single-word verb

Un altro modo di verificare la coesione del verbo e la particella è di trasformare il verbo attivo in passivo.

Questa volta, però, se la frase è dotata di senso, allora l'originale è un phrasal verb. Se la frase risulta priva di senso, allora l'originale è un verbo di una parola sola. Esempio 1 con trasformazione:

c. A huge bill was run up at the restaurant. Ha senso = phrasal verb

d. The hill was run up (by him). Non ha senso = single-word verb

Fortunatamente, è di solito facile distinguere i phrasal verbs dai verbi semplici seguiti da un sintagma avverbiale o preposizionale.


PHRASAL VERBS

Tradizionalmente, i phrasal verbs sono stati divisi in tre tipi. Va subito detto che i diversi nomi utilizzati nei testi tradizionali in r iferimento a questi tipi creano spesso confusione piuttosto che chiarezza. Negli esempi che seguono, con un asterisco verranno indicate le corrette posizioni disponibili per il complemento oggetto.

tipo 1: Prepositional verbs (es. to believe in *, to look after *, to talk about *, to wait for *) chiamati anche phrasal verbs inseparabili oppure transitivi. Composti da verbo di base + preposizione. tipo 2: Adverbial verbs [es. get up, break (*) down (*), put (*) off (*), turn (*) down (*)] chiamati anche phrasal verbs, o phrasal verbs separabili. Composti da verbo di base + avverbio. type 2a è transitivo, necessita di un oggetto diretto (write * down *);

type 2b è intransitivo, non seleziona alcun oggetto diretto (work out). tipo 3: Adverbial-prepositional verbs (es. get on with *, put up with *, look forward to *, run out of*) chiamati anche phrasal-prepositional verbs, o three-word verbs, a volte classificati nel tipo 1 come inseparabile. Composti da verbo di base + preposizione + avverbio. Altre caratteristiche del tipo 1 (composti da verbo di base + preposizione):

a) preposizioni più frequenti: in, after, about, for; b) non ricorre mai senza un complemento oggetto: es.:"to talk about someone/something", ecc.); c) il complemento oggetto segue sempre la preposizione.

Altre caratteristiche del tipo 2 (composti da verbo di base + avverbio):

a) avverbi più frequenti: up, down, off, on;

b) quando il complemento oggetto è presente (tipo 2a), viene posizionato o tra il verbo di base e l’avverbio oppure dopo l'intero phrasal verb (turn the light on, turn on the light); c) quando il complemento oggetto è però un pronome,esso viene posizionato tra il verbo e la particella ( turn it on). Altre caratteristiche del tipo 3 (composti da verbo di base + preposizione + avverbio):

a) verbo di base + avverbio + preposizione (out of, up for); b) seleziona sempre un complemento oggetto; c) non può essere separato dal complemento oggetto.

Caratteristica di tutti i Phrasal verbs transitivi:

IL SOSTANTIVO VERBALE, L’INFINITO IN QUALITÀ DI SOSTANTIVO IN POSIZIONE DI COMPLEMENTO,

È SEMPRE ALLA FORMA DEL GERUNDIO.

(Type 1) Phrasal Verbs inseparabili (Transitivi)

Con i seguenti verbi, la parte lessicale del verbo (contenente il significato “verbale”) non può essere separato dalla preposizione (o altre parti): Who will look after my house when I'm gone? (Chi baderà alla mia casa dopo che vada via)

Verb Meaning Example

get over recover from sickness or

disappointment I got over the flu, but I don't know if I'll ever get over my broken heart.

go over review The students went over the material before the exam. They should have gone over it twice.

look after take care of My mother promised to look after my dog while I was gone.

look into investigate The police will look into the possibilities of embezzlement.

run across find by chance I ran across my old roommate at the college reunion.

run into meet Concetta ran into her English professor in the hallway. take after resemble My second son seems to take after his mother.


(Type 2a) Phrasal Verbs Separabili.

L’oggetto può seguire il Phrasal verb ma può anche separare le due parti: You have to do this paint job over. You have to do over this paint job. (Devi rifare questo lavoro di pittura) Quando l’oggetto del Phrasal verb è un pronome, questo va inserito fra le due parti:

You have to do it over.


blow up explode The terrorists tried to blow up the railroad station.

bring up mention a topic The teacher brought up that little matter of my failed exam again.

bring up raise children It isn't easy to bring up children nowadays.

call off cancel They called off this afternoon's meeting

do over repeat a job Do this homework over.

find out discover My sister found out that her husband had been planning a surprise party for her.

look up search in a list You've misspelled this word again. You'd better look it up.

point out call attention to As we drove through Palermo, Pasquale pointed out the major historical sites.

put on put clothing on the body I put on a sweater and a jacket. (I put them on quickly.)

set up to arrange, begin The teacher set up the office room exactly the way she wanted it. She set it up.

take off remove clothing It was so hot that I had to take off my jacket. (take my jacket off)

talk over discuss We have serious problems here. Let's talk them over like adults.

throw away discard That's a lot of money! Don't just throw it away. turn down lower volume Your radio is driving me crazy! Please turn it down.

turn down (2) reject He applied for a promotion twice this year, but he was turned down both times.

turn up raise the volume Grandfather couldn't hear, so he turned up his hearing aid.

turn off switch off electricity We turned off the lights before anyone could see us.

turn off (2) repulse It was a disgusting film. It really turned me off.

turn on switch on the electricity Turn on the CD player so we can dance.

(Type 2b) Intransitive Phrasal Verbs

I seguenti Phrasal verbs non sono seguiti da un oggetto: Once you leave home, you can never really go back again. (Una volta che si lascia casa, non si può più veramente tornare)


break down stop functioning That old car had a tendency to break down just when I needed it the most.

catch on become popular Popular songs seem to catch on.

come back return to a place Father promised that we would never come back to this horrible place.

come in enter They tried to come in through the back door, but it was locked.

drop by visit without appointment We used to just drop by, but they were never home, so we stopped doing that.

get up arise I tried to get up, but I was too sleepy.

go on continue He would finish one novel and then go on to the next.

go on (2) happen The teacher heard all the noise from the corridor and stopped to see what was going on.

grow up get older Pasquale grew up to be a lot like his father.

wake up arouse from sleep I woke up when the cockerel crowed.

