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Transcript of Stress Levels and Teaching Effectiveness
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FILAMER CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY
Graduate School
SOURCES, CAUSES AND IMPACT OF STRESS ON
THE TEACHING PERFORMANCE IN P.E.
A Thesis Proposal
Submitted to the Faculty
School of Graduate Studies
In partial fulfillment for
For the degree
MASTER OF ARTS IN TEACHING
Major in Physical Education
By
CASTER L. KAPUNAN
2012
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CHAPTER I
Introduction
Teaching has a very prestigious place in all professions.
A teacher is a kingpin in the entire system of education.
Almost all cultures of the civilized world have considered
their teachers in a very high esteem. To achieve this
status teachers throughout the history of civilization have
come up to the expectations of the world around them. Most
thinkers and philosophers of the past who are still remembered
because they had their students and disciples that proliferate
the ideas and knowledge they have produced.
Times have changed and the societies and cultures have
drastically diversified, but the tasks of a teacher are
primarily the same, which is the transfer of knowledge to the
next generation. With change in cultural norms and traditions
in the societies there has been a drastic change in the
expectations from a teacher. Some of these changes have limited
the measures which a teacher in the past could exercise in
disciplining a student and some have put additional burden on
teachers in respect their preparation of lessons and adopting
and maintaining their teaching styles. This is because most of
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the school systems prefer to maintain uniformity in all of
their branches.
Teaching has now become a very demanding occupation with a lot
of stresses for a teacher who has a lot of deadlines to meet
and a lot of responsibilities to shoulder besides teaching a
child. Primarily the role and responsibility of a teacher is
multitasked in the present day school system. This was
altogether different just a few years ago. With the change in
the type of teaching culture and added managerial
responsibilities for teachers include planning and executing
instructional lessons, assessing students based on specific
objectives derived from a set curriculum, and communicating
with parents. Some of the jobs that teachers face from day to
day includes: Lesson planning and teaching, accountability for
students performance, classroom management and discipline,
supervisory role, extracurricular activity conducting and
monitoring.
Teaching has been identified as one of the most stressful
professions today. The reasons for that are quite similar to
other stressful occupations in the world. In a survey assessing
the stress levelsf of various jobs by the Health and Safety
Executive(2010) , teaching came out top. Job related stress
also imparts a lot of elements towards performance and
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efficiency of teachers. With the current trend of shifting the
educations focus from quantity to quality, it is then a
qualifier that teaching performance is a primary consideration
in all of the educational system.
It is on this premise that this study is conducted to
determines, assess and qualify stress and its relationship
towards teaching performance in Physical Education subject.
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Statement of the Problem
This study will be conducted to find out the sources,
causes and impact of stress on the teaching performance in P.E.
Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:
1.What are the socio-demographic profile of the respondents
with regards to: A) Sex, B) Age, C) Teaching Position, D)
Estimated monthly income, and D) Civil Status?
2.What are the sources of stress?
3.What causes stress?
4.Are there significant differences between the levels of
stress and : A) Sex, B) Age, C) Teaching Position, D)
Estimated monthly income, and D) Civil Status?
5.What is the level of impact of stress among the
respondents when grouped according to: A) Sex, B) Age, C)
Teaching Position, D) Estimated monthly income, and D)
Civil Status?
6.Are there significant relationships between level of
impact of stress and the respondents: A) Sex, B) Age, C)
Teaching Position, D) Estimated monthly income, and D)
Civil Status?
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Objectives of the Study
This study wants to find out the sources, causes and
impact of stress on the teaching performance in P.E.
Specifically it aims to attain the following objectives:
1.To describe socio-demographic profile of the respondents
with regards to: A) Sex, B) Age, C) Teaching Position,
D) Estimated monthly income, and D) Civil Status.
2.To determine the sources of stress.
3.To find out the causes stress.
