STUDENT NAME STUDENT ID Anatomy & Physiology by Ross and...

G210 Genesis School of Natural Health - 1

STUDENT NAME _____________________________

STUDENT ID ____________

Anatomy & Physiology by Ross and Wilson, 11th OR 12th ed.

CLASS: G210 GRADE:_______/ 276 _______%

Chapter 1

1. Homeostasis literally means “unchanging” but in practice it describes a dynamic ever-

changing situation kept within ______________ limits.

2. By convention, body systems are described separately in the study of anatomy and physiology,

but in reality they work _________________.

Chapter 2

3. Extracellular fluid includes interstitial/intercellular fluid. The interstitial fluid _________ all the

cells of the body except the outer layers of the skin. It is the medium through which substances

diffuse/pass from _________ to body cells, and from cells to blood.

Chapter 3

4. Cells are grouped together to form __________, each of which has a specialized function.

Different tissues are grouped together to form __________ . Organs are grouped together to

form __________.

5. The nucleus (inside the cell) contain’s the body’s __________ material (in the form of DNA),

which directs all the metabolic activities of the cell.

6. ______________ are involved in aerobic respiration which results in the formation of ATP

(energy). The most active cell types have the greatest number of these power houses.


7. _____________ synthesize (build) proteins from __________ , using RNA as a template

(instructions).

8. Cells have a sodium-potassium pump. Potassium levels are much higher __________ the cell.

9. ______________ tissue is the most abundant tissue in the body.

Chapter 4

10. There are three types of blood cells: _____________________________,

_____________________________, and _____________________________

11. Blood cells are synthesised/produced mainly in the red ___________________.

12. Haemoglobin is a protein that contains a pigmented __________ - containing complex called

haem. An average red blood cell carries 280 __________ haemoglobin molecules, giving each

cell a theoretical oxygen-carrying capacity of over a billion oxygen molecules!

13. White blood cells have the functions of ______________ and ______________.

14. Neutrophils protect the body against ____________ invasion. Eosinophils help with the

elimination of _____________. Basophils are closely associated with ____________

reactions.

15. _________________ have a central role of linking the non-specific and specific (immune)

systems of body defense, and produce factors important in inflammation and repair.

16. There are two distinct types of lymphocytes: ________________ and __________________.

17. The 3 main deficiencies that lead to anaemia are B12, ____________, and iron.

Note: B12, B6 and folic acid are common deficiencies. B12 works best as methyl B12 and as a sublingual.


Chapter 5

18. Figure 5.1 shows the relationship between the lungs/oxygen and the blood. The right side of

the heart pumps blood to the lungs (______________ circulation) where gas exchange occurs

(the blood collects oxygen from the airsacs and excess carbon dioxide diffuses into the airsacs

for exhalation). Figure 5.1 and 5.2 are color coded for veins and arteries. The arteries (red)

have the oxygen and nutrients for delivery to all the cells in the body. The veins (blue) are

carrying the depleted blood back to the lungs for more oxygen.

19. Blood flow is increased through individual organs by __________________ of the vessels

supplying it, and decreased through ___________________.

20. ______________ is an important vasodilator while the sympathetic hormone adrenaline

(______________), is a powerful vasoconstrictor.

21. Not all the water and cell waste products return to the blood capillaries. Of the 24 liters or so

of fluid that moves out of the blood across capillary walls every day, only about liters

return to the bloodstream (through the vein system). Extra tissue fluid and some cell waste

materials enter the __________ capillaries.

22. Blood pressure is the force or pressure that the blood exerts on the __________ of the blood

vessels. Blood pressure = ______________________ x ______________________.

23. Constriction and dilation of the arterioles are the main determinants of peripheral resistance.

______________________ causes blood pressure to rise and vasodilations causes it to fall.

Note: Patches of atheroma are like small fatty lumps that develop within the inside lining of blood vessels (arteries). Atheroma is also known as atherosclerosis and 'hardening of the arteries'. Patches of atheroma are often called plaques of atheroma. Over time patches of atheroma can become larger and thicker. This can restrict and reduce the blood flow through the artery. Sometimes a patch of atheroma may develop a tiny crack or rupture on the inside surface of the blood vessel. This may trigger a blood clot (thrombosis) to form over the atheroma, which may completely block the blood flow.

Note: Any change in normal heartbeat is referred to as an arrhythmia. One of the most important functions of potassium is the regulation of the electrical activity of the heart. Diuretics used to control high blood pressure, caffeine, sugar, and high carbohydrate diets are common reasons for low potassium levels at the tissue level (blood tests do not measure what is outside the blood and inside the cells).


Chapter 6

The main functions of the lymphatic system:

• the main function of the lymphatic system is to collect and transport tissue fluids from the intercellular spaces in all the tissues of the body, back to the bloodstream

• it plays an important role in returning plasma proteins to the bloodstream

• digested fats are absorbed and then transported from the villi in the small intestine to the bloodstream via the lacteals and lymph vessels

• new lymphocytes are manufactured in the lymph nodes

• antibodies are manufactured in the lymph nodes and assist the body to build up an effective immunity to infectious diseases

• lymph nodes play an important role in the defense mechanism of the body. They filter out micro-organisms (such as bacteria) and foreign substances such as toxins, etc.

• it transports large molecular compounds (such as enzymes and hormones) from their manufactured sites to the bloodstream

The lymph nodes are small glands that often occur in clusters. The human body contains about 700 of them. They act as filters that sieve off the harmful (and unused) substances brought by the lymphatic channels.The lymph nodes contain 2 regions within them: the cortex and the medulla. The cortex contains lymphocytes, predominantly B-lymphocytes and some T-lymphocytes. The B lymphocytes mature completely within the bone marrow, while the T-lymphocytes exit the bone marrow immature and attain maturity within the thymus.

24. Fat and fat-soluble materials (e.g. fat-soluble vitamins) are absorbed into the central lacteals

(lymphatic vessels) of the _____________ . .

Note: The mucosa that lines the small intestine is covered with fingerlike projections called villi. There are blood capillaries and lymph capillaries called lacteals in the center of each villi. The blood capillaries absorb most nutrients, but the fats and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed by the lacteals.

25. Lymph fluid is identical in composition to ______________ fluid.

26.There is no ‘pump’, like the heart, involved in the onward movement of lymph, but the muscle

layer in the wall of the large lymph vessels has an intrinsic ability to _____________

rhythmically. In addition, lymph vessels are compressed by activity in adjacent structures, such

as contraction of _____________ and the regular pulsation of large arteries.

Note: This is a complicated way to explain that exercise (muscle contraction) and heart rate (exercise again) are key in moving lymph through the body.


27. True of False: The spleen is the smallest lymph organ. ______________ .

28. Lymphocytes originate from stem cells in the red bone marrow. Those that enter the

_____________ develop into activated T-lymphocytes.

29. Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) is found in the gastrointestinal, respiratory &

genitourinary tracts, all systems of the body exposed to the _____________ environment.