(Type 3) Three-Word Phrasal Verbs (Transitivi)

I seguenti Phrasal verbs sono composti di tre parti: The student dropped out of the English course before taking the exam (Lo studente abbandonò il corso d’inglese prima di sostenere l’esame)


drop out of leave school I hope none of my students drop out of school this term.

get along with have a good relationship with I found it very hard to get along with my brother when we were young.

get rid of eliminate The citizens tried to get rid of their corrupt mayor in the recent election.

get through with finish When will you ever get through with that program?

look forward to anticipate with pleasure I always look forward to the beginning of a new term.

look out for be careful, anticipate Good teachers will look out for early signs of failure in their students

make sure of verify Make sure of the student's identity before you let him into the classroom.

put up with tolerate The teacher had to put up with a great deal of nonsense from the new students.

take care of be responsible for My oldest sister took care of us younger children after Mom died.

think back on recall I often think back on my childhood with great pleasure.


PHRASAL VERBS Type 1 Verbs Followed by Prepositions

abide by: adhere to

account for: explain ask for: request bank on: depend on bear with: be patient with border on: be near, be next to break into: enter by force build on: develop from burst into: suddenly enter

call for: demand call on: ask, order come across: find accidentally come upon: discover confide in: share a secret count on: depend on cut across: use a short route dawn on: realize

deal in: stock, sell deal with: handle successfully decide on: settle on dispense with: proceed without dispose of: get rid of dwell on: emphasize enlarge on: say more about

enter into: begin, commence

expand on: say more about frown on: disapprove of get at: reach get into: become involved with get over: recover from get through: survive, finish go against: oppose go over: review

go through: examine in detail go with: look good with grow on: become more attractive to guard against: take precautions hinge on: depend on inquire into: investigate keep to: adhere to laugh at: mock, make fun of

launch into: start leaf through: turn the pages live on: survive using look after: take care of look into: investigate look through: examine quickly part with: give up reluctantly

pick on: be unkind to

provide for: prepare for reason with: try to persuade reckon on: calculate on rise above: be superior to run across: find accidentally run into: meet accidentally run over: injured by a vehicle see through: not be deceived by

send for: ask to be sent settle for: reluctantly accept side with: support in a dispute sit through: sit and endure stand by: support stand for: represent stick to: adhere to stumble across: find accidentally

survive on: survive using take after: resemble an ancestor tamper with: interfere with touch on: mention verge on: approach watch over: guard

PHRASAL VERBS Type 2a Transitive Verbs followed by Adverbs

back up: support bail out: rescue break in: make something new fit for use breathe in: inhale breathe out: exhale bring back: return bring around: persuade

bring up: raise butter up: flatter call in: ask to assist call off: cancel call up: telephone cheer on: cheer, encourage chop down: fell clean up: tidy

fend off: repel ferret out: find with difficulty figure out: solve, understand fill in: complete a form fill out: complete fill up: make full give back: return give off: send out

hand down: give to someone younger hand in: submit something (assignment) hand on: give to another person hand over: transfer hang up: break a telephone connection

hold back: restrain, delay

iron out: remove knock out: make unconscious lap up: accept eagerly lay off: put out of work leave behind: leave, not bring leave out: omit let down: disappoint live down: live so that past faults are

forgotten look over: examine, check look up: find (information) make up: invent pass up: not take advantage pension off: dismiss with a pension phase in: introduce gradually phase out: cease gradually

pick up: collect pin down: get a commitment play down: de-emphasize point out: draw attention to polish off: finish pull down: demolish pull off: succeed put away: save or store

put back: return to original location put off: postpone reel off: recite a long list rope in: persuade to help rub out: erase rule out: remove from consideration scale down: reduce sell off: dispose of by selling

set back: delay

shout down: stop from speaking by shouting shrug off: dismiss as unimportant single out: select from others size up: assess sort out: organize sound out: talk with to learn the opinion of

stammer out: stutter sum up: summarize summon up: gather take down: make a written note take in: absorb take out: invite to a restaurant take over: assume control talk over: discuss

tear up: destroy by tearing think over: consider think up: invent track down: search for and find trade in: give as part payment try on: test clothes by putting them on try out: test by using turn away: refuse admission

turn back: reverse direction turn off: deactivate by using a switch turn on: activate by using a switch water down: dilute wear out: gradually destroy by wearing or using write down: make a note write off: cancel, regard as

write up: compose in writing


PHRASAL VERBS Type 2b Intransitive Verbs followed by Adverbs

blow over: pass boil away: disappear by boiling boil over: overflow by boiling bounce back: recover buckle down: work seriously catch on: be widely accepted

cloud over: become overcast die down: become less double up: bend over drop in: visit fade away: become less fall off: become less get away: escape get by: barely succeed

give in: admit defeat

go on: continue grow up: become an adult keep on: persist in level off: stop rising log on: contact a computer log off: break contact with a

computer system move in: take possession of living quarters move out: give up possession of living quarters nod off: go to sleep pass out: faint pitch in: help

play along: pretend to agree

pull in: arrive (of vehicles) pull out: leave (of vehicles) set off: leave settle down: become peaceful settle in: become used to show up: arrive

stay up: not go to bed step down: resign step in: intervene take off: leave the ground touch down: land (of planes) tune in: find a station on the radio watch out: beware wear off: gradually disappear

PHRASAL VERBS Type 3 Verbs followed by Adverbs followed by Prepositions

add up to: amount to back down from: withdraw, avoid back out of: not fulfil boil down to: can be reduced to bow out of: withdraw brush up on: refresh knowledge of

carry on with: continue with catch up to: overtake clean up after: tidy for come down to: can be reduced to come down with: become ill with come out in: develop come up against: meet an obstacle come up with: produce

creep up on: approach undetected cry out for: urgently require cut back on: reduce do away with: abolish face up to: accept and deal with fall back on: turn to for help fit in with: be suited to fool around with: not be serious, have as

a hobby get away with: not be punished get down to: begin dealing seriously with get in on: manage to participate in give up on: stop trying go along with: agree, not resist go back on: break a promise go through with: fulfil, carry out

grow out of: become too big for hold out for: not compromise keep up with: be on the same level as lead up to: be a preparation for live up to: maintain a standard log on to: contact a computer look down on: regard as inferior look forward to: anticipate

look out for: watch for


VOCABULARY

Phrasal verbs using give

1 Look at these two sentences

• Some have given up going out at all! • Never give up hope!

