Lab # 01

Topographical and geological map

Objective:

Find out the geological feature of any unknown area by using topographical and geological map.

Map

A map is a visual representation of an area – a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, regions, and themes. Although the earliest maps known are of the heavens, geographic maps of territory have a very long tradition and exist from ancient times. The word "map" comes from the medieval Latin Mappa mundi, wherein mappa meant napkin or cloth and mundi the world. Thus, "map" became the shortened term referring to a 2 dimensional representation of the surface of the world.

Types of map:

Topographic map:

Topographic map give the idea about the thing which is above the surface of earth.it is types of map characterized by large scale detail and quantities representation of relief (surface things) usually using counter line in modern mapinga A topographic map is a two dimensional land surface.Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features. A topographic map is typically published as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a combination of two line segments that connect but do not intersect; these represent elevation on a topographic map.

Contour Lines:

Elevations on a topographic map are marked with contour lines, which connect points of equal elevation. Imagine walking around a mountain in a circle, never going uphill and never going downhill but staying at the same altitude. If you traced the path you walked, you would have a contour line on a map. Contour lines are typically separated by 40 vertical feet, though you should check the map you're using to be sure, and every fifth contour line is usually marked with an actual elevation.

Map scale:

Maps are often described as small scale, typically for world maps or large regional maps, showing large areas of land on a small space, or large scale, showing smaller areas in more detail, typically for county maps or town plans. The town plan might be on a scale of 1:10,000 and the world map might be on a scale of 1:100,000,000. The following table describes typical ranges for these scales but should not be considered authoritative because there is no standard:

Classification Range Examples

large scale 1:0 – 1:600,000 1:0.00001 for map of virus; 1:5,000 for walking map of town

medium scale

1:600,000 – 1:2,000,000

Map of a country

small scale 1:2,000,000 – 1:∞ 1:50,000,000 for world map; 1:1021 for map of galaxy

The terms are sometimes used in the absolute sense of the table, but other times in a relative sense. For example, a map reader whose work refers solely to large-scale maps (as tabulated above) might refer to a map at 1:500,000 as small-scale.

Map legend:

Different symbols used in map for reading map .It can be located on way side along the border, below, left side.

A Legend on a map essentially tells you which signs on a map symbolize and represent, what is natural or a man-made feature. For example, a miniature blue tent on a map, represents the location of a camping site.A legend on a map provides valuable information for interpreting what it is showing you. Gives direction by a north indication. Provides a scale to allow for distance calculations. Depending on map, will give city names, park locations, lakes, and rivers, etc.give info regarding inches vs miles, streets vs ways, identify marks on maps which might otherwise be confusing.

Importance of topographical maps:

Topographic maps are an important tool because they can represent the three-dimensional landscape in two dimensions. A person who can read a topographic map can find out the location of peaks, valleys, ridges and saddles, among other land features.Topographic maps can also show you whether you will be traveling uphill or downhill on a particular road or trail.Topographic maps use a wide variety of symbols to represent human and physical features. Among the most striking are the topo maps' diof the topography or terrain of the area. Contour lines are usplay sed to represent elevation by connecting points of equal elevation. These imaginary lines do a nice job of representing the terrain. As with all iso lines, when contour lines lie close together, they represent a steep slope; lines far apart represent a

gradual slope. Each quadrangle uses a contour interval (the distance in elevation between contour lines) appropriate for that area. While flat areas may be mapped with a five-foot contour interval, rugged terrain may have a 25-foot or more contour interval. Through the use of contour lines, an experienced topographic map reader can easily visualize the direction of stream flow and the shape of the terrain.

Geological map:

A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose map made to show geological features. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by color or symbols to indicate where they are exposed at the surface. Bedding planes and structural features such as faults ,folds, foliations, and line action are shown with strike and dip or trend and plunge symbols which give these features' three-dimensional orientations.

Stratigraphic contour lines may be used to illustrate the surface of a selected stratum illustrating the subsurface topographic trends of the strata. Iso pach maps detail the variations in thickness of stratigraphic units. It is not always possible to properly show this when the strata are extremely fractured, mixed, in some discontinuities, or where they are otherwise disturbed used in under ground geology.

Map scale

Map scale can be expressed as a ratio or proportion between a distance on a map and the actual distance on the land surface this is called representative fraction.