Chapter 7

“Aluminum, a contaminant of commercial intravenous-feeding solutions, is potentially neurotoxic. We investigated the effect of perinatal exposure to intravenous aluminum on the neurologic development of infants born prematurely.” “In preterm infants, prolonged intravenous feeding with solutions containing aluminum is associated with impaired neurologic development.” - Aluminum Neurotoxicity in Preterm Infants Receiving Intravenous-Feeding Solutions,Nicholas J. Bishop, M.D., Ruth Morley, M.B., B.Chir., J. Philip Day, Ph.D., and Alan Lucas, M.D., N Engl J Med, May 29, 1997

30. Each neuron consists of a ____________, one _______ and many __________________.

31. Myelinated neurons: Large axons and those of the peripheral nerves are surrounded by a

myelin sheath. Myelin is a _____________ substance.

Note: Most of the axons in the central nervous system are wrapped in myelin. Myelin insulates and protects the axon and helps speed nerve transmission. The destruction of myelin (demyelinating diseases) results in multiple sclerosis (MS), acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), peripheral neuropathy/polyneuropathy, and Guillain-Barre syndrome. “Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is the leading cause of acute flaccid paralysis in developed countries and is characterized by various degrees of weakness, sensory abnormalities and autonomic dysfunction.

32. Nerve impulses have two principal ions involved: _____________ (the main extracellular

cation) and _____________ (the main intracellular cation).

33. Neurotransmitters are synthesized by ___________ cells, actively transported along the

axons and stored in the synaptic vesicles.

34.The peripheral nervous system consists of: __________________, __________________,

and ________________.


35. The autonomic or involuntary part of the nervous system controls the ________________

functions of the body.

36. The autonomic nervous system is separated into two divisions: ______________________

and __________________________.

37. Sympathetic stimulation prepares the body to deal with exciting and ___________ situations.

A range of emotional states (fear, embarrassment, anger) and the ___________ glands also

stimulate the sympathetic system - mobilizes the ‘fight or flight’ response.

38. Parasympathetic stimulation has a tendency to ______________ body processes except

digestion and absorption of food and the functions of the genitourinary systems. Its general

effect is that of a ‘_________________’.

39. Stroke occurs when _______________ to the brain is suddenly interrupted, causing hypoxia.

There are two main causes: cerebral infarction and intracranial hemorrhage.

40. Cerebral infarction is caused by _______________ complicated by thrombosis (blood clot).

A cerebral infarction is a type of ischemic stroke resulting from a blockage in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain. Stroke caused by cerebral hemorrhage and subarachnoid hemorrhage is when an artery in the brain bursts.

41. Alzheimer’s disease affects females _______________ as often as males.

42. In Parkinson’s disease there is progressive _______________ disability but the intellect is not

impaired.

43. Bacterial infections of the central nervous system (CNS) - entry of bacteria may be:

________________, _________________, or ________________ (illness caused by medical

examination or treatment)

44. Meningitis refers to _______________.

Note: While bacterial meningitis is not common it is very serious. Meninges: The three membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord.


45. Viral meningitis is the most common form and is usually a relatively __________ infection

followed by complete recovery.

46. Herpes zoster viruses cause _________________ mainly in children and ____________ in

adults.

47. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is caused by a “_________” virus. Transmission is thought to be

via a heat-resistant _______________ known as a prion protein.

Note: A prion is a small infectious particle composed of abnormally folded protein. These mis-folded proteins affect the brain structure by acting as a template, inducing proteins with normal folding to convert to the abnormal prion form. Prion diseases belong to the family of protein misfolding neurodegenerative diseases that also include Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and Huntington’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s disease). All of these diseases are characterized by the misfolding of one or several host proteins, which leads to neurotoxicity.

Note: “A demyelinating disease is any condition that results in damage to the protective covering (myelin sheath) that surrounds nerve fibers in your brain and spinal cord. When the myelin sheath is damaged, nerve impulses slow or even stop, causing neurological problems.” MayoClinic.org

48. In multiple sclerosis (MS), areas of demyelinated white matter are called _____________.

The areas are irregularly distributed throughout the brain and _________________.

49. MS has several factors (causes) involved. It appears to be an autoimmune disorder, possibly

triggered by a _______________ infection, e.g. measles.

Note: The article, Multiple Sclerosis Rates Up 50% by Miranda Hitti appears on the WebMd website and states “The review from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke says almost one in 1,000 people in the U.S. have MS.However, the National Multiple Sclerosis Society says that figure could still be low”.

“These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that immunization with the recombinant hepatitis B vaccine is associated with an increased risk of MS, and challenge the idea that the relation between hepatitis B vaccination and risk of MS is well understood”. Neurology. 2004 Sep 14;63(5):838-42. Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine and the risk of multiple sclerosis: a prospective study. Hernán MA, Jick SS, Olek MJ, Jick H.

“Multiple sclerosis (MS), a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS) commonly diagnosed in adults, is being recognized increasingly in children. An estimated 1.7%-5.6% of all patients with MS have clinical symptoms before reaching the age of 18 years”. Autoimmune Dis. 2013;2013:673947. Pediatric multiple sclerosis: current concepts and consensus definitions. Pena JA1, Lotze TE.


“Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) is characterized by a brief but widespread attack of inflammation in the brain and spinal cord that damages myelin – the protective covering of nerve fibers. ADEM often follows viral or bacterial infections, or less often, vaccination for measles, mumps, or rubella. The symptoms of ADEM appear rapidly, beginning with encephalitis-like symptoms such as fever, fatigue, headache, nausea and vomiting, and in the most severe cases, seizures and coma. ADEM typically damages white matter (brain tissue that takes its name from the white color of myelin), leading to neurological symptoms such as visual loss (due to inflammation of the optic nerve) in one or both eyes, weakness even to the point of paralysis, and difficulty coordinating voluntary muscle movements (such as those used in walking). ADEM is sometimes misdiagnosed as a severe first attack of multiple sclerosis (MS), since the symptoms and the appearance of the white matter injury on brain imaging may be similar. However, ADEM has several features which differentiate it from MS. First, unlike MS patients, persons with ADEM will have rapid onset of fever, a history of recent infection or immunization, and some degree of impairment of consciousness, perhaps even coma; these features are not typically seen in MS. Children are more likely than adults to have ADEM, whereas MS is a rare diagnosis in children. In addition, ADEM usually consists of a single episode or attack of widespread myelin damage, while MS features many attacks over the course of time. National Institute of Health: Neurological Disorders and Stroke, NINDS Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis Information Page, March 21, 2016

50. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis may occur as a complication of a ______________

infection, e.g. measles, chickenpox, or following a primary __________________ against viral

diseases, mainly in older children and adults. The effects vary considerably, and are similar to

those of MS.

51. Polyneuropathy: damage to a number of nerves and their myelin sheaths occurs in

association with other disorders (3 or 4 answers depends on book edition - list 3):

• __________________________________

• __________________________________

• __________________________________

52. ___________________ syndrome usually occurs 1-3 weeks after an upper respiratory tract

infection. There is widespread inflammation accompanied by some demyelination of spinal,

peripheral and cranial nerves and spinal ganglia.

Chapter 8

53. Ear infections called external otitis are localized inflammation in the ______________ canal.

The common cause is the bacterium ________________ aureus.


54. Acute otitis media is inflammation of the ______________ cavity, usually caused by upward

spread of microbes from an upper respiratory tract infection via the auditory tube.

