STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDELINE FORTSUNAMI EVACUATION SHELTER

November 22, 2010 13:5 WSPC/S1793-4311/238-JET 00086

Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami, Vol. 4, No. 4 (2010) 269–284c© World Scientific Publishing CompanyDOI: 10.1142/S1793431110000868

STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDELINE FORTSUNAMI EVACUATION SHELTER

A. PIMANMAS∗, P. JOYKLAD∗,‡ and P. WARNITCHAI†∗School of Civil Engineering and Technology

Sirindhorn International Institute of TechnologyThammasat University

Pathumthani 12121, Thailand†School of Engineering and Technology

Asian Institute of TechnologyP.P. Box 4 Klong Luang

Pathumthani 12120, Thailand‡[email protected]

Accepted 7 June 2010

The tsunami that hit the Andaman beach of Thailand on 26 December 2004 demon-strated the need for safe evacuation shelter for the public. However, there exists noguideline for designing such a shelter. In response to this need, the Department of PublicWorks and Town & Country Planning (DPT) funded a project to develop the guide-lines for designing tsunami shelters. The results of the project have been published as adesign manual for tsunami resistant shelter. In this paper, the design approaches for suchtsunami shelters are described. The shelters are classified into two categories: (1) shelterin the area where large debris is unlikely and (2) shelter in the area where large debrisis likely. In the former case, a static load of a certain magnitude representing small-to-medium debris is assumed to act at random points on the structure at the inundationdepth. In the latter case, the work-energy principle is adopted to balance kinetic energyof large moving mass with the work done through energy-absorbing devices installedaround the perimeter of the lower floors of the building. In both cases, the structureconsists of a main inner structure and an outer protection structure. The function ofthe main structure is to provide usable spaces for evacuees, whereas the outer protectionstructure protects the inner structure from debris impact. The main structure is designedto be either elastic or with a low acceptable damage level. The structural framing of themain and the protection structures can be concrete or steel structures that are capableof resisting lateral forces. The major difference between the two types of building liein the way the outer structure is connected to the inner one. In the first category, theconnector is rigid so that both the inner and outer structures resist the load together. Inthe second category, energy-absorbing connectors are used to absorb the impact energy.The structure must, therefore, be analyzed using a nonlinear static approach. The designguidelines for both building types are described conceptually in this paper.

Keywords: Evacuation; shelter; tsunami.

Notation

F = Impact force applied at the flow level (kN)

h = Tsunami flow depth (m)

269

http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/S1793431110000868


270 A. Pimanmas, P. Joyklad & P. Warnitchai

W = Weight of debris (kN)

g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/sec2)

t = The impact duration (sec)

v = The velocity of the impact body (m/sec2)

1. Introduction

On the 26 December 2004, South East Asian countries were hit by a tsunamicaused by a 9.3 Richter earthquake off Sumatra in Indonesia. In Thailand, thetsunami killed over 5000 people and more than 2800 are still missing. As perFig. 1, the tsunami also destroyed houses, offices, shops, hospitals, schools, roads,and other infrastructures. The tsunami has prompted several investigations andstudies worldwide, which are aimed at understanding the causes and mechanismsof tsunami and provide appropriate actions for preparation, mitigation, and pre-vention of the next tsunami [Meguro and Takashima, 2005; Trisler et al., 2005;Hettiarachchi and Samarawickrama, 2006]. Some of these studies include, but arenot limited to tsunami early warning systems, land arrangement in shore regions,sea wall construction, as well as tsunami resistant shelter. The construction of asafe shelter to withstand tsunamis will contribute tremendously towards reducingthe loss of lives.

In the past, the structural design of shelter for tsunami has drawn little interestfrom the engineering community because tsunami is a very rare event. Considerable

Fig. 1. Collapse of buildings in tsunami.


Structural Design Guideline for Tsunami Evacuation Shelter 271

efforts have been directed towards the design of shelter structures for extreme windand flood [FEMA361, 2000; FEMA55, 2000; Yazdani et al., 2005; Mohammadiand Heydari, 2008; Coulbourne et al., 2002]. Since the destructive 2004 tsunami,the design and construction of tsunami shelter has gained substantial attentionespecially in countries located close to the sea [Tang et al., 2008; Bird and Dominey-Howes, 2006]. However, research results on designing tsunami-resisting structurehave been so far very limited [Okada et al., 2006; Yeh et al., 2005].