Map scale can be expressed as the ratio or proportion between a distance on a map and the actual distance on the land surface. This ratio is called the Representative Fraction (RF). A RF of 1:100,000 indicates that 1 unit of measure on the map represents 100,000 units on the land surface (i.e., 1 inch = 100,000 inches - 1.58 miles).

Importance of geological map:

In addition to the many uses of geologic maps noted in the previous section, geologic mapping will continue to be important because it is cost effect For example, looking only at the avoidable costs associated with the cleanup of landfills and industrial disposal sites, the Illinois State Geological Survey documented a benefit-to-cost ratio that ranged from 5:1 to 54:1 for geologic mapping.The U.S. Geological Survey also conducted a rigorous assessment of the value of new geologic mapping in Loudoun County, Virginia and

found net positive benefits considering just two uses of the map information (for siting a new landfill and a new highway). Similar assessments in Kentucky show the benefit-to-cost ratio of geologic mapping there to be 50:1.

Difference between topographic and geology map:

A topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using contour lines in modern mapping, but historically using a variety of methods. Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features.A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose.1.Topographic maps are three-dimensional representations of land mass using contour lines to depict elevation.

2.Geologic maps are a special purpose map that shows the geological properties of land from rock types, rock age, bedding planes, folds, and faults.

3.Topographic maps are used for various reasons like hiking or mining.

Geologic maps are used to locate geological features such as layers of rock and fault lines. Topographic maps are used to see elevations.

References:

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_difference_between_a_geologic_map_and_a_topographic_maphttp://www.differencebetween.net/language/words-language/difference-between-topographic-and-geologic-maps/http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20081210145158AA0EMJyhttp://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02600459#page-1http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_importance_of_a_geologic_maphttp://geology.utah.gov/online_html/pi/pi-

66/pi66pg4.htm

Lab # 2:

Correlation

Objective:

Draw stratigraphic columns by using borehole data and correlate them.

Correlation:

Correlation is a process where in on the basis of similarity of the rock thickness grain size ,fracture ,contact plane etc. in between two out crafts area or succession, matching is done .It is also known as stratigraphic correlation In geology, the term correlation refers to the methods by which the age relationship between various strata of Earth's crust is established. Such relationships can be established, in general, in one of two ways: by comparing the physical characteristics of strata with each other (physical correlation); and by comparing the type of fossils found in various strata (fossil correlation).

Correlation is an important geological technique because it provides information with regard to changes that have taken place at various times in Earth history. It also provides clues as to the times at which such changes have occurred. One result of correlational studies has been the development of a geologic time scale that separates Earth history into a number of discrete time blocks known as eras, periods, and epochs.

Types of correlation:

physical correlation..(By physical attributes of rocks) biological correlation ..( By index fossils) Chronostratigraphic correlation..(By time scale) instrumental correlation magmatic correlation XRD correlation

Explanation:

Physical correlation

Using sedimentary rock strata it should be possible, at least in theory, to write the geological history of the continents for the last billion or so years. Some important practical problems, however, prevent the full realization of this goal. For example, in many areas, erosion has removed much or most of the sedimentary rock that once existed there. In other places, strata are not clearly exposed to view but, instead, are buried hundreds or thousands of feet beneath the thin layer of soil that covers most of Earth's surface.

Chronostratigraphic correlation

Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the age of rock strata in relation to time.The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange the sequence of deposition and the time of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and eventually, the entire geologic record of the Earth.The standard stratigraphic nomenclature is a chronostratigraphic system based on palaeontological intervals of time defined by recognised fossil assemblages (biostratigraphy). The aim of chronostratigraphy is to give a meaningful age date to these fossil assemblage intervals and interfaces.

Importance of correlation.

In the Mnth Annual Report of the United States Geological Surv(1889), the Director called attention to the importance of correlation in the work of the Survey. His words are:In order to develop the geological history of the United States as a consistent whole, it is necessary to correlate the various local elements. . . It is especially important to determine the synchrony of deposits. So far as the outcrops of strata can be continuously traced, or can be observed at short intervals, correlation can be effected by the study of stratigraphy alone. The correlation of strata separated by wide intervals of discontinuity can be effected only through the study of their contained fossils. This is not always easy, and it is now generally recognized that it is possible only within restricted limits. As distance increases there fine ment in detail of correlation diminishes.Recent discussions in connection with the work of the International Congress of Geologists have shown that different students assign different limits to the possibilities of correlation and give different weights to the various kinds of pluton.tologic evidence employed.The study of the data and principles of correlation is thus seen to be a necessary part of the work of the Geological Survey."