Give up is being used in two different ways. Look at the dictionary entry for give up to see which meaning is represented in each case. Note the number of each meaning.


1a Substitute the words in bold with a suitable phrasal verb with give.

Example: The explorer's food finished in the middle of the desert. gave out

1 Can you distribute the books to the class, Claudia?

2 Before she died, she left all her money to the dogs' home.

3 When the plastic caught fire, it produced a terrible smell.

4 Joanna offered her seat to the man with the walking stick.

5 They had to stop the climb when it started snowing.

6 Stop! Stop! I surrender. Don't hurt me any more!

7 She talked in her sleep and said where the money was hidden.

8 If I were you, I'd stop drinking whisky.

9 He never returns the books he borrows.

1b Answer these questions.

Have you ever...

1 given something away which you regretted afterwards? 2 forgotten to give back a book or record/CD to someone? 3 given up something that you thought was too difficult? 4 given up a bad habit or sporting activity? 5 been forced to give in and do something you didn't want to do?

2 Look at these two sentences:

• They brought the wine up from the cellar. • They brought me up to speak English.

The meaning of sentence A is clear and literal. It tells us about the movement of the wine. Bring and up each have their usual and separate meanings.

In the second sentence, bring and up combine to create a new, non-literal meaning: to raise / educate.

Look at these sentences and decide when the verbs and prepositions/adverbs are being used as phrasal verbs, i.e. in a non-literal way.

2a 1 She picked up the pen from the floor. 2 Can you move your bicycle so that we can get by? 3 We changed hotel because we couldn't put up with the noise. 4 We have run out of cigarettes. 5 She picked up Spanish by visiting South America. 6 The girl ran out of the room. 7 They put the picture up with a nail. 8 I don't know how she gets by on her pension.

2b Which phrasal verbs mean:

1 to endure / tolerate? 2 to learn? 3 to finish? 4 to manage?

2c Complete each sentence with one of the four phrasal verbs. Remember to use the right tense.

1 I don't know how they ………… They have six children and they doesn't earn very much.

2 She is very clever. She ………… how to use the computer without any training.

3 We had to come back from holiday early because we ……………money.

4 Passengers are having to ………… long waits at airports because of a strike.


3 Phrasal verbs with take

3a Match each definition on the right with a phrasal verb on the left.

A take on B take after C take off D take over E take to F take up

1 gain control/responsibility 2 start a new activity/hobby 3 start liking 4 have the same character (or looks) as an older relative 5 copy/imitate someone 6 employ

3b Complete each sentence with one of the phrasal verbs with take.

1 He was punished for taking his teacher …………………

2 She has just been taken ………………… at the bank.

3 I am afraid I can't take ………………… my new boss; he's an extremely unpleasant person.

4 Can you take ………………… while I go to lunch?

5 You really take ………………… your grandfather. You're both bad-tempered!

6 She's so tense, she should take ………………… yoga. 4 Match each phrasal verb with its definition on the right.

1 talk over 2 live up to 3 sort out 4 look down on 5 face up to 6 let down

A cause someone to be disappointed B put in order/put right C be brave enough to accept or deal with something D speak about something thoroughly E have a low opinion of someone F reach someone's high standards

5 Complete each sentence with one of the phrasal verbs. Remember to use the right tense. 1 Stop running away from the situation. It's time you ……… it. 2 He promised to pick me up from the station but he didn't. That's the second time he has ……… me ……… this week. 3 She was never able to ……… her mother's high expectations of her. 4 Don't be such a snob, Marcia. Just because she doesn't have as much money as you, that's no reason to …… her. 5 After he had spent all evening ……… the problem with his best friend he felt much better about things. 6 You can't expect me to ………… the plan before I've had an opportunity to study it carefully.

6 Choose the best meaning for the words in italics. E.g.: 0) At half past six, the alarm clock went off. B. A) exploded B) rang C) disappeared

1) Jim is very good at taking off his teacher A) flying with his teacher B) getting rid of his teacher C) imitating his teacher

2) Please don't bring up that subject again! A) start shouting about it B) mention it C) talk about it for hours on end

3) There is one small matter I would like to clear up A) find an explanation for B) make clean and tidy C) get rid of once and for all

4) Jean is really good at picking up languages A) choosing languages B) learning languages by being in a country C) learning languages by heart

5) Jackie broke down and everyone felt sorry for her A) injured herself B) caused an accident C) started crying


7 The following readings contain phrasal verbs; try to figure out (deduce) the meaning from context.

A few centuries ago, English was hardly spoken by anybody outside the British Isles. Yet nowadays, millions of people around the world use it in their everyday lives. In many countries it has become a political issue. In some places, laws discourage people from using English instead of the mother tongue. However, it is the behaviour of individuals which mostly concerns us here. Today, we are going to look at some of those people and find out who they are, why they use it, and how they feel about it.

a) I'm Kurt Thommen from Zurich in Switzerland. I'm a photographer for a wildlife magazine. I need English because lots of handbooks are written in it and I travel a lot. Next month I'm going to visit South East Asia. I hope I'll be able to make myself understood. I've found it is often easier to speak English to other foreigners than to native speakers! One American colleague doesn't speak slowly enough for me to understand him. It is useful to know English, but I don't approve of foreigners using English expressions in their own language.