4.To determine if there are significant differences
between the levels of stress and : A) Sex, B) Age, C)
Teaching Position, D) Estimated monthly income, and D)
Civil Status
5.To find out the level of impact of stress among the
respondents when grouped according to: A) Sex, B) Age,
C) Teaching Position, D) Estimated monthly income, and
D) Civil Status.
6.To ascertain if there are significant relationships
between level of impact of stress and the respondents:
A) Sex, B) Age, C) Teaching Position, D) Estimated
monthly income, and D) Civil Status.
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Significance of the Study
The outcome of this study will give a comprehensive
knowledge of the sources , causes and impact of stress on the
teaching performance in P.E. It will determine the sources of
stress, its causes and the levels of impact of stress as
experienced by the respondents. It will also provide a
conclusion if stress is related to age, sex, income, teaching
position and civil status. This study will provide a clear idea
and data for teachers, administrators and academic leaders for
future decisions and innovations as to how stress can be
battled and reduced.
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
This study was set to find out the sources, causes and
impact of stress on the teaching performance in P.E. As such
this study is only limited to the collection, tabulation and
interpretation of data by the use of a standardized
questionnaire and interview schedules.
This study will be conducted in the period of November
2012 to March 2012. The respondents were all Physical Education
teachers.
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CHAPTER II
Review of Related Literature
Job stress has been recognized as a serious and chronic
cause of individual suffering, irritation, strain and
discomforts. As a matter of fact little research work has so
far been carried out on the topic of job stress in Asia. On the
other hand plenty of work has been done on the topic across the
world particularly in the U.S.A and Europe. The magnitude of
research work done on job stress across the world and the
quantum of data available on the topic on the Internet is
phenomenal and is outside the scope of this chapter to
incorporate it all. However an effort has been made to select a
few closely related dissertations, reports and articles on the
topic for review purpose.
British Psychological Society, 1988 stated job stress as one of
the top ten industrial diseases in the US. Willcox (1994), reported
that atleast 25% of the employees are psychlogically stressed at any
one time. It has serious implications for the health of the workers
in the society as a whole. The Health of The Nation (HMSO, 1992)
describes that this area needs to be addressed to promote the health
of the workers.
Stress' is one of the most inaccurate words in the scientific
literature reported by williams (1994). The term sometimes indicates
stressfull events and sometime indicate the effect of these events on
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work performance and sometime dis ordered health remarked by Maclean
(1985). Marmot Et. Al 1987 reports that job stress is lack of
understanding how work enviroment make a person ill. Job stress refer
to broad class of problems indicated by Lazarus (1971) Any demand
which atax the system, whatever it is, a physiological system, a
social system or a psychological system, and the response of that
system. There is greater consensus about the meaning and effect of
job stress. WHO (1986) stated that stress is a dynamic state of mind
characterized by reasonable harmony between a person's abilities,
needs and expectations, and environmental demands and opportunities.
Prof. Cox (1993) concentrates on the importance for general health of
a state of balance between needs and demands, citing the World Health
Organisation's definition of well-being.
Hans Selye (1956) is considered as the father of stress
research. The Stress of Life (1956), a book by Hans Seyle
introduced the concept of stress in the public domain and his
General Adaptation Syndrome [GAS] is a popular one amongst the
research scholar of psychology and management. Stress a state,
manifested by a specific syndrome of biological events Selye
(1974). He argued that stress is not entirely a bad event.
According to him stress is the reaction of the physical body
toward a situation or event, which is demanding. Any kind of
normal activity can produce considerable stress without causing
any harmful effects (Selye, 1974), Selye 1982 clearly state
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that the non specific implication of any demand put on the body
be its effect mental or somatic.
The uncertainty that occurs at the organizational, unit,
group, and individual levels. Uncertainty exists to the extent
that knowledge about an event or condition requiring action or
resolution is experienced as inadequate reported by Schuler
and Jackson (1986).
Edwards (1988) view about the stress is that A negative
discrepancy between an individual's perceived state and desired
state, provided that the presence of this discrepancy is
considered important by the individual.