55. _______________ disease is a condition where an accumulation of ____________ causes

dissension and increased pressure within the membranous labyrinth (inner ear).

56. Ménière's disease is associated with recurrent episodes of incapacitating dizziness

(______________), nausea, and vomiting, lasting for several hours.

57. A stye is caused by a ______________ infection. Infection of tarsal glands may block their

_________, leading to cyst formation.

58. Conjunctivitis (inflammation) may be caused by irritants or contagious strains of

___________________, _________________, or haemophilus.

59. Glaucoma is a group of conditions in which intraocular _____________ rises due to impaired

________________ of aqueous fluid. Persistently raised intraocular pressure may damage the

optic nerve leading to impaired vision to complete loss of sight.

60. Cataract: This is _______________ of the lens which may be age-related or congenital,

bilateral or unilateral.

Chapter 9

61. The endocrine system consists of ____________ widely separated from each other with no

physical connections. They are commonly called ductless glands because _______________

diffuse directly into the bloodstream.

62. Endocrine control is mainly involved in slower and more ______________ adjustments.

63. The __________________ controls the pituitary gland and has an indirect effect on many

other endocrine glands.

64. When a hormone arrives at its target cell, it binds to a specific _______________, where it

acts as a switch influencing chemical or metabolic reactions inside the cell.


65. The _______________ gland and the hypothalamus act as a unit, regulating the activity of

most of the other endocrine glands.

66. _____________________ is the most abundant hormone synthesized by the anterior pituitary.

67. TSH stands for ____________________________________. This hormone is synthesized

(made) by the anterior pituitary and it is released when the hypothalamus sends out the

thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH).

68. TSH stimulates growth and activity of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland secretes the

hormones T4 _______________ and T3 ___________________________.

69. CRH from hypothalamus signals release of ACTH by anterior pituitary which increases the

concentration of cholesterol and steroids with the adrenal cortex and the output of

___________ hormones, especially ___________.

70. Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) are involved in secretion of

the hormones ______________ and ___________________ during the menstrual cycle.

71. The thyroid gland is situated in the ___________ in front of the larynx and trachea.

72. ____________ is essential for the formation of the thyroid hormones, T4 and T3, so

numbered as these molecules (T4,T3) contain four and three atoms of the element iodine

respectively.

Note: No iodine, no hormones! When the supply of iodine is deficient, excess TSH is secreted. High TSH is a signal of low thyroid function/hypothyroid. “A low level of thyroxine and high level of TSH indicate an underactive thyroid. That's because your pituitary produces more TSH in an effort to stimulate your thyroid gland into producing more thyroid hormone.” MayoClinic.org 2016

73. The main function of the parathyroid hormone is to increase the blood ___________ level

when it is too low. If the diet is not sufficient in calcium the PTH will stimulate the release of

calcium from the ___________ into the blood.

74. The two adrenal glands are situated on the upper pole of each _____________.


75. The adrenal cortex produces three groups of steroid hormones from ____________________

76. _____________ (hydrocortisone) is the main glucocorticoid. The adrenal hormones are

essential for life, regulating _________________ and responses to stress.

77. Sex hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are mainly ________________ (male sex

hormones) and the amounts produced are insignificant compared with those secreted by the

testes and ovaries in late puberty and adulthood.

78. Adrenaline has a greater effect on the __________ and metabolic processes whereas

noradrenaline has more influence on ___________________ diameter.

Note: The pancreas is an organ that plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells. The pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine function that helps in digestion and an endocrine function that regulates blood sugar.

The endocrine component of the pancreas consists of islet cells that create and release important hormones directly into the bloodstream. Two of the main pancreatic hormones are insulin and glucagon. Maintaining proper blood sugar levels is crucial to the functioning of key organs including the brain, liver, and kidneys.

79. Endocrine component of pancreas: The cells that make up the pancreatic islets (islets of

Langerhans) are found in clusters irregularly distributed throughout the substance of the

pancreas. Pancreatic hormones are secreted directly into the _______________________.

80. Glucagon _____________ and insulin ______________ blood glucose levels.

81. Secretion of insulin is decreased by sympathetic stimulation, glucagon, ________________,

______________ and somatostatin. Note: This is one way that chronic stress results in

disfunction and fat storage.

82. The thymus gland secretes the hormone thymosin which is involved in the development of

_____________________ for cell-mediated immunity (12th ed. see Table 9.4).

83. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is present in platlets, in the brain, and in the

_______________ wall.


Note: “Serotonin (5-HT) is most commonly thought of as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. However, the predominant site of serotonin synthesis, storage, and release is the enterochromaffin cells (EC) of the intestinal mucosa. Within the intestinal mucosa, serotonin released from EC cells activates neural reflexes associated with intestinal secretion, motility, and sensation. Because of the importance of serotonin in normal gut function and sensation, a number of studies have investigated potential changes in mucosal serotonin signaling in pathologic conditions. Despite the inconsistencies in the current literature, changes in serotonin signaling have now been demonstrated in inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome, and idiopathic constipation.” - Dis Colon Rectum. 2007 Mar;50(3):376-88. Serotonin and its role in colonic function and in gastrointestinal disorders. Costedio MM1, Hyman N, Mawe GM.

84. There are three main categories of thyroid dysfunction:

• Abnormal secretion of thyroid hormones T3 and T4 which lead to _________________ or

_________________

• ______________ - enlargement of the thyroid gland

• ______________

85. Hyperthyroid (thyrotoxicosis) arises as the body tissues are exposed to ____________ levels

of T3 and T4. The main causes are ____________ disease, toxic nodular _____________,

and adenoma (benign tumor/non-cancerous).

86. In Grave’s disease an antibody mimics the effects of _______ and causes increased levels of

T3 and T4, goiter, and exophthalmos in many cases.

87. Autoimmune thyroidis: The most common cause of acquired ______________ is Hashimoto’s

disease. Goitre is sometimes present.

88. Goitre is an ________________ of the thyroid gland without signs of hyperthyroidism. It is

caused by a relative lack of T3 and T4 and the low levels stimulate the secretion of TSH

resulting in an enlargement (hyperplasia) of the thyroid gland. Persistant __________

deficiency is the main cause.

89. Tetany is caused by _____________________. Low blood calcium levels increase excitability

of peripheral nerves.


90. Cushing’s syndrome is the result of the hypersecretion of ________________________.

91. ______________ disease is due to hyposecretion of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid

hormones.

92. Insulin resistance is the result of changes in the cell membranes that ____________ the

insulin-assisted movement of glucose into the cells.

93. Diabetic people are highly susceptible to infection, especially by _______________ and

__________, possibly because phagocyte activity is depressed by insufficient

___________________ glucose.

Chapter 10

94. Inflammation of the upper respiratory tract can be caused by inhaling irritants but is commonly

due to infection. Such infections are usually caused by ___________ that lower the resistance

of the respiratory tract to other infections. This allows ______________ to invade the tissues.

95. Pulmonary emphysema usually develops as a result of _______________ inflammatory

conditions or irritation of the airways. On microscopic examination, the lung tissue is full of

large, irregular cavities created by the _______________ of alveolar walls.