Borehole data

Borehole data #01 (depth of 400 ft)

Lithology Depth (ft)

Clay stone 0-50Clay 50-120Shale 120-170Lime stone 170-240Sand stone 240-290Clay 290-350Clay stone 350-400

Borehole data #2 (depth of 700)

Lithology Depth ftLime stone 0-60Clay 60-130Coal 130-170Shale 170-220Lie stone 220-270Clay stone 270-330Sand stone 330-400Shale 400-450Marl 450-560Clay stone 560-630Marl 630-700

Borehole #3 (depth of 550 ft)

Lithology Depth

Clay 0-60

Coal 60-140

Shale 140-200

Marl 200-300

Lime stone 300-380

Clay stone 380-560

Marl 460-550

Refrences:-

www.mw.k12.ny.us/webpages/rschiff/files/blog/eslab%20correlation.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostratigraphyhttp://science.jrank.org/pages/1809/Correlation-Geology-Physical-correlation.htmlhttp://www.enotes.com/topics/correlation-geology

Lab# 3

Objective:

Find the sequence of Geological activities through relative dating

What is relative dating?Relative dating is the science determining the relative order of past events, without necessarily determining their absolute age.

Principles of relative dating

a)UniformitarianismThe principle of Uniformitarianism states that the geologic processes observed in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked in much the same way over geologic time.

b) Intrusive relationshipsThe principle of intrusive relationships concerns crosscutting intrusions. In geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock, it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock.

c) Cross-cutting relationshipsThe principle of cross-cutting relationships pertains to the formation of faults and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault.

d) HorizontalityThe principle of original horizontality states that the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds. Observation of modern marine and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalization (although cross-bedding is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal. f) Faunal successionThe principle of faunal succession is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at the same time period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence may be used to provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found.

j) Lateral continuityThe principle of lateral continuity states that layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all directions; in other words, they are laterally continuous. As a result, rocks that are otherwise similar, but are now separated by a valley or other erosional feature, can be assumed to be originally continuous.

1)Deposition

Deposition is the geological process by which sediments, soil, and rocks are added to a landform or land mass. Fluids such as wind and water, as well as sediment flowing via gravity, transport previously eroded sediment, which, at the loss of enough kinetic energy in the fluid, is deposited, building up layers of sediment.

2) Folds

A geological fold occurs when one or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of permanent deformation.

e) Superposition

The law of superposition states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it andolder than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer previously deposited.

In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which there has been significant displacement. Energy release associated with rapid movement on active

faults is the cause of most earthquakes.

Types of fault

Normal FaultsNormal faults occur when the hanging wall block moves down relative to the footwall block.

Reverse FaultsReverse faults are faults in which the hanging wall block moves up relative to footwall block.

4) Igneous intrusions

SillsFlat tabular body, a meter to hundreds of meter thick.some extend hundreds of kilometers, some few meters.

DikesA dike or dyke in geology is a sheet of rock that formed in a crack in a pre-existing rock body. However, when the crack is between the layers in a layered rock, it is called a sill, not a dike. It is a type of tabular or sheet intrusion, that either cuts across layers in a planar wall rock structures, or into a layer or unlayered mass of rock.

5) ErosionErosion is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's surface by exogenetic processes such as wind or water flow, and then transported and deposited in other locations.

While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally.

6) XenolithsA xenolith (Ancient Greek: “foreign rock”) is a rock fragment which becomes enveloped in a larger rock during the latter's development and hardening. In geology, the term xenolith is almost exclusively used to describe inclusions in igneous rock during magma emplacement and eruption.

7) XenocrystsA crystal foreign to the igneous rock in which it occurs.