Taylor (1992) reported about stress in the following words
Demands made upon us [internally or externally] which we
perceive as exceeding our adaptive resources. If we try to cope
and that is ineffective this gives rise to stress. If this
stress is prolonged then lasting psychological and physical
damage may occur. Hereby demands we do mean that arise from
the workload or work burden.
Cox (1993) perception of stress is from te assumption that
stressor are discreat, time limited and various events of the
life requiring adjustments or adaptaion are utterly associated
with stress. Holmes and Rahe (1967) ranked the potential
stressfull events which may be work or non work related such as
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death of spouse, divorce, marriage (not all negative), fired
from work marital reconciliation, retirement, bussiness
readjustment, change in work responsibilities trouble with boss
change in work condition. (Holmes and Rahe, 1967).
Job stress is the sum total of factors experienced in
relation to work which affects the psychosocial and
physiological homeostasis of the worker. The individual factor
is termed a stressor and stress is the individual worker's
reaction to stressors. Suggested by Weiman (1977).
Beehr and O'Hara (1987) used stressor' rather than
stress' to refer to causal factors becausefew people
misinterpret stressor to mean the person's reaction. And uses
strain' to mean the state ofbeing stressed as evidenced by
physiological, psychological or medical indices,
Hans Selye (1951) report about The General Adaptation
Syndrome [GAS] states that, in response to a stressor, an
initial alarm reaction' is followed by a stage of resistance'
in which resistance to the original stressor builds up but
ability to resist new stressors is lowered. Eventually a stage
of exhaustion' sets in which ends in catastrophic inability to
cope with any form of stress.
Health and Safety Executive (HSE 2001) research report
with the title; the workplace stress epidemic; reveals that 53%
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of the employees have experienced a stress in the work place,
International Stress Management Association (2001) found that
one out of four working force have suffered due to stress
related sickness. One out of five has suffered extreme stress
in the work place.
The HSE(2001) research found, a highky significant co
relation between extreme stress and poor working condition. The
employees have reported a wide range of health problems and
behavior problems, Professor Andy Smith have confirmed the fact
that job stress is one of the most evident problem in the work
environment.
The Bristol team(2000)has reported that 30% increase in
job stress has been occurred in the work environment. The major
problems indicated by job stress related illness are
depression, anxiety, backache and musculo-skeletal disorders.
Chartered Management Institute in 2001has found that long
hours work load, working late at night has become a culture in
the todays modern organization and as such are sources of job
stress.This study by the CMI and healthcare(2000), has reportd
that 25% of the executive had gone on sick leave in the past
one year due to job stress, 75% of the executive has reported
that job stress was demaging their home life, health,
performace at work and satisfaction level.
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Cary Cooper(1995), has argued that the trends in the
american society are the major sources of job stress, such as
working for long hours, down sizing and no contact culture.
According to Elizabeth Burtney (2002),who found the
organization are full of stress and therefore we should focus
on the stress intervention in the organization as wel as on
stressed out indivisual.
Professor Stephen Palmer(2001)reported in his research
study that stress in a universal thing. Everyone can be
stressed and the threshold level of every body will be
different. It depend on the person how he percieves a specific
situation. Stress may be the result of the interactio between
the person and enviroment.
Professor Cary Cooper (1995) has argued that insecurity in
the organization stereo type attitude of the boss may be the
major sources of stress. For employees it is necessary that
they should have complete control on the job because of lack of
control some time result in job The Health and Safety Executive
(2001); research survey stated about sorces of stress and the
circumstances which result in stress. The sources of stress are
work overload, repetative work, role conflict, role ambiguity,
danger, harasment and bullying, poor relation ship, in flexible
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shedule, lack of social support, confusion, lack of
communication and poor working condition and many others.
Elizabeth Burtney of HEBS research(2004) reveals that
stress in this modern world too carries a stigma in the closed
style of management where the employees are expected to work
hard and no concern is shown for their home life. The employees
too never talk about the job stress.
