STRUCTURING AN STRUCTURING AN ARGUMENT ARGUMENT

Lecture AimsLecture Aims

By the end of this lecture you’ll be able to:By the end of this lecture you’ll be able to: Identify the structure of an academic Identify the structure of an academic

argumentargument Identify the issue(s) in a textIdentify the issue(s) in a text Distinguish an Assertion from an Distinguish an Assertion from an

ArgumentArgument Reflect on the importance of Reflect on the importance of

argumentation for your reading and writingargumentation for your reading and writing

Read the following sentences. Which of them Read the following sentences. Which of them are arguments? are arguments?

In 1936, unemployed men marched from In 1936, unemployed men marched from Jarrow to London in protest against the Jarrow to London in protest against the lack of work in the region.lack of work in the region.

All cats are French.All cats are French. ‘‘Bob Dylan is a poet’. ‘No he isn’t, he’s a Bob Dylan is a poet’. ‘No he isn’t, he’s a

performing artist!’performing artist!’ Education is a basic human right, not a Education is a basic human right, not a

luxury for those who can afford it.luxury for those who can afford it.

GOLDEN RULEGOLDEN RULE

Always recognise the difference between Always recognise the difference between making an assertion (ie expressing an making an assertion (ie expressing an opinion) and developing an opinion) and developing an argumentargument in in your own work and in that of others. your own work and in that of others.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF AN ARGUMENTBASIC STRUCTURE OF AN ARGUMENT

ASSERTION (What I believe)ASSERTION (What I believe)

++PREMISE(S) (Why I Believe It)PREMISE(S) (Why I Believe It)

BASIC STRUCTURE OF AN ARGUMENTBASIC STRUCTURE OF AN ARGUMENT

ASSERTION (What I BELIEVE)ASSERTION (What I BELIEVE)(aka: a ‘conclusion’ you’ve come to on an issue; the overall (aka: a ‘conclusion’ you’ve come to on an issue; the overall

claim (= ‘a challengeable assertion’) you are making claim (= ‘a challengeable assertion’) you are making about an issue;about an issue;

your ‘position’; something you want me to believe about an your ‘position’; something you want me to believe about an issue; your ‘message’ about an issue; what are you issue; your ‘message’ about an issue; what are you trying to prove?)trying to prove?)

++Any acceptable /logical /reasonable/accurate/connectedAny acceptable /logical /reasonable/accurate/connected

PREMISE(S) (WHY I BELIEVE IT)PREMISE(S) (WHY I BELIEVE IT)(aka Reasons /further claims)(aka Reasons /further claims)

which lead you to believe what you do.which lead you to believe what you do.

Simply put…Simply put…

Structure of an argument = Structure of an argument =

I want you to believe ‘this’ because I want you to believe ‘this’ because of ‘that’of ‘that’

What is an ‘Issue’What is an ‘Issue’

For me, the main issue is whether we For me, the main issue is whether we should stay or go.should stay or go.

But that’s not the issue here – everybody But that’s not the issue here – everybody agrees with you on that!agrees with you on that!

I take issue with what you are saying as I take issue with what you are saying as you haven’t considered John’s feelings at you haven’t considered John’s feelings at all.all.

What is an issue?What is an issue?

= A topic which is controversial (ie about = A topic which is controversial (ie about which there are many different which there are many different views/disagreement); something (a topic) views/disagreement); something (a topic) up for debate; a theme about which there up for debate; a theme about which there is debate. The basic is debate. The basic questionquestion being being debated in the entire essay/speech/article debated in the entire essay/speech/article etc; the different questions being debated etc; the different questions being debated in an essayin an essay

Spot the issueSpot the issue

The tram system will decrease air pollution The tram system will decrease air pollution and traffic congestion, so we should build and traffic congestion, so we should build a tram system in Nottingham.a tram system in Nottingham.

Students should briefly revise their notes Students should briefly revise their notes every day as memory works on the basis every day as memory works on the basis of constant repetition.of constant repetition.

Why is all this useful?Why is all this useful?

As you research you look for the issues, As you research you look for the issues, then write about then write about the most important the most important onesones in your work. in your work.

You can You can structure your workstructure your work around the around the important issues you must analyse to important issues you must analyse to answer the topic. answer the topic.