b) Hi! My name's Veronique Arnaud and I come from Quebec, which is in the French-speaking part of Canada. I'm an accountant in a travel agency. I take care of foreign customers, so most of the time I have to use English. In Canada everything's supposed to be bilingual but I don't like the way English seems to be taking over. We had a real fight here, you know, to keep hold of our French past and identity. This is why I voted for independence.

c) I'm Adebayo Omere from Nigeria and I'm an agricultural engineer. English is the official language because there are so many different languages and dialects spoken in Nigeria. I have to travel all round the country and often English is the only way to communicate. This is a pity because it used to be the colonial language. I'd rather not use English all the time. However, if we had chosen a tribal language, it would have caused political problems. So we will just have to put up with it!

d) I'm Cathy Wong and I'm from Singapore. I've been studying business administration in London for the past two years. I felt really homesick to begin with because I'd never been away from home. It took me time to get used to living on my own and I still miss my parents. They brought me up to speak English and I was sent to an English-speaking school. When I got here, I still had a few problems with people's accents and the slang that lots of the other students used. Some of the lecturers were hard to understand at first, and there was lots of business jargon to pick up too. Living in London is expensive and I almost ran out of money but luckily I got a part-time job and now I get by.

e) I'm Ana Gonzales from Sao Paulo in Brazil. It is eight years since I started to learn English. My biggest problem is pronunciation. I love listening to English pop music which is a great way of learning new vocabulary. My dad's a businessman and he uses English all the time. He speaks it fluently. He managed to pick it up while he was working in the States. That's no surprise because living in the country is supposed to be the best way to learn. Perhaps I'll study there. He wants me to speak English well enough so that I can join his company. SOLUTIONS

1a

1 give out 2 gave away 3 gave off 4 gave away 5 give up

6 give in 7 gave away 8 give up 9 gives back

2a

literal 1 She picked up the pen from the floor. 2 Can you move your bicycle so that we can get by? 6 The girl ran out of the room. 7 They put the picture up with a nail.

phrasal verbs 3 We changed hotel because we couldn't put up with the noise. 4 We have run out of cigarettes. 5 She picked up Spanish by visiting South America. 8 I don't know how she gets by on her pension.

2b

put up with = to endure/tolerate run out of = to finish pick up = to learn get by = to manage

2c 1 get by 2 picked up

3 ran out of 4 put up with

3a

A take on B take after C take off D take over

E take to F take up

2 start a new activity/hobby 4 have the same character (or looks) as an older relative 5 copy/imitate someone 1 gain control/responsibility

3 start liking 6 employ

3b

1 off 2 on 3 to 4 over

5 after 6 up

4 1 talk over 2 live up to 3 sort out

4 look down on 5 face up to 6 let down

D speak about something thoroughly F reach someone's high standards B put in order/put right

E have a low opinion of someone C be brave enough to accept or deal with something A cause someone to be disappointed

5 1 faced up to 2 let ... down 3 live up to

4 look down on 5 talking over 6 sort out

6 1 C 2 B 3 C

4 B 5 C


PREPOSITIONAL VERBS IL VERBO DI PREPOSIZIONE

I verbi di preposizione non vanno confusi con i Phrasal verbs anche se molti Prepositional verbs, insieme alla loro preposizione, diventano poi Phrasal verbs. Mentre i verbi di preposizioni “sfruttano” la preposizione per formare un legame sintattico con il nome, il pronome, il gerundio o proposizione che segue, i Phrasal verbs, invece, vanno considerati un tutt’uno e, insieme, generano un significato diverso rispetto al verbo base che lo compone; in altre parole, i Phrasal verbs sono perifrastici in quanto il verbo e la particella preposizionale o la particella avverbiale o tutt’e due insieme congiuntamente al verbo svolgono la stessa funzione che svolge un verbo lessicale da solo. I verbi di preposizione sono transitivi, cioè richiedono un oggetto. L’oggetto il più delle volte è espresso ma qualche volta può essere implicito. La maggior parte dei Prepositional verbs consistono in un verbo base intransitivo più una particella preposizionale. Altri si formano utilizzando un verbo base transitivo e una preposizione. Normalmente la particella preposizionale trasforma un verbo intransitivo in verbo transitivo: Es : - look / look at / look for I am looking. / I am looking for my keys. - wait / wait for I am waiting. / I am waiting for the bus.

- come / come through. I came. / I came through the door. La particella preposizionale non fa veramente parte del verbo ma costituisce un legame essenziale tra il verbo e l’oggetto, espresso o implicito che sia. Questi verbi, unitamente alla loro preposizione, sono inseparabili, cioè la parte verbale e la particella preposizionale vanno sempre l’una accanto all’altra, es.:

- listen to Concetta and Pasquale are listening to music

- believe in I believe in God - speak to I’m speaking to the students

La frase di preposizione è una funzione grammaticale; è una specie di complemento del verbo. Infatti, in inglese viene chiamata l’oggetto della preposizione. Ecco un esempio tipico: I rely on you ([io] conto su di voi)

Come lo stesso nome suggerisce, rimane sempre una preposizione ma ciò che distingue le frasi di preposizioni da altri complem enti di verbi che comprendono nella loro struttura una preposizione (Phrasal verbs) è che la preposizione viene scelta dal verbo stesso. Dopo il verbo RELY, per esempio, l’unica preposizione possibile è ON. La preposizione viene “spogliata” del suo significato usuale e funge da copula sintattica tra il verbo e il nome / pronome ecc.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES LA FRASE DI PREPOSIZIONE

Le parole sotto riportate possono essere usate in una frase di preposizione:

about because of down of through above before during off throughout according to behind except on to across below for on account of toward after beneath from onto under against beside in out underneath along between inside out of until amid beyond in spite of outside up among but (meaning except) instead of over upon around by into past with at concerning like regarding within atop near since without

Per far sì che queste parole siano considerate preposizioni, devono far parte di una frase di preposizione:

over the hill behind the door at Mary's house

without your coat during lunch atop Mount Everest

Da notare che la frase di preposizione non contiene alcun verbo. Generalmente contengono un aggettivo, un nome / sostantivo, un pronome e possono anche contenere un gerundio. Il nome o pronome è l’oggetto della preposizione. Le frasi di preposizione possono anche avere delle congiunzioni (coordinatori: and, but, or) per coordinare due nomi o pronomi, esempio:

underneath sand and rock. (sotto la sabbia e la roccia.)