According to an article with the title, Job stress and
job satisfaction of employees in German radiotherapy (2001),
which concludes that the greatest source of job stress stemmed
from underpayment, crying patients,keeping patients fit and
living,long hours, role conflict etc. Physicians and nurses
showed a significantly higher stress level on scales such as
structural conditions and particularly compassion than
radiographers and physicists. Finally, rating of job stress and
satisfaction depends significantly on the age group, gender,
experience and the hospital.
Chandriah et. al. (1990) research study with title;Occupational
Stress and Job Satisfaction among Managers, states;Individuals
under excessive stress tend to find their jobs less satisfying.
Some of their intrinsic or extrinsic needs may be thwarted or
not met sufficiently.Corroborating many studies in the
literature (Hollingworth et. al. 1988; Keller, 1975), the
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findingsof the present study also reveal the same. The subjects
with lower job satisfaction were found to experience more
stress in the form of overload,role ambiguity, role conflict,
under participation, powerlessness and low status compared to
those with higher job satisfaction. Age, therefore, was found
to be of importance in these study findings. The results of the
study reiteratethe significance of demands at each career
development level as pointed out by Hallingworth.And the
individuals encounter crisis at each developmental stage as
hypothesized by Erickson.Significantly decreasing stress and
increasing job satisfaction with increasing age was found among
the managers and these confirm the importance of the
developmental process.
An Empirical Study (1999) with title, Effect of Job
Stress reported that; job stress is one of the vital issues in
the organisation. It has been established that a negative
relation exist between job stress and job performance, job
stress and job satisfaction.
This review with title factors influencing stress and job
satisfaction(2001): shows that various elements effect stress
level and job satisfaction. These elements are leadership,
quality control, relation between doctor and nurse. It has been
established that a negative relationship exists between
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leadership, stress and job satisfaction. The association
between these variables and job satisfaction is positive but
tenuous. In addition, a positive but weak relationship was
revealed between the clinical leadership and the quality of
relationships amongst nurses. Organizational issues, lack of
nursing staff and patient care were found to be related to ward
type mental health nurses' stress emerged as mediating
variables between stress and job satisfaction.
Beatrice et. al. (2002) has found that the higher is the
demand on job the higher will be the stress and demanding job
negatively affect the health of the nurses and result in
deterioration of general health.
The study here is of Kaohsiung City government employees,
china human resource management deptt (2000), entitled job
stress relation with social support and job performance.It has
been proved in the above research study that there is great
relevance between job stress and job performance. job stress is
inversly propotional to job performance. Further social support
has a great impact on level of job stress. Greater social
support results in the reduction of stress level and hence
increases the perfromance of the employees. The report also
indicated that female employees feel more stressed as compared
to male employees (Bheer 2000).
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Santha et. al. (2003) research report has presented that
the stress level of the employees has various effects on the
employees as well as on the organization. Due to stress the
employee may give more absenteeism, accidents, high turnover
rate and impaired descion. Upto some extent stress may be a
good thing. It gives the push and motivation to the employee.
But extreme stress is harmful. It may result in poor
performance and yet productivity of the employees is reduced.
NIOSH (1999) reported that; 40% of workers say their job is
extremely stressfull. 26% of workers report burnout during
working hours.
David's and Theresa's(1999)have reported that 25% of the
employees have considered there job stressful, 75% of the
employees say that the task is the modern organisation is more
stressful than earlier. Job stress may give a lot of problems
during the work and it is attached with health problems etc.
NIOSH (2001) model of job stress is self explanatory;
STRESSFUL JOB CONDITION=RISK OF INJURY & ILLNESS.
The NIOSH (1999) research study on gender and job stress
finds that sex descrimination and role conflict and role
ambiguity and family demand may have more severe effect on
female employees. Stress can be reduced in the organisation by
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introducing a change in the workplace. It may result in the
reduction of stress levels for both workers male and females.
The organization should promote family friendly policy,
discourage sex discrimination.