96. Asthma is a common _______________ disease of the airways associated with episodes of

_______________ over-reactivity of the airway smooth muscle.

Note: In Get Healthy Now, Professor Null explains a milk allergy's changing symptoms: "Even if the symptoms are not the same, the underlying allergy may be. A child who has suffered milk-associated asthma, for instance, may have severe acne as a teenager. The milk allergy is still there, but its symptoms have moved to a different organ system, often misleading the patient and physician into thinking that the original allergy has been outgrown." According to Alternative Medicine, up to half of all infants may be sensitive to cows' milk. As a result, symptoms of an underlying milk allergy may start as early as infancy, only manifested as eczema, a symptom that may remain later on in childhood and adulthood. Furthermore, in addition to asthma and eczema, an underlying milk allergy may manifest as bronchitis, sinusitis, autoimmune disorders, frequent colds and ear infections and even behavioral problems.

97. Cystic fibrosis is one of the most common ___________ diseases affecting 1 in 2500 babies.

It is estimated that almost 5% of people carry the abnormal recessive gene which must be

present in both parents to cause the disease.


Note: Cystic fibrosis (CF) affects the lungs, pancreas, liver, and intestine. Abnormal transport of chloride and sodium across an epithelium leads to thick, viscous secretions. Natural support includes sea salt, food-based minerals, vitamin E, fish oil, digestive enzymes, systemic enzymes, and herbs and homeopathics for lymphatic congestion.

Chapter 11

98. There is a main theme within the list of functions of digestible carbohydrates: _____________

and heat.

99. Amino acids (proteins broken down) are used for:

• Growth and ____________ of body cells and tissues.

• Synthesis of ____________, plasma proteins, antibodies and some hormones.

• Provision of ____________ when there is not enough carbohydrate in the diet and _______

stores are depleted.

100. Fats provide the most _______________ source of chemical energy and heat. They transport

and store fat-soluble vitamins _________________. They form the __________ sheaths and

are needed to form steroid hormones.

101. ____________ is needed for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine.

102. Vitamin A: The first sign of deficiency is __________________________.

103. Vitamin D regulates calcium and _________________________ metabolism/absorption.

104. Vitamin E is a group of eight tocopherols. As an antioxidant it protects membrane _________

from being destroyed in oxidative reactions.

105. Vitamin K is synthesized in the __________ intestine by ___________ and significant

amounts are absorbed.

106. Vitamin K is required by the ___________ for the production of prothrombin and factors VII,

IX, and X, all essential for the clotting of blood.


Note: You cannot use other antioxidants to get the same result. There are no replacements for vitamins A, C, D, E and K when it comes to the human body.

107. The Vitamin B complex is a group of water-soluble vitamins that promote activity of

___________ involved in the chemical breakdown (catabolism) of nutrients to release energy.

108. Vitamin B1 is thiamin and it is essential for the complete aerobic release of energy from

_____________________. Deficiency causes beriberi which includes the symptoms of

polyneuritis, causing ___________________ of motor, sensory and some autonomic nerves.

Note: Neuritis is the inflammation of one or more nerves. The characteristic symptoms of neuritis include pain and tenderness; impaired sensation, strength, and reflexes. Your autonomic nervous system is the part of your nervous system that controls involuntary actions, such as the beating of your heart and the widening or narrowing of your blood vessels. When something goes wrong in this system, it can cause serious problems, including: blood pressure problems, heart problems, trouble with breathing and swallowing, and erectile dysfunction in men.

109. B2 (riboflavin) is involved with carbohydrate and protein metabolism, especially in the eyes

and skin. Deficiency leads to _____________ of the skin, commonly around the mouth and

inflammation of the tongue. B3 is niacin which is associated with energy- releasing reactions in

cells.

Note: Niacin (nicotinic acid) has 2 other forms, niacinamide (nicotinamide) and inositol hexanicotinate, which have different effects from niacin. Niacin is used in the body to make various sex and stress-related hormones. Symptoms of mild deficiency include indigestion, fatigue, canker sores, vomiting, and depression. Severe deficiency can cause pellagra which is characterized by cracked, scaly skin, dementia, and diarrhea.

110.B6, pyridoxine, is associated with amino acid ___________________.

Note: Vitamin B6 helps the body make several neurotransmitters. It is needed for normal brain development and function, and helps the body make the hormones serotonin, norepinephrine, and melatonin. Your body needs B6 in order to absorb vitamin B12 and to make red blood cells and cells of the immune system.

111. B12 is essential for _______ synthesis, and deficiency leads to megaloblastic ___________.

It is also required for the formation of maintenance of myelin, the fatty substance that

surrounds and protects some ___________.


112. Deficiency of B12 causes irreversible damage such as _______________ neuropathy and/or

subacute spinal cord degeneration. The presence of intrinsic factor in the ____________ is

essential for vitamin B12 absorption, and deficiency is usually associated with insufficient

intrinsic factor.

Note: The most common cause of vitamin B12 deficiency is inadequate absorption. The most common reasons for inadequate absorption are:

• Overgrowth of bacteria, Candida, or parasites in the small intestine • Malabsorption conditions (inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, etc.) • Surgery that removes the part of the small intestine where vitamin B12 is absorbed • Drugs such as antacids (Tums, Prilosec, Omeprazole, Nexium, Prevacid, etc.) • Metformin (used to reduce blood sugar levels in diabetics) • Decreased stomach acidity (common among older people - over 50)

113. Folic acid (B9, folate) is essential for DNA synthesis, and when lacking, mitosis (cell division)

is impaired. Deficiency at ______________ and during early pregnancy is linked to an

increased incidence of spin bifida.

Note: Folic acid is crucial for brain function and it plays an important role in mental and emotional health. Folic acid also works with vitamin B12 to help make red blood cells and it helps iron work properly in the body. Folic acid, B6, B12 and other nutrients control blood levels of the amino acid homocysteine (homocysteine is an amino acid and breakdown product of protein metabolism).

114. Pantothenic acid (B5) is associated with amino acid metabolism. No deficiency diseases have been _______________.

Note: “Pantothenic acid is a component of coenzyme A (CoA), an essential coenzyme in a variety of reactions that sustain life… The synthesis of essential fats, cholesterol, and steroid hormones requires CoA, as does the synthesis of the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, and the hormone, melatonin. Heme, a component of hemoglobin, requires a CoA-containing compound for its synthesis. Metabolism of a number of drugs and toxins by the liver requires CoA .” - Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Information Center, 2016, lpi.oregonstate.edu

115. Biotin (B7) is synthesized by microbes in the intestine and it is associated with the

metabolism of carbohydrates, ___________, and some amino acids.

Note: Biotin Deficiency: “Symptoms include hair loss, dry scaly skin, cracking in the corners of the mouth, swollen and painful tongue that is magenta in color, dry eyes, loss of appetite, fatigue, insomnia, and depression. People who have been on parenteral nutrition -- nutrition given through an IV -- for a long period of time, those taking antiseizure medication or antibiotics long-term, and people with conditions like Crohn’s disease that make it hard to absorb nutrients are more likely to be deficient in biotin.” - University of Maryland Medical Center, 2016


116. Vitamin C is easily ______________ by heat, aging, chopping, salting, and drying. The daily

requirement (to not clinically have scurvy!) is 40 mg and after (2-4*) or (4-6*) months deficiency

becomes ______________. (*Depends on book edtion)

117. Calcium is involved in blood clotting, and __________ and muscle function.

118. Phosphates are an essential part of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), cell membranes, and

___________ storage molecules inside cells (such as adenosine triphosphate ATP).

119. Sodium is the most common extracellular cation and is involved in muscle contraction,

transmission of __________ impulses along axons and maintenance of water and electrolyte

balance.