Il vantaggio di riconoscere le frasi di preposizione è che non appartengono mai alla frase di preposizione né il soggetto né il verbo. Per esempio, se consideriamo questa frase "The coat on the chair is mine" eliminando la frase di preposizione "on the chair" vediamo chiaramente che coat è il soggetto e is è il verbo: "The coat on the chair is mine."


PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES LA FRASE DI PREPOSIZIONE

Ci sono due tipi di frasi di preposizioni. Una con funzione di “aggettivo” e la seconda con funzione di “avverbio” (adjective phrases e adverb phrases)

La costruzione minima di una Prepositional phrase inizia con una preposizione e finisce con un sostantivo, pronome, gerundio o una proposizione, cioè l’oggetto della preposizione. L’oggetto della preposizione spesso avrà uno o più modificatori (aggettivi) che aiutano a dare una descrizione più completa:

P R E P O S I T I O N + N O U N , P R O N O U N , G E R U N D , O R C L A U S E

P R E P O S I T I O N + M O D I F I E R ( S ) + N O U N , P R O N O U N , G E R U N D , O R C L A U S E

Alcuni esempi delle frasi di preposizioni basilari: At home At = preposition; home = noun. From Pasquale From = preposition; Pasquale = noun. With me With = preposition; me = pronoun. By singing By = preposition; singing = gerund. About what we need About = preposition; what we need = noun clause.

Alcune Prepositional phrases sono più lunghe: Under the warm blanket Under = preposition; the, warm = modifiers; blanket = noun. In the weedy overgrown garden In = preposition; the, weedy, overgrown = modifiers; garden = noun.

È importante comprendere la funzione delle Prepositional phrases.

Una frase di preposizione può essere utilizzata come un aggettivo che ci dice quale (which) o che genere (what kind) e modifica un nome o pronome.

Una frase di preposizione con funzione di aggettivo seguirà direttamente il nome o pronome che modifica. Se ci sono due frasi di preposizione con funzione di aggettivo, una seguirà l’altra. Es.: The students of Medicine study English (“of Business Studies” ci dice quali studenti studiano l’inglese)

The students in the first year of Medicine study English (“in the first year” + “of Business Studies”)

Una frase di preposizione può essere utilizzata come un avverbio che ci dice come (how), quando (when), dove (where), quanto/a (how much) e perché (why) modificando il verbo e qualche volta un aggettivo. Una frase di preposizione con funzione di avverbio può essere posizionata ovunque all’interno della proposizione senza cambiarne il significato. Es.: The students have courses at the hospital (“in the faculty of Economics” ci dice dove si svolgono le lezioni)

Bisogna anche tener conto che non avremmo mai il soggetto di una frase all’interno di una Prepositional phrase. Qualche volta sembrerà che un sostantivo della Prepositional phrase sia il soggetto logico di una frase, es.:

Neither of these cookbooks contains the recipe for Pasta Carbonara. (Nessuno di questi ricettari contiene la ricetta per la pasta carbonara).

In questa frase, comunque, “cookbooks” è parte componente della Prepositional phrase “of these cookbooks”. “Neither” – qualsiasi cosa sia – è il soggetto per il verbo “contains” ed essendo al singolare, richiede la forma della III persona singolare del verbo “to contain”. Molte Prepositional phrases sono delle frasi idiomatiche, cioè delle frasi di preposizione che hanno una struttura fissa e un significato particolare. Ecco alcuni esempi:

at ease (with)

at heart at issue at least at once at play at present at the same time by accident

by all means by definition by heart

a proprio agio

nocciolo (del problema) in discussione almeno subito in gioco al momento allo stesso tempo per caso

certamente per definizione a memoria

by means of

in accordance with in agreement with in brief in charge of in comparison with in conclusion in connection with in contrast with / to

in defense of in fact in length

per mezzo di

conformemente a in accordo con in breve responsabile di in confronto a in conclusione a proposito di in contrasto a

a difesa di in realtà a lungo

in line with

in other words in particular in question in relation to in spite of in view of on behalf of

on condition that

in linea con

in altre parole in particolare in questione in rapporto a malgrado / nonostante considerato per conto di

a condizione che


Replace the phrasal verbs below with the underlined verbs in the sentence:

get up give up put off lie down

go away put on come out in get over

put up with take off pick up cut down on

Exercise 1

Could you remove your shirt and recline on the treatment table, please.

I’m afraid we can’t make the pain disappear, but there is some medication so

you can tolerate it more easily.

You’ve got a nasty chest infection and you won’t recover from it unless you

quit smoking.

I always get affected by a rash if I dress in anything made of polyester.

If you want to improve your energy levels, you should limit junk food in your

diet.

I think I caught this stomach bug at the beach on Saturday. It’s discouraged

me from swimming in the sea ever again.

Exercise 2

calm down lift up look up sort out

look after come down with get down knock out

check out carry on go back try out

I’ve been providing care for mum since she contracted an infection last

month.

Things can’t continue like this – I’m constantly stressed and don’t know how to

relax

I’m testing some new tablets for my blood pressure – let’s hope these ones

help me recover.

Flu can totally exhaust you physically, so it would be a mistake to return to

work too early.

I need to examine your arm now so, first of all, could you elevate it.

Losing my job depressed me at the start, but things are beginning to improve

again now.


Prescription and Over-the-Counter Drugs

A drug is a chemical that affects living things. Aspirin, allergy medicine, sleeping pills, and other

medications are drugs. So are vitamins, cigarettes, and alcohol.

Medicine is a legal drug used to treat an ailment or illness.

Over-the-counter drugs (OTC drugs) are legal drugs that anyone can buy at places like the supermarket or

the drugstore.