Task: Identifying the IssuesTask: Identifying the Issues

Identify some important issues which Identify some important issues which might be discussed in an essay on the might be discussed in an essay on the following title :following title :

‘‘Critically discuss the assertion that Critically discuss the assertion that coronary heart disease is the fault of the coronary heart disease is the fault of the

patient’.patient’.

What was that about issues and What was that about issues and essay structure?essay structure?

Well. Consider how this Psychology Essay Well. Consider how this Psychology Essay is structured around the important issues it is structured around the important issues it has identified from reading the literature.has identified from reading the literature.

A relationship exists between BLOOD CHOLESTEROL and CHD. The Multiple Risk Factor Invention Trial (MRFIT) studied 361,662 men. In the follow up study six years later the results revealed 35 per cent of coronary deaths occurred in those with slightly increased levels of cholesterol (Julian & Marley, 1991). The amount of fat in the diet was deemed to have played an important role in determining the risk of CHD (Julian & Marley, 1991). Rose (1992) also points out the mortality rate of individuals from high cholesterol was five times greater in a smoker whose blood pressure was in the top tertile than a non-smoker with blood pressure in the lowest tertile in the MRFIT. Therefore, these interpretations of the results reinforce the importance at looking at the contributory effect of risk factors together rather than in isolation (Rose, 1992). Thus, enabling a clearer picture of how the relationship between factors influence CHD risk. Research also suggests that physical exercise protects against the development of CHD (Julian & Marley, 1991). Moreover, this risk factor in combination with a low-calorie diet will not only help to reduce weight (Stroebe & Stroebe, 1995) but also helps to stop the progression of coronary artery disease in patients with CHD.

As early as the seventies a significant relationship between STRESS and illness existed (Homes & Masuda, 1974). Stress can result in high blood pressure and increased heart rate causing hypertension in later life for some individuals who experience greater reactivity responses to psychological stressors. Carroll (1992) highlights the problem of hypertension in the Western world, approximately 15 per cent of the population experience high blood pressure that is also linked to CHD. In a study by Everson et al (1997) they reported that the work environment is probably an important source of stress for most adults and that this indicated that stressful jobs have a role in illness and death caused by cardiovascular disease. They found that stress induced high blood pressure reactivity in men who reported high job demands. These men also experienced the greater astherosclerotic progression, thus showing a strong association between the two risk factors. Reducing the risk of CHD due to work stress relies upon how much control the individual has over their work environment. Bosma et al (1997) carried out a study and concluded that low control in the workplace is associated with increased CHD among employed men and women. Increasing the variety of work tasks and giving the employee more say in the decision-making of the business may reduce the risk of CHD.

These behavioural risk factors suggest that the individual is able to exert a certain amount of control over whether they adopt a healthy or unhealthy lifestyle. The evidence also suggests that ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE plays a role in lifestyles. Consequential effects of leading an unhealthy lifestyle not only lead to a possible risk of CHD through exposure but other psychological problems associated with some of these behavioural risks may also result. For example addiction may be caused by smoking which then acts as a reinforcer making it difficult for the individual to stop and adopt a healthier lifestyle (Carlson, 1995). However, there are still three other important risk factors to be considered in the aetiology of CHD. These include personality types, socio-economic factors and family pathology.

Spot the Assertion (aka Conclusion/Central Spot the Assertion (aka Conclusion/Central Claim/Thesis etc etc)Claim/Thesis etc etc)

The tram system will decrease air pollution The tram system will decrease air pollution and traffic congestion, so we should build and traffic congestion, so we should build a tram system in Nottingham.a tram system in Nottingham.

Students will become more effective Students will become more effective learners if they briefly revise their notes learners if they briefly revise their notes every day. This is because memory works every day. This is because memory works on the basis of constant repetition.on the basis of constant repetition.

GOLDEN RULEGOLDEN RULE

WHEN THEY READ YOUR WORK, WHEN THEY READ YOUR WORK, YOUR READERS/EXAMINERS WILL BE YOUR READERS/EXAMINERS WILL BE LOOKING FOR YOUR ASSERTIONS – LOOKING FOR YOUR ASSERTIONS – SO EMPHASISE THEM!SO EMPHASISE THEM!