The research study with the title "Women in Construction has reported that women in
the construction industry have complaints of frequent harasment isolation and abuses by her
co workers. The turn over of the female workers in the construction industry is higher as
compared to others. Female labours in this industry are always at higher risk due to lack of
safety measures and trainings.
In the research study by NIOSH (1999) of females workers in the internal revencue
service (IRS), which states that musculoskeletal discomfort can be reduced to a great extent if
periodic rest is provided to the worker during working hours. It may result in higer job
performance.
NIOSH (2001) has presented in a survey that 60% of the
woman workers have reported that stress is a great problem for
them. They have cited that the following are the major sources
of stress during job for females employees, role conflict and
role ambiguity, poor relationship with other workers, burden of
work, rush poor working enviroment, monotonus and repetitive
work, lack of control over job, demands etc.
Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (2001)
indicated that in the current era the stress related
expenditure on employees is 50% higher than the early period.
Encyclopaedia of Occupational Safety and Health(2001)states
that high demanding jobs enhances the risk of cardiovascular
diseases, musculoskeletal disorders, psychological problems,
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injuries at work, suicide, cancer, ulcer and impaired immune
function.
NIOSH(2001) research report on job stress health and
productivity states that job stress has inverse relation with
productivity and it negatively affect the health of the
employees. Stressful working condition results in poor health
of the employees. Job stress increases absenteeism, tardiness,
higher turnover and poor health.
Journal of Applied Psychology (2001)reseacrh report with
the title Stress Prevention and Job Performance states that
effect of intervention programe on job stress is very
encouraging. The organization should educate employee on job
stress, inform the employees regarding policies of the
organization, how to reduce job stress and initiate employees
support program. Stress prevention program encourage employees
and results in enhanced production.
NIOSH (2000)has reported that on average employees remain
off the job for almost 20 days due to job stress, so job stress
results in increased absenteeism.
In the research study by the national insurance company that
female workers feel more stressed than male workers. The chances of
burnout and physical sickness related to job stress are more among
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female workers. The reason may be that the women are paid less than
male workers.
European Agency (2001) research report has mentioned the
following details which may be considered at the cost of Each
year millions of working days are lost due to job stress. The
cost of job stress in term of money is in millions of dollars.
Many studies have tried to determine the posible positive
relationship between job stress and violance at work drug use.
One study has established the fact that job stress creates
negative indivisuals and has negative effect on the
organization. The workers who experienced job stress start
using drugs and alcohol and tobacco to reduce there tension, so
job stress is one of the reason for drinking in the workers ILO
(2001).
University of Utara(2004), Malaysia, school of accounting,
report on job stress among professional accountants working in
selected public firms, a Malaysia case, establish and extends
that job stressors faced by workers during job includes
workload, role conflict, role ambiguity, lack of job autonomy
and lack of job control.
A research report in Saudi Medical Journal
(2003)titledJob satisfaction and organizationalcommitment
states that female nurses are more satisfied and contented in
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the public sector hospital, the study further reveals that
satisfied nurses provide higher output as compared to less
satisfied nurses. The other factor for higher production from
nurses is there comittment toward job.
A report in Journal of Health (2003) with title stress
and suicide in nurses revealed that the relation between
stress and suicide remained U shaped. when the job stress and
home stress are combined, five fold increase in risk of suicide
among women occurs. Risk of suicide among high stress women is
more compare to low stress experience by women.
School of Health Science (2002),Blekinge Institute of
Technology Karlskrona, Sweden entitled job stress of nurses
concludes that stress contains amongst other the element of
moral. There is shortage of nurses in the health care and
organizational structure too impedes nursing performance to
avoid the negative consequences of stress for nurses moral
support is required. In ICU stress and complex situation are
common for all nurses, the stress implication are sometime
ethical issues, morbidity and burn out, the report revealed.