Aspirin, antacids, and cough medicine are some kinds of OTC drugs.

Labels on OTC drugs give important information.

For example,

What is in the drug?

What do I take the drug for?

How much should I take?

What are the possible side effects?

Who should not take the drug?

How long is it safe to take the drug?

Prescription drugs are legal drugs that can only be ordered by a doctor or a dentist. Only a licensed

pharmacist / chemist can sell prescription drugs.

When a drug is prescribed, it is important to ask:

What is the name of the drug?

What will it do?

Are there any side effects?

When and how should I take the drug?

Are there foods and drinks, or other drugs to avoid while I am taking this medicine?

Can this prescription be refilled?

Is there a generic form of this drug?


Side Effects. Drugs affect your whole body. Not everyone responds to drugs in the same way. In addition to

treating the part of your body that needs the drug, a drug may cause a reaction in other parts of the body.

These unplanned reactions are called side effects. Common side effects are nausea, headaches, and

sleepiness. Sometimes side effects are caused by mixing a drug with certain other drugs or foods.

Many drugs should not be mixed with alcohol: The combination can be fatal. It is best to not drink alcohol

when taking any kind of medication. Dairy products prevent some antibiotics from working. OTC drugs list

side effects on the label. It is best to ask your doctor or pharmacist about side effects.

Dosage. How much of a drug you take is called the dose or the dosage. Both OTC and prescription drugs

have the dosage on the bottle or package. Too much medicine is dangerous.

Taking too much of a drug or taking it too often leads to an overdose.

An overdose can kill you.

Generic vs. Brand Name. Each company that makes a drug can give it a brand name. When a new drug comes out, the company that

develops it is the only company that can make it for 17 years. After 17 years, other companies can make that drug, too. A generic name is the chemical name of the drug. When many companies can make a drug, one company will usually sell it under the generic name. Generic drugs are usually much cheaper than

brand-name drugs. Ask your physician to prescribe the cheapest form.

The most widely used drugs are medicines, taken for the prevention, treatment, or diagnosis of illness.

Medicinal drugs can be taken in many forms. They are most commonly administrated through indigestion,

but can also be injected into a muscle, a vein, or under the skin. Inhalers deliver a drug through the nose or

mouth to the lungs. Topical applications are applied to the surface of the body. Suppositories are inserted

in the rectum or vagina, and droppers introduce drugs into the eye or the ear.


There are two kinds of medicine you can buy at a chemist:

• medicine you can only buy if you have a prescription from a doctor • ‘over the counter’ medicine that you can buy from the chemist at any time, without a prescription from

the doctor. Labels on medicines provide a lot of important information.

Example What is the name

of the medication?

4. How should the capsules be stored?

1. How many capsules should be taken and how often?

5. When did the patient buy

the medicine?

2. Who are the capsules for?

6. Where did the patient buy the medicine?

3. What is the expiry date?

7. What is in the medicine?

Is this a prescription medicine or an ‘over the counter’ medicine?

Read these medicine labels. Match the medicine to the problem.

Which medicine would you use for these problems?

1. A headache

2. A small cut

3. Indigestion


Read the directions on the Disprin packet and answer the questions.

1. How many tablets can adults take at one time?

a. 1-3 tablets

b. 2-4 tablets

c. 1-5 tablets

2. What’s the maximum number of tablets an adult can take in one day?

a. 6 tablets

b. 10 tablets

c. 12 tablets


Medicine instructions

A. Read about instructions on medicine labels. Action verbs in instructions (imperatives)

Most instructions begin with verbs that tell you what to do. These are action verbs (imperatives).

The subject ‘you’ is not used. Example:

Take one capsule three times a day.

Repeat after four hours if necessary.

Do not give to children.

B. Adverbs in instructions.

Instructions often include adverbs or adverbial phrases that tell us more about the action. Adverbs are words like: daily, carefully, regularly, directly, gently, thoroughly.

Adverbial phrases can tell us: • how, e.g. with food, under medical supervision

• when, e.g. before bedtime, at meal times • how often, e.g. twice a day, as required • how long, e.g. for three days, until finished

• where, e.g. in your mouth, to the affected area

In an instruction, the normal word order is: action > adverb > adverbial phrase.

C. Re-order the words to form instructions.

Example

onto the skin / directly / apply the cream Apply the cream directly onto the skin.

1. daily / until finished / take the tablets

2. wash out / with water / promptly

3. with warm salt water / rinse mouth / thoroughly

4. regularly / as required / repeat

5. press down / on the cut / firmly

6. under medical supervision / only / use


1. daily / until finished / take the tablets take the tablets daily unt il finished

2. wash out / with water / promptly wash out prompt ly with water

Key 3. with warm salt water / rinse mouth / thoroughly rinse mouth thoroughly with warm salt water

4. regularly / as required / repeat repeat regularly as required

5. press down / on the cut / firmly press down firmly on the cut

6. under medical supervision / only / use use only under medical supervision

Checking medicine labels

What is the medicine for?

Who can take it?

Who should not take it?

What are the possible side-effects?

What should you do if you get any side-effects?

Write phrases indicating the symptoms and the

corresponding treatment

SYMPTOM TREATMENT

Fever

take aspirin

Stuffy nose

take a decongestant

Runny Nose

take an antihistamines

Cough

use expectorant

Cold

chicken soup and lots of liquids

Hoarseness

rest your voice, drink water

SYMPTOM TREATMENT

Sore throat

Gargle with salt water, suck on throat lozenges

Nosebleed

Squeeze the bridge of the nose with your thumb and finger for about five minutes. Sit with your head back, but don’t lie down.

Heartburn

Don’t drink caffeine, tea or alcohol. Take an antacid

Headache

Take aspirin

e.g.: patient, ‘I have a sore throat’ doctor, ‘you should gargle with salt water and suck on throat lozenges’


How to read medical records / medical charts (Cartella clinica)

Describing a line graph Line graphs are made of three important parts: the vertical axis, the horizontal axis and the diagonal line

(curve) which shows the relationship between the figures on the vertical axis and those on the horizontal. In describing the line graph you should:

1. determine the topic of the graph and 2. look at the axes and diagonal line to understand the relationship that is being illustrated.