As mentioned above, a tsunami is a rare event with very low probability ofoccurrence. Moreover, tsunami loading can be so large that it is uneconomical andimpractical to design all structures to withstand tsunami. Consequently, a possiblesolution may be to provide the evacuation shelter in the location where evacuees canaccess within the limited time given by the tsunami warning system. The sheltermust have sufficient strength to resist tsunami force of the maximum possible mag-nitude. The design of vertical evacuation shelter has to take into account severalfactors such as geographical condition of area, tsunami evacuation route, popula-tion density, community settlement format, and maximum run-up height recordedin the past tsunami events.

Based on a survey along the coastline of Thailand [Pimanmas and Joyklad,2007], the authors have roughly divided coastal communities into three categories,namely (1) tourism community, (2) local densely populated community, and (3)individual resort community. The settlement pattern has an impact on decidingwhether to construct a new evacuation shelter or to retrofit an existing structurefor tsunami resistance. If the target area has strong existing structures, it may bepossible to retrofit the structures to function as tsunami shelter. However, in thelightly populated areas where there is no strong building, such as an individualresort area, the construction of a simple raised platform as temporary shelter maybe considered (Fig. 2). In the area of dense population where there is no existingstrong building, a new tsunami evacuation shelter building should be constructed.

Fig. 2. Temporary raised platform structures.



Fig. 3. Fishing boat blown inland by tsunami wave at Naam kem village, Pang-Nga, Thailand.

As observed by the authors [Pimanmas and Joyklad, 2007], the collapse of manybuildings was caused by the impact from debris such as logs, cars, ruins, and evenlarge fishing boats, as per Fig. 3. Hence, the design of tsunami shelter must considerthe debris impact force as well as wave pressure. This paper describes the guidelinesfor structural design of tsunami shelter with particular attention to debris impactforce.

2. Design Criteria for Evacuation Shelter

The general guidelines for a tsunami shelter are categorized into two broad areas;functional aspects and structural aspects. These are discussed below.

2.1. Functional aspects

As per Fig. 4, the shelter should be located on the evacuation route in the tsunamihazard area where evacuees can reach the building within a reasonable time givenby the tsunami warning system. The size of the building (floor area and number ofstoreys) may be estimated from the size of community and the required minimumarea per evacuee. For instance, the FEMA55 [2000] requires a minimum area of 2 m2

per evacuee. Taking into account economic factors, the building should be designedto serve the purpose of the community in normal situations without tsunami. Theaccess way to building should be free of any obstructions.

The access ways between floors inside the buildings should consist of gentleramps. Stairs with steep steps should be avoided to prevent stumbling of peopleingressing into the building. Access ramps with a minimum width of 2 m are recom-mended to cater for the elderly, crippled, and children who can only move slowly.

2.2. Building configuration and structural form

As per Fig. 5, irregular building shapes may induce undesirable forces, such as tor-sion in structural elements. Hence, the building configuration should be as simple



Fig. 4. Evacuation route displayed on a tsunami hazard map.

Fig. 5. Building configuration.

as possible. A rectangular layout is generally preferred over L-shape or irregularshape. The lower floors of the building should be free of obstructions to allow freeflow of water. If walls or partitions are constructed, they should be breakable wallsthat are just strong enough to withstand wind pressure or other normal environ-mental loads outside the building. In the event of a tsunami, these walls shouldbreak readily to allow water to flow through. This provision is recommended toensure that high water pressure will not build up on walls that will finally be trans-mitted to structural elements. Figure 6 compares the performance of structureswith breakable and strong walls during a tsunami. As can be seen, when the wall



Fig. 6. Breakable and strong walls.

is breakable, the damage to structure is minimal. On the other hand, in the case ofa strong wall, structural elements were severely damaged as they are subjected toloadings transferred from the walls.

There are a number of structural systems that are suitable for evacuation shelter,such as the moment-resisting frame, the shear wall–frame system, and the bracedframe. A structural reinforced concrete wall can add significant lateral strengthand rigidity to the building. The connection between members should be rigid andcontinuous to provide structural redundancy. Precast systems may be used butcareful design of connections is required.