Queensland University of Technology(2002), thesis with the
title The influence of work stress and work support on burnout
in public hospital nurses States that female nurses with high
level of stress and little support have experience high rate of
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burnout. Job stressors were the main predictors of Emotional
Exhaustion, Conflict. Changes in the objective conditions at
work have had major implications for nurses' subjective
experiences of work, with increasing numbers of nurses feeling
stressed and as a consequence, are opting to work part-time or
leave the profession
HSJ - HEALTH SCIENCE JOURNAL(2005), REPORT CARRYING THE
TITLE job stress and job satisfaction shows that a strong
negative relationship was found between clinical leadership,
inter-professional collaboration, and stress and job
satisfaction. Although a positive relationship between clinical
leadership and nurses' job satisfaction was found, the
association between clinical leadership and quality of inter-
professional collaboration is unclear. The association between
these variables and job satisfaction is positive but tenuous.
In addition, a positive but weak relationship was revealed
between the clinical leadership and the quality of
relationships amongst nurses. Organisational issues, lack of
nursing staff and patient care were found to be related to ward
type mental health nurses' stress emerged as mediating
variables between stress and job satisfaction.
A research study by Deptt of medicine(2006). University of
Ottawa, enitiled, job stress corelation with job satisfaction
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and burn outThe findings are that medical staff frequently
faces burn out due to high level of job stress. The turn over
rate amongst the highly stressed workers are very high. The
problem of burnout is common amongst the staff of cancer unit.
A research paper by School of Health Care Practice 2006,
Anglia Polytechnic University, Chelmsford, Essex(2009),
UK,entitled Workplace stress in nursing finds that workload,
management style, professional conflict and emotional cost of
caring and leadership style, lack of reward and shift working
are the main sources of stress for nurses for many years.
Stress management programe should concentrate on stress
prevention as well as how organization should takle this vital
issue.
The Graduate College University of Wisconsin-Stout (2005),
Research Paper with title OCCUPATIONAL STRESS IN MENTAL HEALTH
COUNSELORS, concludes that,The mental healthcounselors involved
in completing the survey instruments scored an average of2.57
on afive point scale, with past administrations of the Weiman
Occupational Stress Scalehaving yielded a baseline score of
2.25. The mental health counselors in this study scoredon
average 13% higher than the calculated WOSS baseline. Employees
in publiclyfunded institutions (Winnebago Mental Health)
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experience greater perceived work stressthan those counselors
in privately funded clinics.
Research study conducted by Carol Brewer(2000)mentioned that new
comers in the profession of nursing confront enhanced stress as
compared to existing lot .New nurses have reported the following are
the major sources of job stress for them; complex jobs ,long
hours,overtimes frequently, role conflict, role ambiguity, dangerous
working conditions,abuses, inadequate resources and strain.
Exploratory Study( 2001) to dig out the job stressors conducted
in Tiawan on nurses concludes that changes in the today's
organizations,role conflict, role ambiguity,lack of social
support,working environment in the hospital, demanding job of nurses
are the main stressors for nurses.
European Journal(2005) of Social Sciences, reportentitled Link
between Job Stress and Job Satisfaction signify that job stress and
job satisfaction are invrsely corelated. According to Stamps &
Piedmonte (1986) job satisfaction has been found significant
relationship with job stress. One study of general practitioners in
England identified four job stressors that were predictive of job
dissatisfaction (Cooper, et al., 1989).
In other study, Vinokur-Kaplan (1991) stated that organization
factors such as workload and working condition were negatively
related with job satisfaction. Fletcher & Payne (1980) identified
that a lack of satisfaction can be a source of stress, while high
satisfaction can alleviate the effects of stress. This study reveals
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that, both of job stress and job satisfaction were found to be
interrelated. The study of Landsbergis (1988) and Terry et al. (1993)
showed that high levels of work stress are associated with low levels
of job satisfaction.