120. Potassium is the most common intracellular cation and is involved in many chemical

activities inside cells including muscle _________________, transmission of nerve impulses

and maintenance of water and electrolyte balance.

121. Iron is necessary for the oxidation of carbohydrates and the synthesis of some hormones and

neurotransmitters. Iron deficiency is a relatively ____________ condition, and causes anemia if

iron stores become sufficiently depleted (deficiency exists before anemia; that is, low iron is

problematic before anemia is diagnosed).

122. Iodine is found in seafoods and in vegetables grown in soil rich in iodine. In parts of the world

where iodine is deficient in soil, very small quantities are added to table salt to prevent

___________ (goiter is an advanced symptom of iodine deficiency).

Chapter 12

123. The activities in the digestive system can be grouped under five main headings:

• _____________________

• _____________________

• _____________________

• _____________________

• _____________________


124. The __________________ canal is also known as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

125. The alimentary canal and its related accessory organs are supplied by nerves from both

divisions of the ___________________ nervous system (parasympathetic and sympathetic).

126. One pair of cranial nerves (vagus nerves) supplies most of the alimentary canal and the

accessory organs. Sacral nerves supply the most distal part of the tract. The effects of

parasympathetic stimulation increases muscular activity, especially ___________________.

127. Saliva contains the enzyme ____________ that begins the breakdown of complex sugars,

including starches, reducing them to the disaccharide maltose.

128. Hydrochloric acid _________ ingested microbes and provides the acid environment

_________ for effective digestion of pepsins.

129. Pepsinogens are activated to pepsins by hydrochloric acid and by pepsins already present in

the stomach. These enzymes begin the digestion of _____________, breaking them into

smaller molecules.

130. Intrinsic factor (a protein) is necessary for the absorption of vitamin ________ from the ileum.

131. Functions in the stomach include the preparation of iron for absorption further along the tract

- the acid environment of the stomach solubilizes iron salts, which is _______________ before

iron can be absorbed.

132. The small intestine is continuous with the stomach at the _________ sphincter. The small

intestine is a little over 5 meters (almost 16 1/2 feet!) long and leads into the large intestine at

the ileocecal valve.

133. Pancreatic juice functions: Trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen are inactive enzyme

precursors activated by enterokinase, an enzyme in the ________________, which converts

them into the active proteolytic enzymes (breaks down protein) trypsin and chymotrypsin.

Lipase converts fats to fatty acids and glycerol. To aid the action of lipase, _______________

emulsify fats (reduce the size of globules, increasing their surface area).

134. Bile is secreted by the __________. Bile salts make cholesterol and fatty acids soluble,

enabling both these and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) to be readily absorbed.


135. Digestion of carbohydrate, protein and fat is completed by ___________________ between

these nutrients and the microvilli and within the enterocytes.

136. The large intestine is _____________ colonized by certain types of bacteria, which

synthesize vitamin K and folic acid. They include Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes,

Streptococcus faecalis, and Clostridium perfringens. These microbes are commensals, i.e.

normally harmless, in humans. However, they may become pathogenic if transferred to another

part of the body.

Note: The average human digestive tract contains as many as 1,000 species of microorganisms. Most of the organisms are either harmless or helpful under normal, balanced circumstances. If something upsets the balance of these organisms in your digestive tract harmless bacteria can grow out of control and lead to illness. When you take an antibiotic to treat an infection, the drug destroys either some or most of the normal, helpful bacteria. Without enough normal and helpful bacteria, C. difficile can quickly grow out of control. The antibiotics that most often lead to C. difficile infections include fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins, clindamycin and penicillins. Once established, C. difficile produces toxins that attack the lining of the intestine.

137. The function of the ______________ pancreas is to produce pancreatic juice containing

enzymes that digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

138. Distributed throughout the pancreas gland are groups of specialized cells called the

pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans). The islets have no ducts so the ________________

diffuse directly into the blood.

139. The endocrine pancreas secretes the hormones ___________ and glucagon, which are

principally concerned with control of blood glucose levels.

140. The liver contains hepatic macrophages (Kupffer cells) whose function is to ingest and

destroy worn out ____________ cells and any foreign particles present in the blood flowing

through the liver.

141. Glucose is converted to ______________ for storage within the liver.

142. The liver removes the nitrogenous portion from the amino acids not required for the formation

of new protein; _________ is formed from this nitrogenous portion which is excreted in urine.

Nucleic acids (genetic material) are broken down to form uric acid which is also excreted in the

urine.


143. The liver inactivates the hormones insulin, glucagon, cortisol, aldosterone, thyroid, and

__________ hormones.

Note: Dan Lukaczer, ND states “In premenopausal women, the ovaries produce the estrogen estradiol (E2), which converts into estrone (E1), both of which must eventually be broken down and excreted from the body. This breakdown occurs primarily in the liver, and the excreted metabolites flow out in the bile or urine. Estradiol and estrone undergo this breakdown through a process called hydroxylation, an enzymatic activity in which the parent estrogen is transformed by the addition of a hydroxyl (OH) group at specific positions on estrogen's molecular ring. If these estrogens are metabolized into the 2-hydroxylated estrone and estradiol, they lose much of their cell proliferative and estrogenic activity and are termed "good" estrogen metabolites. Studies show that when 2- hydroxylation increases, the body resists cancer, and that when 2-hydroxylation decreases, cancer risk increases”.

Douglas C. Hall, M.D., in the article Vitamin E and Magnesium?, states that “Low serum vitamin E is associated with elevated estrogen levels, and may negatively affect estrogen detoxification. Women with PMS have experienced improvements of their symptoms when given supplemental vitamin E. Magnesium promotes estrogen detoxification by promoting methylation and glucuronidation, key estrogen detoxification pathways. Ovarian hormones influence magnesium levels, triggering decreases at certain times during the menstrual cycle as well as altering the calcium to magnesium ratio. These cyclical changes can produce many of the well-known symptoms of PMS in women who are deficient in magnesium and/or calcium”.

Note: Indole-3-Carbinol (I3C) is a naturally occurring compound found in cruciferous vegetables. I3C promotes the breakdown of estrogen, protects estrogen-sensitive tissues, and may be beneficial to those with health issues related to excessive estrogen.

B Vitamins: Folate and vitamins B6 and B12 function as important cofactors for enzymes involved in estrogen detoxification; thus, decreased levels of B vitamins can lead to increased levels of circulating estrogens.

144. The liver stores the substances: glycogen, fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, K, iron, ___________,

and B12 (not a complete list).

145. Metabolism constitutes all the chemical reactions that occur in the body, using

_____________ to provide energy by chemical oxidation of nutrients, making new or

replacement body substances.

146. Catabolism is the process of breaking down large molecules into smaller ones releasing

chemical _____________ , which is stored as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and heat.