Cast in-place reinforced concrete slab is preferred over prefabricated slab dueto its inherent monolithic nature that constrains the floor to behave as a rigiddiaphragm transferring lateral forces to all lateral force resisting elements. As perFig. 7, unless properly connected with beams, precast planks should be avoidedbecause uplift pressure can dislodge them.

The foundation of shelter building should be supported on piles that are capableof resisting lateral loads. The design of pile foundation should consider the addi-tional free length of pile created due to soil scouring below the base of footing.As per Fig. 8, soil scouring is an associated hazard to structures during a tsunamievent. The use of spread footing requires attention to be paid to scouring beneath

Fig. 7. Uplifting of Pre-cast Concrete Slabs.



Fig. 8. Scouring of foundation by tsunami run up (Sri-lanka Tsunami).

the footing that may cause instability of foundation. Tie beams should be providedto connect footings together to increase structural integrity.

3. Conceptual Structural Design of Tsunami Shelter

Previous research on tsunami effects on structure and field investigation by theauthors indicated that the main forces that govern the design of tsunami resistantbuilding were the wave forces (including hydrodynamic pressure and breaking waveforce) and loads from floating debris. The possibility of large debris such as fishingboats, yatches, and warships may be high in some areas. For example, at Naam-kem fisherman village in Pang Nga, Thailand, large fishing boats with the grossweight of approximately 800 kN were displaced several kilometers inland by the2004 tsunami, (Fig. 3). The boats destroyed houses and buildings. On the otherhand, in a tourism area such as Pa-tong beach, Phuket, huge debris is unlikely tobe encountered but small-to-medium-sized debris such as logs, cars, and ruins arecommon. Since the nature and severity of debris impact vary from area to area, itis recommended that site-specific study be conducted to examine the likelihood oflarge debris in terms of size and frequency of occurrence.

In this paper, the design method against debris impact is described. The con-ceptual design concept is differentiated into two categories, namely shelter designfor large debris impact and design for small-to-medium-sized debris impact. In bothcases, the structural configuration is fundamentally similar, that is, it consists ofan inner and an outer structure (Fig. 9). The inner structure provides shelter forthe evacuees while the outer structure provides protection for the inner one. Basi-cally, the inner structure is identical in both the cases. But the major difference isthe outer structure and the connection between them, which depends on the size ofdebris. The outer structure is needed only in the lower levels of buildings because itsmain purpose is to protect the inner structure from debris impact. Thus, its heightis determined by the inundation depth. In principle, damages or even collapses are



Perimeter beam(Exterior frame)

Interior frame

Energy-absorbing connectorsRigid connectors

Fig. 9. Schematic structural system for resisting tsunami.

permitted in outer protection structure, but damage to the main inner structureshould be none or kept at acceptable level. In no case is the inner structure allowedto collapse.

The structural form of the inner structure can be of any type that can resistlateral forces. Cast in-place reinforced concrete moment resisting frame is a possiblecandidate. Shear wall may be added if the building requires high lateral strengthand/or stiffness in high run-up area. Protection structure can be constructed fromsteel or concrete. The column shape for both inner and outer structures should becircular to reduce drag force caused by hydrodynamic pressure [FEMA55, 2000].

Connection between the inner and outer structures is provided along the perime-ter beams at each floor level of the structure. As mentioned earlier, the type of con-nection between inner and outer structures depends on the debris size. In the areawith small-to-medium-sized debris, rigid connection via conventional steel or rein-forced concrete beams and rigid floor diaphragm is normally sufficient. When thereis a possibility of large debris impact, the connection should be able to absorbkinetic energy of moving debris. Energy-absorbing devices should be consideredwhenever it is impractical to resist the force through conventional rigid connection.

In the event of large debris impact, rigid connection will impart large forcesto the inner structure, causing structural elements to either yield or damage toabsorb the kinetic energy. Alternatively, if the inner structure is designed to remainundamaged or elastic, the size of the structural elements may need to be excessivelylarge to be able to resist the debris load. Consequently, it is considered impracti-cal to use rigid connection to resist large debris impact. Energy-absorbing devicesare preferred because they allow energy absorption through large deformation.Nowadays, there are plenty of commercial devices that absorb great energy with-out high reactions, such as marine fenders made from synthetic rubber, as shown



Fig. 10. Marine fenders.