HOW TO EMPHASISE YOUR HOW TO EMPHASISE YOUR ASSERTION(S)ASSERTION(S)

Use words/phrases which signal that an Use words/phrases which signal that an assertion is coming up (such assertion is coming up (such words/phrases are called ‘signposts’). words/phrases are called ‘signposts’). What is the signpost here?What is the signpost here?

The tram system will decrease air pollution The tram system will decrease air pollution and traffic congestion, so we should build and traffic congestion, so we should build a tram system in Nottingham.a tram system in Nottingham.

GO ON, GO ON, EMPHASISEEMPHASISE YOUR YOUR ASSERTION(S)!ASSERTION(S)!

So…So… Thus Thus Consequently,…Consequently,… HenceHence Arguably,…Arguably,… The essential point, however, is…The essential point, however, is… It follows that…It follows that… The foregoing indicates/suggests thatThe foregoing indicates/suggests that It would, therefore, be reasonable to argue that…It would, therefore, be reasonable to argue that… The evidence suggests, overwhelmingly, that…The evidence suggests, overwhelmingly, that…

Warning: When is an Assertion a Dull Assertion?Warning: When is an Assertion a Dull Assertion?

Essay title: ‘Discuss the variety of Essay title: ‘Discuss the variety of Herbert’s poetic techniques’.Herbert’s poetic techniques’.

1.1. An equally common feature of Herbert’s An equally common feature of Herbert’s style consists of its imagery. style consists of its imagery.

2.2. Herbert’s imagery humanises God. Herbert’s imagery humanises God.

SPOT THE PREMISE(S)SPOT THE PREMISE(S)

The tram system will decrease air pollution The tram system will decrease air pollution and traffic congestion, so we should build and traffic congestion, so we should build a tram system in Nottingham.a tram system in Nottingham.

Students will become more effective Students will become more effective learners if they briefly revise their notes learners if they briefly revise their notes every day. This is because memory works every day. This is because memory works on the basis of constant repetition.on the basis of constant repetition.

Final Task: Read this (edited) extract from a Final Task: Read this (edited) extract from a student essay. Does it constitute an argument? student essay. Does it constitute an argument?

Has s/he ‘clinched’ her/his argument for you?Has s/he ‘clinched’ her/his argument for you?

Each individual from different socio-Each individual from different socio-ideological groups writes with the ideological groups writes with the knowledge that her/his viewpoints will be knowledge that her/his viewpoints will be expressed within their writing. Each expressed within their writing. Each individual adds their ownvoice to their individual adds their ownvoice to their work and so it can be instantly recognised work and so it can be instantly recognised as theirs. For example, a miner would use as theirs. For example, a miner would use colloquial language and a lawyer may use colloquial language and a lawyer may use standard English.standard English.

How can I use all of this to improve my essays?How can I use all of this to improve my essays?

Ask somebody:Ask somebody: What is your general response to the title?What is your general response to the title? What issues have I identified to advance What issues have I identified to advance

my argument?my argument? What do I believe about each issue?What do I believe about each issue? Why do you think I have reached my Why do you think I have reached my

conclusions?conclusions? Have I persuaded you that my approach is Have I persuaded you that my approach is

reasonable?reasonable?

Further ReadingFurther Reading Further ReadingFurther Reading Fairbairn, G. J. and Winch C. (1991) Fairbairn, G. J. and Winch C. (1991) Reading, writing Reading, writing

and reasoning : a guide for students,and reasoning : a guide for students, Buckingham,:Open Buckingham,:Open University PressUniversity Press

http://www.staffs.ac.uk/schools/business/bsadmin/staff/shttp://www.staffs.ac.uk/schools/business/bsadmin/staff/s3/webarg.htm3/webarg.htm

http://http://hospiweb.qmuc.ac.uk/imres/report/argument.htmhospiweb.qmuc.ac.uk/imres/report/argument.htm http://www.amw.editing.care4free.net/faw/35.html#wandhttp://www.amw.editing.care4free.net/faw/35.html#wand

ss http://http://

www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/Thesis_or_Purpose.htmwww.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/Thesis_or_Purpose.htmll

Look at the section in the following site on ‘Composition Look at the section in the following site on ‘Composition and Argumentation’: and Argumentation’: http://http://www.swan.ac.uk/ebms/marketing/resources.htm#REFEwww.swan.ac.uk/ebms/marketing/resources.htm#REFERENCINGRENCING