147. Anabolism is the building up, or ______________, of larger molecules from smaller ones and

requires a source of energy, usually ATP.


148. Metabolic pathways are switched on and off by _______________, providing control of

metabolism and meeting individual requirements.

149. Carbohydrate in excess of that required to maintain the blood glucose level and glycogen

stores in the tissues is converted to ________ and stored in the fat depots.

150. About 20 amino acids have been named and 9 of these are described as essential because

they _________ be synthesized in the body.

151. Proteins, in the form of amino acids, are potential fuel molecules that are used by the body

____________ other energy sources are low, e.g. starvation. To supply the amino acids for use

as fuel, in extreme situations, the body breaks down _____________, its main protein source.

152. Fats that have been digested and absorbed as fatty acids and glycerol into the lacteals are

transported via the _________________ and the thoracic duct to the bloodstream and so, by a

circuitous route, to the liver (a lacteal is a lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary fats in the villi

of the small intestine).

153. When body tissues are deprived of glucose, as occurs in prolonged fasting, starvation,

energy-restricted diets or during ________________ exercise, the body uses alternative

energy sources, mainly fat stores.

154. Chronic gingivitis is a _____________ inflammatory condition that occurs in response to

accumulation of bacterial plaque around the teeth. It causes bleeding gums and gradually

destroys the tissues that support the teeth, which eventually loosen and may fall out.

Note: Our teeth and gums are a reflection of our health and they require the same minerals and vitamins as our bones. Bleeding gums, excess tartar, loose teeth, receding gums, infections, dying pulp, and cavities are primarily the result of inadequate nutrients. Periodontal disease symptoms include swollen gums, bright red or purplish gums, bleeding gums, gums that feel tender when touched, gums that pull away from your teeth (recede), new spaces developing between your teeth, pus between your teeth and gums, loose teeth, a change in the way your teeth fit together when you bite. These symptoms are also common in the stages of scurvy/deficiency of vitamin C.

155.The microbe Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) can survive in the gastric mucosa (the stomach

and duodenum) and is commonly associated with gastric conditions, especially chronic

gastritis and peptic _________* (11th ed.) disease. However, H.Pylori is present in many

people who show ___________* (12th ed.) of peptic ulcer disease. *Answer depending on

book edition you are using.


156. Crohn’s disease is a chronic inflammatory condition of the alimentary tract. There is chronic

patchy inflammation with ___________ of the full thickness of the intestinal wall, causing

partial obstruction of the lumen, sometimes described as skip lesions.

Note: The question we need to ask is, why are the bowels inflamed, irritable? Common causes include wheat, corn, milk, soy, Candida, fungus/mold, parasites, imbalance between harmful and beneficial bacteria, pesticides/chemicals, sugar, and lack of nutrients.

157. Malabsorption of nutrients and water from the intestines is not a disease in itself, but the

result of _____________ changes in one or more of the following: villi in the small intestine,

digestion of food (enzymes), absorption or transport of nutrients from the small intestine

(seems like a repeat since the villi are responsible for absorption and transport).

158. Hepatitis A was previously known as “infectious hepatitis” and affects mainly children, causing

a mild illness. Antibodies develop and confer ______________ immunity after recovery.

159. Hepatitis B is a virus that enters the blood and is spread by contaminated blood and blood

products. The virus is also spread by body ___________ and from infected mother to fetus.

MayoClinic 2016 - “Most people infected with hepatitis B as adults recover fully, even if their signs and symptoms are severe.”

National Vaccine Information Center - “As of March 2012, there was a total of 66,654 hepatitis B vaccine- related adverse events reported to the federal Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS), including reports of headache, irritability, extreme fatigue, brain inflammation, convulsions, rheumatoid arthritis, optic neuritis, multiple sclerosis, lupus, Guillain Barre Syndrome (GBS) and neuropathy.”

Note: Most reactions never get reported to the VAERS because the doctors and/or parents don’t understand that the vaccine could have been the issue. Hep B is given to babies immediately after birth so who can say if they were “born that way” or if it was the HepB shot. The infant also has no ability to communicate headaches or joint aches and extreme fatigue.

160. Hepatitis C is prevalent in IV drug users and the infection is very frequently asymptomatic as

a ____________ state occurs.

161. Many drugs undergo chemical _____________ in the liver before excretion in bile or by other

organs. They may damage the liver cells in their original form or while in various intermediate

stages.


Note: Many drug metabolites are toxic and are detoxified by phase 2 conjugation joining with glutathione. However, if there is not enough glutathione to detoxify the metabolites, they accumulate causing toxicity and can result in hepatitis.

162. Gallstone predisposing factors include: changes in the composition of bile that

___________________________ of its constituents.

Note: Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is considered to be the main cholesterol solubilizer in bile. It is needed to convert cholesterol to bile acids. Phosphatidylcholine is a fat molecule that contains the essential nutrient choline. Foods that contain choline and/or phosphatidylcholine are eggs, meat, fish, broccoli, almonds, walnuts, peanuts, cashews, Brussels sprouts, avocados, kidney beans and navy beans.

Chapter 13

163. The urinary system plays a vital part in maintaining homeostasis of water and

______________ concentrations within the body.

164. The main functions of the kidneys are: formation and secretion of urine, production and

secretion of erythropoietin (the _________ that stimulates formation of red blood cells), and the

production and secretion of renin, an important __________ in the control of blood pressure.

165. Hormone influence on kidney function: parathyroid hormone and calcitonin hormone from the

thyroid gland regulate the reabsorption of calcium and _________________ from the distal

collecting tubules.

166. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland…

increasing water __________________.

167. Aldosterone, secreted by the adrenal cortex, increases the reabsorption of sodium and water,

and the ______________ of potassium.

Notes: High aldosterone levels can lead to low potassium levels. Low potassium levels often cause no symptoms but may lead to weakness, tingling, muscle spasms and cramps. High levels or chronic stress is a common cause of over active adrenal glands which increases aldosterone into the blood. Aldosterone also causes the excretion of magnesium into the urine.


168. Diabetic nephropathy is the result of diabetes causing ______________ to large and small

blood vessels throughout the body. Nephropathy = kidney disease.

169. Renal calculi (kidney stones) form in the kidneys and bladder when urinary constituents

normally in solution are ___________________. The solutes involved are usually oxalate and

phosphate salts. (orecipitate = a substance deposited in solid form from a solution)

Note: The following is from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). What is not listed is phosphoric acid (soda/pop) which depletes calcium and other minerals.

Calcium stones are caused by the combination of high urine calcium and alkaline urine, meaning the urine has a high pH. Uric acid stones form when the urine is persistently acidic. A diet rich in purines, substances found in animal protein, may increase uric acid in urine.

Dietary Changes to Help Prevent Kidney Stones Drinking enough fluids each day is the best way to help prevent most types of kidney stones. Health care providers recommend that a person drink 2 to 3 liters of fluid a day. People with cystine stones may need to drink even more. Though water is best, other fluids may also help prevent kidney stones, such as citrus drinks. Recommendations based on the specific type of kidney stone include the following:

• Calcium Oxalate or Calcium Phosphate Stones • reducing sodium • reducing animal protein, such as meat, eggs, and fish • getting enough calcium from food or taking calcium supplements with food

• Uric Acid Stones • reducing/limiting animal protein

Chapter 14

170. The skin is the largest ____________ in the body and there are two main layers the

epidermis and the dermis.