(a) Tube and Mamdrel (b) W-frame

(c) Folding tube (d) Flattening tube

Fig. 11. Metallic energy absorbing devices.

in Fig. 10. Other possible solutions include mechanical devices made of metal suchas those illustrated in Fig. 11 [Kelly, 1978].

4. Design of Shelter Without Large Debris Impact

In the area without large debris impact, the major design loads are wave pressure(hydrodynamic and breaking wave forces) as well as impact load from small tomedium debris, such as logs, cars, or damaged members. Conventional structuralform is deemed sufficient to withstand lateral forces, but the outer structure is stillrequired to protect the inner structure. The connection between the inner and outer



Table 1. Impact duration recommended by FEMA55.

Duration (t) of impact (sec)

Type of construction materials Wall Pile

Wood 0.7–1.1 0.5–1.0Steel NA 0.2–0.4Reinforced Concerte 0.2–0.4 0.3–0.6Masonry 0.3–0.6 0.3–0.6

structures should be rigid in order that both structures resist the load together.The energy absorbing devices may not be necessary as long as the debris is notexcessively large. To evaluate the force from debris impact, the following equationbased on momentum conservation may be used:

F =Wv

gt(1)

FEMA55 [2000] recommends t-values as shown in Table 1. The velocity of impactbody is assumed to be equal to the flow velocity given below:

v = k√

gh (2)

k is an empirical constant. FEMA55 [2000] recommends k = 2.0 as the upper boundfor tsunami wave. Based on the study of tsunami flow velocity recorded in Thailand,the above value was found to be too high, thus k = 1.4 has been recommendedin the “Standard for designing tsunami evacuation shelter and evaluating publicbuildings for tsunami resistance in moderate tsunami hazard area” [Department ofPublic Works and Town & Country Planning, 2008]. The k value may vary fromarea to area, thus it should be empirically determined from record data of pasttsunami events or from numerical study. Unless reliable data is obtained, the aboveFEMA55 factor may be used as a conservative estimate.

According to FEMA55 [2000], a design static force of 4.45 kN (1000 lb) is recom-mended for residential buildings. This force is too low and not adequate for shelterdesign. The actual impact force during a tsunami event is normally much larger.For example, assuming truck weight of 210kN (normal Thai Truck) and inunda-tion depth of 6 m, the impact force is calculated by Eq. (1) to be approximately800 kN.

Design procedure for buildings without large debris impact may follow the tradi-tional structural design taking into account lateral static force of debris impact andwave pressure. The purpose of the outer structure is to protect the inner structurefrom being hit by debris. The principle is that the outer frame can be damaged oreven collapsed, but the inner structure cannot. The rigid connection enables bothframes to act together in resisting the load.

To provide effective protection, columns of the outer structure should havelarge size and should be closely spaced. Reinforced concrete shear wall may beadded to increase lateral resistance of the inner structure. For both inner and outerstructures, pile foundations should be used to provide support for lateral forces.



5. Design of Shelter with Large Debris Impact

The previous tsunami demonstrated that the wave could carry large fishing boatsand even warships that demolished complete buildings. Field investigation bythe authors [Pimanmas and Joyklad, 2007] found that the average gross weightof the fishing boats may be as high as 800kN. Assuming the flow depth of 6 m high,the flow velocity is calculated by Eq. (2) to be v = 1.4

√9.81 × 6 = 10.74m/s, and

with Eq. (1), the static force is calculated to be 3200kN. If the recommendationof AASHTO [1991] is adopted, the static force can be as high as 12,000kN. Thisis evidently a huge force, making it impractical to design structural members byconventional procedure.

