Structure and Function of Structure and Function of MacromoleculesMacromolecules

A.A. Macromolecules are polymers built from Macromolecules are polymers built from monomersmonomers

B.B. A A polymerpolymer is a long chained molecule composed is a long chained molecule composed of repeating subunits (monomers)of repeating subunits (monomers)

C.C. Starch Starch is a polymer composed of glucose is a polymer composed of glucose moleculesmolecules

D.D. Proteins Proteins are polymers composed of are polymers composed of amino acidsamino acidsE. E. Larger polymers are formed by the combining of Larger polymers are formed by the combining of

monomers via a process called monomers via a process called dehydrationdehydration or or condensation reactions.condensation reactions.

F.F. Within this process two monomers are joined by Within this process two monomers are joined by the removal of water.the removal of water.

G.G. The formation of starch results from the The formation of starch results from the following: C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12O6----- following: C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12O6----- C12H22O11 + H20C12H22O11 + H20

H.H. HydrolysisHydrolysis occurs when water is added top split occurs when water is added top split large molecules. Which is the reverse of the large molecules. Which is the reverse of the above reaction.above reaction.

Carbohydrates serve as Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building materialfuel and building material

A.A. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include both simple include both simple sugars such as glucose, fructose and sugars such as glucose, fructose and galactose , etc.galactose , etc.They also include polymers such as They also include polymers such as starch made from these and other starch made from these and other subunits. subunits.

B.B. All carbohydrates exist in a 1 All carbohydrates exist in a 1 carbon:2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen ratio or carbon:2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen ratio or CH2O 1:2:1CH2O 1:2:1

C.C. Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are the monomers are the monomers of carbohydrates. Examples include of carbohydrates. Examples include glucose, and ribose (C5 H10 O5)glucose, and ribose (C5 H10 O5)

D.D. Polysaccharides are the polymers of Polysaccharides are the polymers of monosaccharides. monosaccharides. Examples are Examples are starch, cellulose starch, cellulose andand glycogen glycogen

Functions of Carbohydrates

A.A. The two functions of polysaccharides The two functions of polysaccharides and and energy storage and structural energy storage and structural supportsupport..

B.B. Energy Storage Energy Storage Polysaccharides are Polysaccharides are starch and glycogen. starch and glycogen. Starch Starch: storage : storage polysaccharide found in plants (ex. polysaccharide found in plants (ex. Potatoes). Potatoes). Glycogen: Glycogen: storage storage polysaccharide found in animals, polysaccharide found in animals, vertebrate muscle, and liver cells.vertebrate muscle, and liver cells.

C.C. Structural support Polysaccharides Structural support Polysaccharides are are Cellulose Cellulose and and Chitin. Chitin. Cellulose is Cellulose is a major component of plant cell a major component of plant cell walls. Chitin is found in the walls. Chitin is found in the exoskeleton of anthropods, such s exoskeleton of anthropods, such s lobsters and insects and the cell wall lobsters and insects and the cell wall of fungi. It gives bugs their distinct of fungi. It gives bugs their distinct “crunch”“crunch”

Lipids are a Diverse Group Lipids are a Diverse Group of Hydrophobic Moleculesof Hydrophobic Molecules

A.A. LipidsLipids are hydrophobic-meaning that they do not are hydrophobic-meaning that they do not dissolve in water (nonpolar).dissolve in water (nonpolar).

B.B. They are They are not not polymers. They are assembled from polymers. They are assembled from a variety of components. Examples of lipids a variety of components. Examples of lipids include include waxes, oils, fats, and steroids.waxes, oils, fats, and steroids.

C.C. Fats (also called Fats (also called triglycerides) triglycerides) are made up of a are made up of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules.glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules.

D.D. Fatty acids include hydrocarbon chains of Fatty acids include hydrocarbon chains of variable lengths. These chains are nonpolar and variable lengths. These chains are nonpolar and therefore hydrophobic. therefore hydrophobic.

E.E. Saturated fatty acids: Saturated fatty acids: • Have no double bonds between carbon atomsHave no double bonds between carbon atoms• Tend to pack solidly at room temperatureTend to pack solidly at room temperature• Are linked to cardiovascular diseaseAre linked to cardiovascular disease• Are commonly produced in animalsAre commonly produced in animals• Ex- butter and lard Ex- butter and lard

Lipids a Diverse Group of Lipids a Diverse Group of Hydrophobic MoleculesHydrophobic Molecules