171. The dermis is formed from connective tissue and the matrix contains ______________ fibers

interlaced with elastic fibers.

172. The structures in the dermis are blood and lymph vessels, ____________ (somatic) nerve

endings, sweat glands and ducts, hairs, arrector pili muscles and sebaceous glands.


173. The skin acts as a barrier against invasion by __________________, chemicals, physical

agents, and dehydration. The formation of vitamin D starts with 7- dehydrocholesterol, a lipid-

based substance in the skin. Ultraviolet rays in sunlight convert it to vitamin D.

Note: “Vitamin D itself is biologically inactive, and it must be metabolized to its biologically active forms. After it is consumed in the diet or synthesized in the epidermis of skin, vitamin D enters the circulation and is transported to the liver. In the LIVER, vitamin D is hydroxylated to form 25-hydroxyvitamin D (calcidiol; 25- hydroxyvitamin D), the major circulating form of vitamin D. In the KIDNEY, the 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-1- hydroxylase enzyme catalyzes a second hydroxylation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D, resulting in the formation of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol, 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D), the most potent form of vitamin D. Most of the physiological effects of vitamin D in the body are related to the activity of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D.” - Linus Pauling Institute 2016

174. The human papilloma virus (HPV) causes _________ or veruccas that are spread by direct

contact.

175. Herpes viruses include herpes ________ virus (chickenpox and shingles), herpes simplex 1

(cold sores), herpes simplex 2 (genital herpes). Genital herpes cause genital warts that are

spread by direct contact during sexual intercourse. Impetigo is a highly infectious condition

commonly caused by Staphylococcus aureus.

176.Fungal infections of the skin include ________________ and tinea pedis (athlete’s foot).

Note: Tinea is a type of fungal infection of the hair, skin, or nails. Tinea is often called ringworm because it may look like tiny worms are under the skin (they're not!). Because the fungi that cause tinea (ringworm) live on different parts of the body, they are named for the part of the body they infect.

177. Dermatitis (eczema): Children, who may also suffer from hay fever or __________ are often

affected.

Note: http://nationaleczema.org/eczema/causes-and-triggers-of-eczema is a website with many clues but most doctors and dermatologists ignore the role antibiotics and nutrition play in eczema. They are unable to see that the skin is a reflection of what is going on inside the body.

“Sulfur baths, and other forms of sulfur applied to the skin, seem to help treat psoriasis, eczema, dandruff, folliculitis (infected hair follicles), warts, and pityriasis versicolor, a long-lasting skin disorder characterized by patches of skin that are a different color from the usual skin tone.” - University of Maryland Medical Center 2016


Chapter 15

Resistance and Immunity: This is the amazing workings of the body. The body heals itself if it has the raw materials available and it is not continuously poisoned with the chemicals added to our food, water, air, and given to us as prescription drugs.

178. Acute inflammation (short duration) has aspects that are hugely ______________, promoting

removal of the harmful agent and setting the scene for healing to follow.

179. Increased tissue fluid formation: Most of the excess tissue fluid drains away in the

______________ vessels, and takes damaged tissue, dead and dying cells and toxins with it.

The plasma proteins that escape into the tissues include _________________, which combat

infection, and fibrinogen, a clotting protein.

180. Phagocyte activity is promoted by the _____________ temperatures (local and systemic)

associated with inflammation. Note: A phagocyte is a type of immune cell within the body

capable of engulfing and absorbing bacteria and other small cells and particles.

181. The increased temperature of inflamed tissues has the twin benefits of inhibiting the growth

and division of ______________, whilst promoting the activity of phagocytes. Note: Using

drugs like Tylenol to lower a fever interferes with the body’s ability to fight infection.

182. A population of lymphocytes, called ____________________________(NK) cells, constantly

patrol the body searching for abnormal cells. Cells that have been infected with a virus, or

____________ cells that might become malignant, frequently display unusual markers on their

cell membranes, which are recognized by NK cells.

Note: T-cell is also called T-lymphocyte, B-cell is also called B-lymphocyte

183. Lymphocytes make up 20-30% of circulating white blood cells but at any one time most of

them are found in lymphatic and other tissues rather than in the bloodstream. T-cells and B-

cells are responsible for immunity (specific defense) and are produced in the

____________________.

184. T-lymphocytes (T-cells) are processed by (matured in) the __________ gland. It is important

to recognize that a mature T-lymphocyte has been programmed to recognize only one type of

antigen. T-lymphocytes provide cell-mediated immunity.


Note: An antigen is any substance that causes your immune system to specifically produce antibodies or T-cells. An antigen may be a foreign substance from the environment, such as chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or pollen. An antigen may also be formed inside the body, as with bacterial toxins or tissue cells. The antibody or T-cell recognizes a small, unique part of the foreign target and the piece is called an antigen.

• B-lymphocytes mature in bone marrow and make antibodies to help fight infection. • T-lymphocytes mature in the thymus and help B-lymphocytes make the antibodies that help

fight infection. • Natural killer cells attack cancer cells,viruses and cells showing stress from bacteria and

toxins.

185. B-lymphocytes are both produced and processed in the bone marrow. They produce

________________ (immunoglobulins), which are proteins designed to bind to, and destroy,

an antigen. B-lymphocytes provide antibody-mediated immunity.

186. Suppressor T-cell act as “brakes”, turning off activated T and B-lymphocytes. This limits the

_______________ and potentially damaging effects of the immune response.

187. Memory B-cells: The fact that the body does not normally develop immunity to its own cells is

due to the fine balance that exists between the immune reaction and its suppression.

Autoimmune diseases are due to _______________ of this balance.

Note: “The potential association between vaccination and autoimmune diseases has been largely questioned in the past few years, but this assumption has mostly been based on case reports. The available evidence derived from several negative epidemiological studies is reassuring and at least indicates that vaccines are not a major cause of autoimmune diseases. However, there are still uncertainties as to whether a susceptible subpopulation may be at a higher risk of developing an autoimmune disease without causing an overall increase in the disease incidence. Based on selected examples, this review highlights the difficulties in assessing this issue. We suggest that a potential link between vaccines and autoimmune diseases cannot be definitely ruled out and should be carefully explored during the development of new candidate vaccines.” - Eur J Dermatol. 2004 Mar-Apr;14(2):86-90.Autoimmune diseases and vaccinations. Vial T1, Descotes J., http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15196997

Overall increase? There are NO lifelong studies comparing the vaccinated to the unvaccinated! Comparing vaccinated to vaccinated people and saying that vaccinations do not increase the cases that would occur anyway is a guessing game at best. At least 80 human diseases are caused by an autoimmune response. New diseases are being added to the list frequently.

Note: “Autoimmunity occurs when the immune system recognizes and attacks host tissue. In addition to genetic factors, environmental triggers (in particular viruses, bacteria and other infectious pathogens) are thought to play a major role in the development of autoimmune diseases.” - Clin Exp Immunol. 2009 Jan; 155(1): 1–15. The role of infections in autoimmune disease, A M Ercolini and S D Miller


Chapter 16

188. Bone cells that are responsible for bone formation are called _________________, they

later mature into osteocytes. Osteoblast cells secrete both the organic and inorganic

components of bone. Osteoclast are involved in resorption of bone to maintain the optimum

shape.