Moreover, Cummins (1990) have emphasized that job stressors are
predictive of job dissatisfaction and greater propensity to leave the
organization. Sheena et al. (2005) studied in UK found that there are
some occupations that are reporting worse than average scores on each
of the factors such as physical health, psychological well-being, and
job satisfaction. The relationship between variables can be very
important to academician. If a definite link exists between two
variables, it could be possible for a academician to provide
intervention in order to increase the level of one of the variables
in hope that the intervention will also improve the other variable as
well (Koslowsky, et al., 1995).
A Study of Job Stress and Job Satisfaction among
University Staff in Malaysia, a research
article(2007)investigates what corelation exists between job
stress and job satisfaction? Inverse relationship exists
between job stress and job satisfaction. The stressors that
have been taken for research contain leadership style and
interference by management, relationship with peers, work
burden, role ambiguity, and role conflict.
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Faculty of Education (2001), University of Ibadan, article
entitledEffects of Job Stress states that stress has negative
effect on health, physical and mental, work behaviour,and
performance,satisfaction level.
Heavy workloads, difficult students and lack of resources
are stressing out Australian teachers (1999). Many also
experience stress from increasing violence and bullying. In one
recent year, 274 teachers in Victoria were either assaulted or
threatened by students and another 70 were attacked by
colleagues. Over the past five years , 910 teachers in Victoria
and 1150 teachers in New South Wales have filed worker
compensation claims for anxiety, depression,nervous breakdown
and other stress related symptom. Union leaders say these
figures are just the tip of the iceberg: Teacher are very
reluctant to proceed with those claims because it just adds
another problem and additional stress, explains Australian
education union president John Gregory Teaching in Australia
may be stressful, but the profession seems to be under siege in
the Uk , Janice Howell a primary school teacher in Newport
(South Wales)is one of the casualties. She initially had the
assistance of an English language teacher but that teacher took
long-term leave with no replacement. Unable to cope with 28
kids, 11 of them with learning or behavioral difficulties,
Howell had a nervous breakdown.
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After recovering several months later, Howell complained to the
school about the intolerable stress. Rather than providing
support, the school added two more troubled kids to Howells
class. One student, new to Wales, ran away one morning and was
seen playing near dangerous mudflats. Although he was taken
home safely, no one told Howell until the end of the day. This
led to Howells second breakdown, ending her career. From being
a confident, well adjusted teacher who enjoyed her job I became
depressed and dysfunctional, says Howell for the first time in
my life I did hate to go to work. It got to the stage that I
was physically unable to enter the classroom.
Nebuo Miuro (1999)quoted in the book about stress that
employees are under a lot of pressure from his employer to get
a new restaurant ready for its launch. The interiors fitter
from Tokyo worked late, sometimes until 4.30 in the morning.
After one such marathon, Miuro caught a few hour sleep, then
return for another long day. But he didn't get very far. The 47
year old suddenly took ill and keeled over while picking up his
hammer and nails. He died a week later. The corners verdict was
that Miuro died of Karoshi_death by overwork. Karoshi accounts
for nearly 10000 deaths each year in Japan. Research indicates
that long work hours cause an unhealthy lifestyle such as
smoking, poor eating habits, lack of physical exercise and
sleeplessness. This result in weight gain, which, along with
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stressful working conditions, damages the cardiovascular system
and leads to strokes and heart attacks. Karoshi came to the
public spotlight in the 1970s when Japans economy was booming,
but the country's current recession is making matters
worse.companies are laying off employees and loading the extra
work onto those who remain. Performance based expectations are
replacing life qtime employment guarantees, putting further
pressure on employees to work long hours. Many also blame
Japans samurai spirit culture which idolizes long work hours as
the ultimate symbol of company loyalty and personal fortitude.
Being exhausted is considered a virtue explains a Japanese
psychiatrist. So far, only 17 percent of Japanese companies
offer over stressed employees some form of counseling.
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CHAPTER III
Methodology
This chapter focuses on the method in which the research
question was investigated. It provides insight into the
research design, sampling method employed, the data gathering
instruments used and the statistical techniques applied.