A.A. Unsaturated fatty acids:Unsaturated fatty acids:• Have some double bonding between carbon Have some double bonding between carbon

atomsatoms• Tend to be liquid at room temperatureTend to be liquid at room temperature• Are commonly produced by plantsAre commonly produced by plants• Examples are corn and olive oil.Examples are corn and olive oil.B.B. Functions: Energy storage. Fats can store Functions: Energy storage. Fats can store twice twice

as many calories/gram as carbohydrates.as many calories/gram as carbohydrates.C.C. Fats provide a protective coating of vital organs Fats provide a protective coating of vital organs

and insulation. Fat is stored in and insulation. Fat is stored in adipose cellsadipose cellsD.D. Phospholipids make up the cell membrane:Phospholipids make up the cell membrane:• Have a glycerol backbone (head), which is Have a glycerol backbone (head), which is

hydrophilichydrophilic• Have two fatty acid tails, which are nonpolarHave two fatty acid tails, which are nonpolar• Are arranged in a bilayer in forming the cell Are arranged in a bilayer in forming the cell

membrane, with the polar heads pointing membrane, with the polar heads pointing toward the watery cytosol and the nonpolar tails toward the watery cytosol and the nonpolar tails sandwiched in betweensandwiched in between

SterioidsSterioids

A. Steroids are made of four rings that are fused together.

B. Cholesterol is a steroid. It is a common component of cell membranes

C. Estrogen and testosterone are steroid hormones.

D. Proteins are polymers made of amino acid monomers.

E. Amino acids contain a central carbon bonded to a carboxyl group, an amino group, a hydrogen atom and an R group (variable group or side chain)

F. Peptide bonds link amino acids together. These bonds are formed via. dehydration synthesis

G. The function of a protein depend on the order and number of amino acids.

H. There are four levels of protein structure

Protein StructureProtein Structure

A.A. Primary structure Primary structure is the sequence in which is the sequence in which amino acids are joinedamino acids are joined

B.B. Secondary structure Secondary structure refers to one of two three-refers to one of two three-dimensional shapes that are the result of dimensional shapes that are the result of hydrogen bondinghydrogen bonding

• Alpha helix is a coiled shapeAlpha helix is a coiled shape• Beta pleated sheet is an accordion shapeBeta pleated sheet is an accordion shapeC.C. Tertiary structure Tertiary structure results in a complex globular results in a complex globular

shape, due to the interaction between R-groups, shape, due to the interaction between R-groups, such as hydrophobic interactions, van der Waals such as hydrophobic interactions, van der Waals interactions, hydrogen bonds and disulfide interactions, hydrogen bonds and disulfide bridges.bridges.

• Globular proteinsGlobular proteins such as such as enzymes enzymes are held in are held in position by these R-group interactionsposition by these R-group interactions

• Quaternary structure Quaternary structure refers to the association of refers to the association of two or more polypeptide chains into one large two or more polypeptide chains into one large protein. protein. Hemoglobin is a globular protein Hemoglobin is a globular protein with a with a quaternary structure, as it is composed of quaternary structure, as it is composed of four four chains.chains.

Protein Shape and Function

A.A. Protein shape is crucial to its function.Protein shape is crucial to its function.B.B. When a protein does not fold properly its When a protein does not fold properly its

function changes.function changes.C. Chaperonins are protein molecules that assist in

the proper folding of proteins within cells. They provide an isolating environment in which a polypeptide chain may attain full conformation.

D. Denaturation occurs when a protein loses its shape and its ability to function due to heat, a change in pH or other disturbance. What common example of a denatured protein can be a part of your breakfast?

E. DNA is a macromolecule composed of nucleotides

NucleotideNucleotide

Three Parts:Three Parts:1.1.Phosphate GroupPhosphate Group2.2.Five Carbon Sugar Five Carbon Sugar MoleculeMolecule3.3.Nitrogen Containing Nitrogen Containing BaseBase

Nucleotides ContinuedNucleotides Continued• The The 5 carbon sugar in the 5 carbon sugar in the

nucleotide molecule of DNA is nucleotide molecule of DNA is called called deoxyribosedeoxyribose

• Sugar molecules and Sugar molecules and phosphate groups are the same phosphate groups are the same for nucleotide molecules in for nucleotide molecules in DNADNA

• The nitrogen bases may be of 4 The nitrogen bases may be of 4 different kindsdifferent kinds

• 2 Double Ring 2 Double Ring Purine Purine bases: bases: • 2 Single Ring 2 Single Ring Pyrimidine Pyrimidine basesbases

MacromoleculesMacromolecules

1.1. By what process are macromolecules formed?By what process are macromolecules formed?2.2. By what process are they broken down into By what process are they broken down into

monomer subunits?monomer subunits?3.3. What molecule is removed in a condensation What molecule is removed in a condensation

reaction?reaction?4.4. What is the ratio found in carbohydrate molecules?What is the ratio found in carbohydrate molecules?5.5. What are the monomers of large polysaccharide What are the monomers of large polysaccharide

molecules?molecules?6.6. Which storage polysaccharide is found in plants? Which storage polysaccharide is found in plants?

And which one is found in animals?And which one is found in animals?7.7. What are four examples of lipids?What are four examples of lipids?8.8. What are the differences between saturated fatty What are the differences between saturated fatty

acids and unsaturated fatty acids?acids and unsaturated fatty acids?9.9. What are the subunits of proteins?What are the subunits of proteins?10.10. What are the bonds that link amino acids together?What are the bonds that link amino acids together?