Note: Bone development occurs in three general phases that coincide with age: growth, modeling or consolidation, and remodeling. The remodeling phase predominates during adulthood, with bone resorption and formation activities constantly occurring in linked succession (resorption refers to the breakdown of bone by osteoclasts, resulting in the release of calcium and phosphate (bone mineral) into the blood).

Note: The process of bone formation requires an adequate and constant supply of nutrients. Nutrients that are known to directly and indirectly effect bone structure are: Vitamins A, C, D, K, B6, B12, folic acid, and the minerals phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium, fluoride (naturally occurring non-toxic fluoride in food), sodium, manganese, copper, boron, iron, and zinc. A daily supply of dietary protein is required for bone maintenance.

Note: “Data indicate that various protein sources may exhibit different effects on bone metabolism. Some, but not all, studies have found that meat as a protein source is associated with higher serum levels of IGF-1, which is in turn associated with increased bone mineralization and fewer fractures. Soy foods have been linked with lower levels of IGF-1.” -(American Society for Clinical Nutrition, 2015)

189. Joints allow ____________ and movement of the skeleton and allow attachment between

bones. There are three types of joints: fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.

190. _____________ joints allow a limited amount of movement and stabilizes the alignment of

the bones.

191. Cartilaginous joints are formed by a pad of fibrocartilage, a tough material that acts as a

___________ absorber.

192. Synovial joints are characterized by the presence of a ___________ or capsule between the

articulating bones.

193. Synovial fluid nourishes the structures within the joint cavity, contains phagocytes, acts

as a ____________, maintains joint stability, and prevents the ends of bones from being

separated.


Note: Sulfur is a naturally occurring mineral that is found mostly near hot springs and volcanic craters. It has a distinct "rotten egg" smell. As a supplement, sulfur is available in two forms: dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and methylsulfonylmethane (MSM). MSM occurs naturally in some plants, such as horsetail, garlic, onions, Brussels sprouts, asparagus, kale, and wheat germ and protein-rich foods such as eggs, meat, poultry, fish, and legumes. MSM (sulfur) is important in joint health and helps form connective tissue - cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. “It may also slow the nerve impulses that transmit pain signals, reducing pain. DMSO is a chemical byproduct of papermaking and is used as an industrial solvent, as well as for medicine. Unlike MSM, DMSO is absorbed through the skin.” (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2015)

Note: European clinical studies claim that they have superior results because glucosamine sulfate is used as a “drug” or medicine, while in the United States, glucosamine hydrochloride (HCL) is used primarily as an over- the-counter supplement.

Chapter 17

Almost every cell in the body contains the DNA (blue prints) so it may produce a new, exact copy of itself (replication). Some cells constantly divide, like those in your hair and fingernails and bone marrow cells. Other cells go through several rounds of cell division and stop (including specialized cells, like those in your brain, muscle, and heart). Finally, some cells stop dividing, but can be induced to divide to repair injury (liver). In cells that do not constantly divide, the cues for DNA replication/cell division come in the form of chemicals. These chemicals can come from other parts of the body (hormones) or from the environment. - Craig Freudenrich, Ph.D.

“There are two kinds of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is essentially a duplication process: It produces two genetically identical "daughter" cells from a single "parent" cell. You grew from a single embryonic cell to the person you are now through mitosis. Even after you are grown, mitosis replaces cells lost through everyday wear and tear. The constant replenishment of your skin cells, for example, occurs through mitosis. Mitosis takes place in cells in all parts of your body, keeping your tissues and organs in good working order. Meiosis, on the other hand, is quite different. It shuffles the genetic deck, generating daughter cells that are distinct from one another and from the original parent cell. Although virtually all of your cells can undergo mitosis, only a few special cells are capable of meiosis: those that will become eggs in females and sperm in males. So, basically, mitosis is for growth and maintenance, while meiosis is for sexual reproduction. Mitosis creates cells and apoptosis kills them. Although these processes oppose one another, they often work together to keep us healthy. For example, our skin and hair cells are renewed via a continuous cycle of apoptosis and mitosis. So are the cells lining our intestines. Because new cells replace old, worn-out ones, our tissues remain healthy.” (http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/insidethecell/chapter5.html)

194. Mutation means an ________________________ in the normal genetic make-up of a cell (the

blue print has been changed). Some mutations are by chance (mistake in copying or reading the

DNA) and some are caused by external factors such as X-rays, ultraviolet light or exposure to

certain chemicals.


Chapter 18

195. Chlamydia trachomatis causes inflammation of the female cervix. Infection may ascend

through the reproductive tract and cause pelvic inflammatory disease. The same organism

causes trachoma, an eye infection that is the primary cause of ____________ worldwide.

196. ______________ vaginalis is a protozoa that causes acute vulvovaginitis with irritating,

offensive discharge.

197. The yeast Candida albicans is frequently a commensal in the normal vagina and causes no

problems. It is normally prevented from flourishing by vaginal _________, but in certain

circumstances it proliferates, causing candidiasis (thrush). It is actually a yeast- like fungus.

“The cells that normally keep candida in check-the NK and puffer cells, which can kill a yeast cell in 1/100th of a second, are overwhelmed, and the candida then takes over. It proliferates in the gut, penetrates the intestinal wall and is carried by the circulatory system throughout the body. At this point, the candida becomes systemic: it infects organ and muscle tissues and compromises the entire immune system. Once the immune system is compromised, it may no longer be able to sufficiently repel invaders. This can result in allergies to chemicals, pollens and foods. Also, it is believed that toxins from candida cells and protein molecules develop an antigen/antibody reaction, which can cause even more allergic reactions. Interestingly, immune deficiencies can be either caused by candida as well as well as result in candida.” Rick Wagner, C.N., M.S.

“Candida albicans is one of the most important opportunistic pathogenic fungi. Weakening of the defense mechanisms of the host, and the ability of the microorganism to adapt to the environment prevailing in the host tissues, turn the fungus from a rather harmless saprophyte into an aggressive pathogen. The disease, candidiasis, ranges from light superficial infections to deep processes that endanger the life of the patient. In the establishment of the pathogenic process, the cell wall of C. albicans (as in other pathogenic fungi) plays an important role. It is the outer structure that protects the fungus from the host defense mechanisms and initiates the direct contact with the host cells by adhering to their surface. The wall also contains important antigens and other compounds that affect the homeostatic equilibrium of the host in favor of the parasite…” - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16423067

198. Endometriosis is the growth of endometrial tissue ____________ the uterus, usually in the

ovaries, uterine tubes and other pelvic structures. The ectopic tissue, like the uterine

endometrium, responds to fluctuations in sex hormone levels during the menstrual cycle…..

Note: Progestins are a group of drugs (synthetic hormones) that behave like the female hormone progesterone. They have been used since the mid 1950s to treat the symptoms of endometriosis. Synthetic progesterone (progestins) increases breast cancer risk. The use of natural progesterone does not increase breast cancer risk.

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