Research Design
This study will employ the descriptive research design.
According the Aquino (1999), descriptive research is a type of
research that aims to find facts with adequate description and
interpretation. A quantitative empirical investigation was
preferred above a qualitative design as the aim was not to
describe, emphasise meaning or experiences, but rather to solve
the stated problem by analysing and interpreting data
statistically. Quantitative approaches are also considered to
be more objective, structured and have both high validity and
reliability (Coolican, 1999). Stratified random sampling was
employed to obtain a representative sample and information was
collected by means of a questionnaire.
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Respondents, Population and Sample
A population is defined as the total collection of
individuals or objects that forms the focus of the research
whereas the sample is a selected part or a subset of the
population (Pretorius, 1995,). According to Pretorius (1995),
research is generally conducted to make inferences about the
population based on the information available about the sample,
in order to make inferences from the sample to the population.
The population in this study consisted of 300 Physical
Education teachers from various public high schools in Capiz.
Sekaran (2003) maintains that the ideal sample size should
constitute approximately 115 respondents. For the purpose of
this research questionnaires were administered and retrieved. A
response rate of thirty percent (30%) is considered acceptable
for most research purposes (Sekaran, 2003, p. 204).
Sampling Procedure
Probability sampling is considered to be the best
technique as all elements have equalchance to be included in
the sample and hence it yields greater validity and
reliability.(Anastasi, 1990; Huysamen, 1983; Murphy &
Davidshofer, 1988; Shaughnessy & Zechmeister, 1997). A
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stratified random sample was therefore selected, as it allows
the population to be divided into subsets or strata which are
then randomly sampled, and in this manner increases
representativeness of the sample, and minimizes sampling error
(Lehman, 1991). The researcher can therefore from the outset
define or categorizee the population in terms of supplementary
information e.g. age, occupation, income and gender to be
correlated with the variables being studied (Shaughnessy &
Zechmeister,1997).
The Research Instrument
The data collection instruments used included a
biographical questionnaire and the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Generic Job Stress
Questionaire . A questionnaire was employed as it allows the
researcher to gather structured information from a large number
of individuals (Lehman, 1991), it allows for anonymity and it
is economical to use (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1996).
Another common method used to quantify stress is the
Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale. Identifying potential areas of
concern can help some make the necessary environment or
personal changes to improve stressful situations. However, for
many situations changes are not possible and individuals need
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to adopt stress management techniques to reduce or eliminate
the adverse effects of prolonged exposure to unhealthy stress.
Moreover, Weiers (1988) indicates that the analysis of
questionnaires is easy due tothe structured information in the
questionnaire with few open-ended questions. Linde,Rothmann and
Sieberhagen (1999, cited in van Zyl, 2002) espouse the view
that questionnaires, requiring self-evaluation can present an
objective measurement of stress since the person is evaluating
himself/herself and the interpretation of data is not dependent
on the subjective judgement of another person, for instance an
interviewer. As self-evaluation questionnaires are quantified,
it is easier to compare the scores of different individuals.
Statistical Tool Usage
After the questionnaire have been retrieved and tabulate
it will be subjected to statistical treatment. Coolican (1999,
p. 389) maintains that Analysis of variance procedures are
powerful parametric methods for testing the significance of
differences between sample means where more than two conditions
are used, or even when several independent variables are
involved. ANOVA makes it feasible to appraise the separate or
combined influences of several independent variables on the
experimental criterion (Mouton & Marais, 1990). ANOVA was
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therefore used to establish if a statistical significant
difference exist between the levels of stress based on the
biographical variables.
Multiple regression analyses the common and separate influences
of two or more variables on a dependent variable (Kerlinger,
1986), and it is used to establish theextent to which various
differing variables add to predict another variable (Guyatt,
Walter, Shannon, Cook Jaeschke & Heddle, 1995). Multiple
regression was therefore used to determine if the selected
sources of stress statistically significantly explain the
variance in total stress experienced by teachers.
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