( ) trough

( ) erratic movements

( ) a gradual rise

( ) to level off

( ) a dramatic fall

( ) fluctuations

( ) to reach a peak

( ) a gradual fall

( ) a plateau

( ) a steady increase

( ) to leap upwards

( ) a decline

( ) a sharp recovery

Using adjectives you can describe the degree of change. Do you know the corresponding adverbs ?

A dramatic fall to fall ………………… An abrupt rise to rise ……………….. A sudden decline to decline ………………

A moderate growth to grow ……………… A slight increase to increase …………….. A rapid drop to drop …………………

A gradual decline to decline …………… A steady recovery to recover ……………

A constant levelling off to level off ………………

Other useful adjectives for describing changes: slow,

marked, sharp,

substantial, significant, considerable


How to describe a line graph

Look at the line graph and the text below and note how the verbs have been used to describe the

changes.

Tem

pera

ture

/ c

enti

grad

e

40

39.5

39

38.5

38

37.5

37

36.5

36

35.5

35

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat

Let us look at the average body temperatures of a patient from Monday to Saturday. The horizontal axis stands for days and the vertical axis for temperatures in degrees Centigrade.

On Monday, the temperature was at 37.5 °C, reaching a peak to almost 39°C on Tuesday, before falling back to 37.5 °C on Wednesday. However, on Thursday the temperature subsequently rose and was well over 37.5°C. On Friday, we can observe a steady fall in temperature until Saturday when there was a sudden

decrease in temperature, which was largely due to the treatment the patient was receiving.

Note the use of prepositions: The temperature rose by 2°C.

There was a rise of 2°C.


Reading comprehension

1) Read the text thoroughly and then choose the best alternative to complete the following sentence correctly:

Common Cold and Flu

Scratchy throats, stuffy noses and body aches all spell misery, but being able to tell if the cause is a

cold or flu may make a difference in how long the flu lasts. That's because the prescription drugs available for the flu need to be taken soon after the illness sets in although the symptoms can be eased with over the counter medications. As for colds, the sooner a person starts taking over-the-counter remedy, the sooner relief will come. Cold symptoms such as stuffy nose, runny nose and scratchy throat typically develop gradually, and adults and teens often do not get a fever. On the other hand, fever is one of the characteristic features of the flu for all ages. And in general, flu symptoms including fever and chills, sore throat and body aches come on suddenly and are more severe than cold symptoms.

1. According to the passage, knowing the cause of scratchy throats, stuffy noses and body aches ----. A) reduces the likelihood of catching cold

B) sometimes doesn't help patients lessen the severity of symptoms C) encourages patients to buy over-the-counter medications D) will shorten the duration of the flu

E) prevents people from getting infected

2. According to the passage, to combat the flu effectively, ----.

A) the virus which causes the disease has to be identified B) patients should only use over-the-counter medications

C) one should take the necessary medications upon catching the disease D) there is no reason to see a doctor E) people should try some alternative remedies

3. It is pointed out in the reading that ----.

A) fever is the most important feature of a cold

B) flu symptoms are not as severe as cold symptoms C) the flu can be prevented by the flu vaccine D) one doesn't need to take any medicine if he has a cold or the flu

E) over-the-counter drugs can be taken to ease the misery caused by a cold or the flu

From. http://www.grammarbank.com/esl -reading-comprehension-15.html

KEY 1) d 2) c 3) e



Practice of Medicine

Modern scientific and technological developments in the practice of medicine and public health

have drawn nursing into new and wider fields of activity, and its functions have been expanded

accordingly. Therefore, nursing is no longer limited mainly to activities within the hospital, or to

what is called curative nursing. It has become also a community service in which preventive and

rehabilitative functions are a vital part of its program. The modern concept of nursing considers the

hospital, however central, as only one of many health agencies in the community.

1. As we understand from the reading, today ----.

A) the only reason people go to hospitals is for nursing care B) most of the nursing practice now takes place in people's homes

C) hospitals are not the only setting where people receive care or support D) scientific and technological developments can't improve the quality of care that is delivered in hospitals E) nursing care is not vital to the core competency of hospitals any more

2. One can infer from the passage that ----. A) nurses were treating more people in the patient's own home in the past

B) hospitals are the only places where nursing care is crucial C) nurses don't see the hospital and clinic as important units in the community health program D) hospitals are still the most important component of the healthcare

E) nursing shortage has had significant consequences during the past few years

3. According to the passage, the nurse's function has been expanded because of ----.

A) the nurse's activities in the hospital B) hospitals, which are the most common work environments for nurses

C) the reluctance of nurses to work in the hospital D) the necessity of working longer hours E) the progress in science and technology in related fields

From: http://www.grammarbank.com/practice-of-medicine.html

KEY 1) c 2) d 3) e



Active Passive Smoking

Psychologist George Spilich at Washington College in Chestertown, Maryland, decided to find out

whether, as many smokers say, smoking helps them to think and concentrate. He put non-smokers,

active smokers and smokers deprived of cigarettes through a series of tests. In the first test, each

subject sat before a computer screen and pressed a key as soon as he or she recognized a target

letter. In this simple test, smokers, deprived smokers and non-smokers performed equally well. The

next test was more complex. Non-smokers were faster, but under the stimulation of nicotine, active

smokers were faster than deprived smokers. In the third test of short-term memory, non-smokers

made the fewest errors, but deprived smokers committed fewer errors than active smokers. In the

fourth test, non-smokers were the best and deprived smokers bested those who had smoked a

cigarette just before testing. As the tests became more complex, non-smokers performed better

than smokers by wider and wider margins.

1. It is pointed out in the passage that the purpose of George Spilich's experiments is ----.

A) to test whether smoking has a positive effect on the mental capacity of smokers

B) to show how smoking damages people's mental capacity C) to prove that smoking affects people's regular performance D) to show that non-smokers are less productive at work than smokers

E) to prove that nicotine helps people's short term memory 2. We understand from the passage that ----.