The alternative approach, based on the work and energy principle, is pro-posed. The key idea is to balance the kinetic energy of moving debris mass withthe potential energy absorbed by connections between inner and outer structures.The kinetic energy (KE) of debris of mass m moving at the flow velocity v isgiven by

KE =12mv2 (3)

The kinetic energy is dissipated or converted into potential energy by the connec-tions, which can be expressed by the integral of force and deformation as

W =∫

f(x)dx (4)

where f(x) is the reactive force and x is deformation. To maintain energy balance,KE must be equal to W (Fig. 12). The desirable characteristics of the energy-absorbing connector are ability to absorb large amount of energy and low reactiveforces.

The force-deformation response of the connector is shown as an example inFig. 13. To obtain this desirable performance, the yield force should be low anddeformation to failure should be high. Marine fenders made of synthetic rubber

Fig. 12. Force-displacement and capacity curve.



Fig. 13. Force-deformation of dissipating device used in design example.

18.00 m.

27.00 m.

Shear walls

Interior column

Perimeter beamEnergy absorbing

connectors

Exterior column

Fig. 14. Structural plan for building resisting large debris impact.

are examples of such connectors. It should be noted that the main inner structureshould possess sufficient lateral resistance to resist the reaction transferred fromthe connector without incurring damage to its structural elements. For this pur-pose, rigid structural walls may be added to enhance lateral strength and rigidity,as illustrated in Fig. 14. If the inner structure is weaker than the connectors, largeinelastic deformation cannot be mobilized in the connectors. The inner structureitself would be loaded beyond its elastic range, causing undesirable damage or evenfailure to the main structure.

To calculate the work done by the connectors, they should be modeled as nonlin-ear elements that link the perimeter beams between the outer and inner structuresat floor levels. The force-deformation response of the nonlinear link can be obtainedfrom manufacturer if a commercial connector such as rubber fender is used, other-wise it can be obtained from the laboratory test if a customized connector is used.

The area under the capacity curve equals the elastic strain energy of the mainstructure and the energy absorbed by the connectors. The design of a shelter starts



with the calculation of kinetic energy (Eq. (3)) for a known debris mass (m) andflow velocity (v). The main inner structure should be designed to remain elasticunder the reactions transmitted from connectors. The sum of energy absorptiondue to connectors plus elastic strain energy of the main structure should be atleast equal to the kinetic energy. For this purpose, the nonlinear static push-overanalysis is recommended to calculate the energy absorption. The area under thecapacity curve represents the total stored energy (W ). The debris impact shouldbe assumed to act at various positions of the building, which, in turn, gives rise todifferent work done W . The structure is safe if the minimum value of W is equalto or greater than the kinetic energy.

It should be cautioned that the perimeter beam should be sufficiently rigidlaterally in order to distribute the impact force to as many connectors as possibleand thereby ensure that as many connectors as possible are absorbing the impactenergy concurrently. If the perimeter beam is not rigid, only few connectors will bemobilized, and the work done will not be sufficient to dissipate all the kinetic energy.This may cause some structural elements of the inner structure to yield or deforminelastically to provide the balance of the remaining kinetic energy. As in the caseof a shelter without large debris impact, the columns of the outer structure shouldbe closely spaced to prevent small-to-medium-sized debris from passing throughand hitting columns of the main inner structure.

As mentioned earlier, the energy-absorbing connectors need to undergo largedeformation to absorb the necessary energy without high reactive forces. Thisimplies that the outer protective structure will have to displace over a large dis-tance to accommodate the deformation of energy-absorbing devices. The foundationshould be designed to allow such movement. Furthermore, the energy-absorbingconnectors should only be mobilized when there is a large impact. They shouldnot be mobilized under hydrodynamic action or impact force from smaller debris.Thus, the yield force of the connectors must be greater than the force caused byhydrodynamic pressure but lower than that due to large debris.

6. Design Example of Tsunami Shelter in Area withLarge Debris Impact

This section illustrates an example of a tsunami shelter that is designed to resistlarge debris impact. The shelter consists of the inner and outer protective structures.The inner structure is a typical cast-in-place reinforced concrete structure. Theshelter is designed for 1000 evacuees, with an area of 2m2 per person. The totalnumber of storeys including roof floor is five. As Fig. 15 shows, the storey height is4.5m for the first storey, 4.0m for the second storey, and 3.0 m for the other floors.The structure is designed for tsunami with the inundation depth of 6.0m. The firstand second storeys have no partition walls to allow water as well as small- andmedium-sized debris to pass through. The walls of the other floors are constructedof conventional masonry. The main structure consists of 6×4 bays in plan, each bay



+ 6.0 m.