Importance of Relative datingRelative dating is used to arrange geological events, and the rocks they leave behind, in a sequence. The method of reading the order is called stratigraphy (layers of rock are called strata). Though relative dating can only determine the sequential order in which a series of events occurred, not when they occur, it remains a useful technique especially in materials lacking radioactive isotopes. Relative dating by biostratigraphy is the preferred method in paleontology, and is in some respects more accurate (Stanley, 167–69). The Law of Superposition was the summary outcome of 'relative dating' as observed in geology from the 17th century to the early 20th century.

Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_dati http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fold_(geology)

Examples of Geological activitiesWe have found the sequence of geological activities of following figures.

1.

Horizontal deposition of beds P, K, M, S

Intrusion R of dike

Erosion A

Final deposition of beds F, B, J

Horizontal deposition of beds C, L, D, T, X, P

Folding A of above beds

Erosion N

Final deposition of beds M, V, K

Deposition o fbeds Z, F, G, Q, S, R, T, L

Folding B of above beds

Intrusion Y of dike Erosion U

Reverse fault A Erosion I Deposition of Beds P & W Intrusion N of a dike

Erosion O

1. Deposition A,B,C,D

Erosion

Q

2. Deposition of M bed

3. Tilting T through tectonic activities

4. Intrusion R

5. Normal fault S

6. Erosion P

7. L & J deposition

1. Depostion,N,C,K

2. Folding A of beds

3. Normal Fault M

4. Erosion

5. Intrusion J of dike

6. Reverse fault T

Lab#4

Objective

To classify the given rock samples according to QFL diagrams.

Theory

Ternary diagramA ternary diagram is triangle with each of the three apexes representing a composition such as sandstone, shale and limestone. It is on the basis of percentage of minerals.

A+B+C=constant

Texture diagramDistribution on the basis of grain size ,sand silt and clay. The sides of the soil texture triangle are scaled for the percentages of sand, silt, and clay. Clay percentages are read from left to right across the triangle (dashed lines). Silt is read from the upper right to lower left (light, dotted lines).

QFL diagramA QFL diagram or QFL triangle is type of ternary diagram that shows compositional data from sand stone and modern sands, point counted using the Gazzi-Dickinson method. The

The abrivation used are as fallows:-

Q = Quartz

F = feldspar

L =Litherite lithic fragments

Quartz

Light silicate(pure SIO2) is called quartaz.it is the 2nd most abundant element in the earth.it may be three dimensional network and conchoidal structure as shown in figure.

There are many different varieties of quartz, several of which are semi-precious gemstones. Especially in Europe and the Middle East, varieties of quartz have been since antiquity the most commonly used minerals in the making of jewelry and hard stone carvings.

Lithic Fragments

These are pieces of other rock that have been eroded down to sand size and now are sand grains in sedimentary rocks. Sandstone containing lithic fragments are called lithic sandstone.

Feldspar:-

The feldspars are a family of silicate minerals which occur in igneous rocks. There are many different members to the feldspar group. Obviously, silicon and oxygen form the foundation for the group, but calcium, sodium, and potassium are also present. One of these elements is usually dominant, but most of the feldspars contain all 3 in varying amounts. It is the proportions of these 3 elements which help determine which specific feldspar is formed. The feldspars are divided into 2 broad categories: plagioclase, which contains calcium and sodium; and orthoclase, which contains potassium. The plagioclase feldspars represent the "continuous branch" of Bowen's Reaction Series, and form a complete series between anorthite (the pure calcium member), and albite (the sodium-rich variety).

Data#1

Sample Quartz Feldspar Lithic fragments

1 55 25 20

2 40 35 25

3 30 51 19

4 35 51 14

5 28 67 5

Data#2

Sample Q F L

A 75 22 03

B 70 18 12

C 86 12 02

Referances:-

maps/http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20081210145158AA0EMJyhttp://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02600459#pag1http://wiki.answ.

Lab# 5

Stratigraphic thickness of a rock

Objective:-

To find the stratiographic thickness of the rock.

RELATED THEORY:-

Stratiographic Thickness:-

The thickness of layering or strata on the rock or on the bed is called the stratiographic thickness. Measurement of the stratiographic thickness is important in the minning ,geo-technical and in the drilling engineering.