A) active smokers in general performed better than deprived smokers

B) active smokers responded more quickly than the other subjects in all tests C) the other subjects were not better than nonsmokers in the simplest test D) deprived smokers gave the slowest responses to the various tasks

E) non-smokers committed more errors than deprived smokers in most of the tests 3. George Spilich's experiment was conducted in such a way as to ----.

A) check the effectiveness of nicotine on nonsmokers

B) put the subjects through increasingly complex tests C) finish the tests as quickly as possible D) force the subjects to recall the words they learned

E) compel the subjects to respond as fast as possible

From: http://www.grammarbank.com/reading-comprehension-worksheet.html

KEY 1) a 2) c 3) b


Reading comprehension

Drawing Blood and Transfusion (Ronald Bergman, Ph.D.)

A hospital corpsman (soldato di sanità militare) consulted her list of blood donor volunteers and asked one to donate a pint of O+ blood. It was possible that it might be needed for an emergency appendectomy (appendicectomia) being undertaken by the ship's surgeon while at sea. The volunteer Sailor was brought to sickbay (infermeria della nave) and asked to lie down on the bed. The corpsman determined that the Sailor was healthy; his pulse, temperature and blood pressure were of normal values. She then tied a rubber band around the Sailor's arm, above the elbow, tight enough to stop superficial venous blood flow but not enough to prevent arterial blood flow. The cubital fossa (anterior surface of the elbow) was palpated and the median cubital vein was readily located (see illustrations), facilitated by the Sailor repeatedly making a fist. The corpsman knew that there were several large veins available in the region of the cubital fossa that she could use for venipuncture. She was aware that there is considerable normal variation in the pattern of veins in the arm and this is usually of no consequence. The corpsman then sponged clean the cubital fossa with alcohol and dried it with a sterile gauze pad. She inserted the IV catheter through the skin at an angle of about 45 degrees until she felt the needle enter the vein (by a slight decrease of resistance), then she decreased the angle of the syringe to about 10 to 20 degrees and advanced it slightly. Blood filled the lower part of the catheter reassuring the corpsman that she was indeed inside the vein. The plastic sleeve of the IV catheter was advanced over the catheter needle into the vein. The pressure band was then released. A blood collection bag was connected to the hypodermic needle and the hypodermic needle was carefully taped to the skin to prevent it from b ecoming dislodged (staccare). The corpsman had several types of catheter needles to select from but used the simplest one in this case.


The back of the hand (the dorsum of the hand) is also available for venipuncture or IV insertion and here the veins are usually clearly seen. They are not tightly bound to surrounding tissues, hence they move and are deceptively easy to penetrate. If they are held in place by a finger, penetration is facilitated. Instead of the rubber band being applied around the arm when the back of the hand is selected for venipuncture, it is placed around the lower forearm above the wrist.

From: http://www.anatomyatlases.org/firstaid/DrawingBlood.shtml

Blood Types

In 1901, scientist Karl Landsteiner reported that blood could be classified into "types." By matching these blood

types, a successful blood transfusion could be made between a healthy donor and a patient in need of blood. Today, hospital blood banks maintain an assortment of blood products (red blood cells, plasma, platelets, etc) in a variety of blood types. There are four main blood types: A, B, AB, and O. Each of these blood types is either RH positive (+) or Rh negative (-). So, if someone has type B blood, they have either B+ or B- blood. The blood type of a patient determines which blood types they are able to receive as a transfusion. The blood type of a blood donor also determines who can receive their blood donation. People with O- blood are called "universal donors" because any patient can receive O- red blood cells. Hospitals use O- red blood cells to provide emergency care for patients needing immediate

transfusions. In addition, hospitals maintain a supply of O- blood for patients with an O- blood type, who can only receive O- red blood cells. On the other end of the spectrum, very few people can receive AB+ red blood cells. However,

people with AB+ blood can receive red blood cell transfusions of any blood type, and are known as "universal recipients." AB blood is special for another reason; plasma donations from people with AB blood can be safely transfused to anyone, so AB donors are "universal plasma donors."

From: http://www.communityblood.org/commbc/what+is+blood/blood+type.asp


ACRONYMS (BLOOD)

WBC WHITE BLOOD CELL COUNT

RBC RED BLOOD CELL COUNT

Hgb\Hb HAEMOGLOBIN

Hct HAEMATOCRIT

PLT PLATELET

ACRONYMS

ENGLISH DEFINITION ITALIAN

CAT COMPUTED AXIAL TOMOGRAPHY TAC

CBC COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT EMOCROMO COMPLETO

CT COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY TC

Dx DIAGNOSIS DIAGNOSI

ECG ELECTROCARDIOGRAM ECG

EEG ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM EEG

ENT EAR, NOSE, THROAT ORL

Fx FRACTURE FRATTURA

HX HISTORY ANAMNESI

KUB KIDNEY, URETER, BLADDER RENE, URETERE, VESCICA

N&V NAUSEA AND VOMITING NAUSEA E VOMITO

Sx SYMPTOMS SINTOMI

U\A URINE ANALYSIS ANALISE DELLE URINE

WNL WITHIN NORMAL LIMITS NEI LIMITI DELLA NORMA

PET POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY PET

(tomografia a emissione di positroni)

HIV HUMAN IMMUNE DEFICIENCY VIRUS HIV

AIDS ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME AIDS

OCD OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER DOC

(DISTURBO OSSESSIVO COMPULSIVO)

HBP HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE

ADHD ATTENTION, DEFICIT HYPERACIVITY DISORDER ADHD

(SINDROME DA DEFICIT DI ATTENZIONE ED IPERATTIVITA’)

BMI BODY MASS INDEX IMC

(INDICE DI MASSA CORPOREA)

PSA PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN PSA

STUDIO ED ESERCITAZIONE - ESP ACTIVITIES 3 · STUDIO ED ESERCITAZIONE – ESP ACTIVITIES 3 ......

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