+ 0.0 m.

+ 14.5 m.

+ 11.5 m.

+ 8.5 m.

+ 4.5 m.

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

Roof

27.00 m.

Shear walls

Perimeter beam

Exterior column

Fig. 15. Elevation of building resisting large debris impact.

measuring 4.5 m× 4.5 m in both longitudinal and transverse directions. Shear wallsare provided at the center and the corners of the inner structure to increase lateralstrength and rigidity. The pile foundations are designed to support the columnsand shear walls in the event of scouring. The outer protective structure is also acast in-place reinforced concrete frame. It is connected to the inner structure byrubber fenders installed at the column positions along the perimeter beams of thefirst two storeys. The clear distance between the two structures is 2 m.

The design loads included self-weight, superimposed dead load (floor finishingand partition walls), live load, buoyancy force, hydrodynamic pressure, wind load,and debris impact force. The minimum design live load was 5 kN/m2 for publicbuilding. Based on an inundation depth of 6m, Eq. (2) with k = 1.4, the designtsunami flow velocity is 10.74m/s. The hydrodynamic pressure is calculated accord-ing to FEMA55 [2000] and is distributed vertically along the height of columns ofthe first two stories. The wind pressure was calculated according to local designcode. The structure was designed to resist the debris of 800 kN (80 tonnes), rep-resenting typical large fishing boats found in the area. Based on this debris massand a flow velocity of 10.74m/s, the kinetic energy that the structure must be ableto absorb is 4600kJ. The number of energy-absorbing connectors can be roughlyestimated from the force-deformation characteristics of a rubber fender shown inFig. 13. As shown, each fender can absorb about 497kJ, thus, 10.5 fenders arerequired to absorb the total kinetic energy. The structural plan layout and eleva-tion of the building is shown in Figs. 14 and 15, respectively. A total of 14 fenders(7 for each floor) is used in longitudinal direction, and 10 fenders (5 for each floor)in the transverse direction.

After determining the number of energy-absorbing connectors, the wholestructural model of the building is constructed with energy-absorbing connectorsmodeled as nonlinear spring elements. The nonlinear static pushover is conductedwith several pushover locations on the structure. Figure 16 shows the pushover



0.00E+00

5.00E+06

1.00E+07

1.50E+07

2.00E+07

2.50E+07

3.00E+07

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Displacement (m)

For

ce (

N)

Push1- E = 10,465 kJ

Push2 - E =5,111 kJ

Push3 - E =7,888 kJ

Push1

longitudinaltransverse

Push2 Push3

Fig. 16. Capacity curves under various load positions.

curves for these locations. The area under each curve represents the energy absorp-tion for the corresponding pushover location. As shown in the figure, the mini-mum energy absorption is 5.1 × 103 kJ which is greater than the required energy4.6 × 103 kJ, indicating that the energy-absorption capacity is greater than theenergy demand. The inner structure is then designed using the above loads plusreactive forces transmitted from fenders.

7. Conclusions

This paper presents the design concept for evacuation shelter in tsunami-pronearea. Two different design approaches are proposed depending on the size of debris.Impact of small-to-medium-sized debris can be represented by an equivalent staticload that acts at various positions on the building. For large debris, the designapproach is to absorb the kinetic energy of moving debris by means of energy-absorbing devices. The basic structural form in both cases is the same; it consistsof an inner structure for providing usable floor area and the outer structure forprotecting the inner structure. For small-to-medium debris, the connection betweenthe two structures is designed to be rigid so that the entire structure can resist theload together. For large debris, energy-absorbing connectors are recommended todissipate the kinetic energy of the moving mass. A nonlinear pushover analysisshould be performed to calculate the energy absorption capability of the structure.The nonlinear connectors should be modeled by nonlinear springs in the structuralmodel.



Acknowledgment

The authors are very grateful to the Department of Public Works and Town &Country Planning (DPT) for providing the research fund to carry out this work.

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STRUCTURAL DESIGN GUIDELINE FORTSUNAMI EVACUATION SHELTER

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