Measurment Of Stratiographic Thickness:-

Simple Method:-

A simple method for calculating the true stratigraphic thickness of beds measured indirectly using tape and compass along sloping transects oblique to the bedding strike is described. This method minimizes the need for complex trigonometric formulae that otherwise need to be adapted to different arrangements of bedding dip direction and traverse slope direction. The method is equally useful in calculating the true thickness of stratigraphic units penetrated in boreholes, and data collected from road cuttings oblique to the strike of beds. This shown in the fig below:

(Fig 5.1 Stratiographic thickness measurement)

Measurement by the use of Jacob’s Staff :-

Geologists often use a Jacob’s Staff to measure bedding thicknesses. A Jacob’s Staff is a 1.5 meter-long pole that is marked off in suitable units, such as decimeters. It has an attachment for a Brunton at 1.5 m above the base of the pole. The Brunton is used as a clinometer to measure theangle of the pole from vertical and helps align the Jacob’s Staff perpendicular to bedding foraccurate measurements.

To measure bed thickness, place the Jacob’s Staff on the bedding plane at the base of the bedsyou want to measure. Next align the staff at right angles to bedding and sight downdip,perpendicular to strike, to the beds. The distance from the base of the staff to the sight point onthe Brunton is equal to the thickness of strata between the base of the staff and the point sighted.There are a number of steps for doing this measurement accurately:

Measure the strike and dip of bedding where you intend to measure the section; record the dataand set the clinometer on the Brunton to the angle of dip.

Place the Brunton securely in the attachment on the Jacob’s Staff, and open the compass lid about 60°.

Place the staff at the base of the unit to be measured and tilt it downdip (exactly perpendicular to strike) until the clinometer bubble in the Brunton is centered.

Study the point sighted on the ground and decide if the staff can be placed on it for your next measurement; if so, note the point carefully by eye or place an object at that point.

If the base of the Jacob’s Staff can not be placed on the point you sighted for your nextmeasurement, move the base of the staff along the lower bedding surface until a suitable pointcan be sighted.

Draw your stratigraphic column, describing the rocks in this unit. Measure the positions of beds within this 1.5 meter-thick interval using the Jacob’s Staff or a ruler.

Move the base of the Jacob’s Staff to the sited point, and make your next measurement. The whole procedure is shown in the fig below:

References:-

http://geography.about.com

http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/SedRx/Clastic.html

http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/SedRx/Clastic.html

LAB#06

Measurement of a dip and strike

Objective:

To find measurement of a dip and strike of the any rock by using brunton compass.

THE BRUNTON COMPASS:

The brunton is a small piece of low precision surveying equipment that can be put in your pocket, held in your hand, and used by one person to complete a simple surey.distance measurement in a brunton survey is usually done by placind. bruntons have the ability to measure strikes and dips of a rock formations so they are still valuable remote geological work.

dip and strike in a rock structure:

Strike:

Fault strike is the direction of a line created by the intersection of a fault plane and a horizontal surfce, 0° to 360°, relative to north. strike is always defined such that a fault dips to the right side of the trace when moving along the trace in the strike direction. the hanging-wall block of a fault is therefore always to the right, and the footwall block on the left. this is important because rake (which gives the slip direction ) is defined as the movement of the hanging wall relative to the footwall block.

Dip:

Dip is the angle between the fault and horizontal plane, 0° to 90°.

Method of measurement of strike:

i. Place the bottom edge of compass flate against the plane of interest. sometimes it is easier to put fieldbook against the plane outcrop then compass against the plane outcrop.

ii. Adjust compass orientation making sure bottom edge is always flate against the plane until the air bubble in the bullzai level is centered.

iii. Read either end of compass needle to obtain the value of strike.

Method of measurement of dip:

i. After determining strike rotate copass 90° plane.ii. Place the side of compass against plane.

strike and dip (horizontal)

strike and dip (vertical)

strike and dip

iii. Adjust the level on the back of the compass untill air bubble untill galvanometer level is centered.

iv. Read the dip directly from scale in the compass.

Importance of dip and strike:

i. Dip and strike is measured for geological maping.ii. Dip and strike is measured in dam and tunnel construction. the inclination of the

planner structure in geology is measured by dip and strike. this includes sedimentary bed, faults, fracture, dip, strike and many other planner features in earth.

iii. Measuring the attitude of the planes.iv. Measuring the bearing of the line between two points.v. Measuring the attitude of a plane with the two-line technique.

References

http://geography.about.com http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/sedrx/clastic.html http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/sedrx/clastic.html

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