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OSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARYCall No. * ftS"2Accession No. .S 2>6 6.7/Ks^t com-petition" than to evolve detailed methods of putting theprinciple into practice and getting it accepted by humanity as awhole. But there is no reason to believe that the difficultiesinvolved pass the wit and capacity of mankind to overcome, orto doubt that, unless the principle is accepted and acted upon, theattempt to progress towards greater happiness is doomed tofailure. Indeed, if we cannot make good here it must be con-cluded that the whole evolutionary process of human existenceis without significance or hope. What is required is the deliberateadoption of a new attitude towards life by every man, a point towhich I shall make fuller reference in a later chapter. But in viewof this necessity the words and actions of those people, oftenwell-meaning enough and not consciously selfish, who behaveas if the past competitive scramble for the world's goods mustinevitably continue in the future, render grievous disservice tothe cause of mankind.

I ought perhaps to develop more explicitly the bearing ofmythesis on the difficult problem of the principles which shouldgovern the distribution of wealth. It is now, I think, fairlygenerally agreed that this distribution should be related to thenature of individuals themselves, and to the use they make oftheir powers, and not directly to external circumstances whichare initially outside the control of the individual concerned.The approach to the question of the distribution of wealth is,however, commonly based on the idea that, generally speaking,

monetary reward is a necessary incentive to work and service.This seems to me to be wrong, though I admit that, until certainchanges have occurred in human thought, feeling, and behaviour


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POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND SOCIOLOGY 61changes the necessity and urgency of which it is the main

purpose of this book to suggest the incentive of monetaryreward may continue to be a necessary, though unfortunate and,in the end, harmful expedient.

Closely connected with the idea of incentive is the use ofmonetary reward as, in effect, a kind of bribery to persuadepeople to enter certain occupations. It is quite common to hearit said that the * right people* can be attracted to a given occupa-tion only by offering a sufficiently high financial inducement.But what about the effects upon, and the reactions of, otheroccupations away from which these people are attracted? Isuggest that it is quite irrational to consider in isolation theneeds and interests of a particular occupation or group ofoccupations in this way. The difficulty could probably beavoided by suitable upbringing and occupational guidance andallocation, though I would emphasize that it would be importanthere to secure the best possible balance between the needs of thecommunity and the interests, capacities, and desires of indi-viduals. The present comparatively blind and haphazard conflictbetween the demands of different occupations would then bereplaced by rational planning without regimentation.

I should therefore suggest a different line of approach to theproblem. If every individual received the type of training andculture most suitable for him and was at the same time guidedtowards that form of life which was best suited to his interestsand abilities on the one hand, and to the needs of the com-munity on the other, then work and service should become inthemselves matters of individual satisfaction and self-fulfilmentrequiring no particular monetary incentive for their effectivepursuit.We should then be left only with the question of providingfor every one, apart from his occupation as a member of the

community, the minimum essentials of life and the means to fullpersonal development according to his needs and capacities. Inother words, we should have, as regards the latter, to provide


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62 STRATEGY OF LIVINGopportunities for culture of which every individual would beable to take advantage at his own level ; and among the means toculture I should include the nature of the immediate environ-ment with which the individual could surround himself, and alsothose aspects of life which would commonly be described as* recreation' and 'entertainment/We have already taken some steps in providing means toculture which are freely accessible to all in, for example, ournational and local public libraries and museums. But I do notthink it would be practicable for the community to provideeither the minimum essentials of living or the various kinds ofculture free, without the surrender by individuals of any token.It is here, I suggest, that the function of money, in the form oftoken currency, comes in. Currency would be a method ofsimplification and control, and of ensuring that everyone couldreceive his fair share. The purchase prices both of life essentialsand of the various cultural facilities would be related to the needsand the demands of individuals, and these prices would also bea function of the amount of currency distributed. The fixing ofthem would be a matter of trial and experiment.As regards the actual periodic distribution of currency I feelthat it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the same amountshould be allocated at intervals to every adult member of thecommunity, with suitable, though different, allocations forchildren of different age-ranges.1 This conclusion may seemless drastic if we remember that it presupposes the provision forall, by the community, of the various social services, and, inexchange for currency, the essentials of life and the facilities forculture. The type of culture most likely to contribute to personaldevelopment would vary, in degree and in kind, with the indi-vidual. But the facilities would be there, and the amount of each

1 The system I am describing is obviously similar, in some respects, to theemergency rationing by 'points 1 and 'coupons.' But the latter is highly restrictive,applies only to certain essentials, and exists side by side with the traditionalcurrency; nevertheless its success provides some evidence of the practicabilityof the much wider system which I suggest.


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POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND SOCIOLOGY &3Would be adjusted by trial to the demand. The life occupationsof many members of the community would, of course, consist inproviding and making accessible the essentials of life in s6mecases and in others the means to culture.One great advantage of a currency system is that it gives a

freedom of choice to individuals, and there is, of course, a rangeof alternatives in regard to life essentials as well as in regard toculture. But it is possible that an additional advantage might liein the provision of two forms of currency, one only for th pur-chase of essentials, the other only for the purchase of the meansto culture. Every individual would receive the same amount ofeach form of currency, and supply of * goods' and * services'would be determined, not by a particular distribution of differentdegrees of 'purchasing power,' in terms of currency, amongthe members of the community, but by the personal needs ofthe latter. Each unit of currency would be used once onlyby the person to whom it was allotted, and would then becanceled.

In such a system taxation would be unnecessary. The com-munity services would be provided by the material resourcesavaifobte and by the work of certain members of the community.But I do not think that it necessarily follows that all services andmaterial iesources shouW be controlled directly by the com-munity. The provision of these might be, in part, a matter ofprivate enterprise, though it must be remembered that 1 amassuming a state of affairs in which the activities of individualsare determined, not by the so-called 'profit motive/ which wouldhave ceased to have any significance, but by the satisfaction andfulfilment derived from engaging in those activities. The com-munity would, however, have to exercise a general supervisionover all, though it would delegate a part of its responsibilities toprivate individuals or groups of individuals, allocating to themappropriate amounts of material and acting in harmoniousco-operation and consultation with them; but the final controlof basic material resources would necessarily have to lie with the


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64 STRATEGY OP LIVINGcommunity, and, in the circumstances, there could hardly beobjection to this.The method of expenditure of the amount of currencyallocated to him would be largely a matter for the individual. But

some measure of control might be necessary to avoid the dangerof 'hoarding 1 by some individuals, followed by a sudden unload-ing of currency, which would upset the balance of supply anddemand. This control might be exercised, perhaps, by makingcurrency tokens negotiable only for a certain period followingtheir distribution, though this period should be long enough toenable every one, under normal conditions, to make use of histokens before the date of expiry. It must also be rememberedthat individual motivation is assumed to be of a more en-lightened type than at present.Two difficulties arise. The first is that of the person who failsto render the service due from him. I think this must be regardedas anti-social behaviour, but the first step to be taken would notbe of a punitive character, but would be in the nature of aninquiry into the root causes of the lapse. When these weredetermined it would generally be possible to decide on theremedial methods necessary to restore the defaulter to normalityin both his individual and social life. The measures, if any, to betaken in regard to the allocation of currency during the periodof defect and cure could only be decided in the light of all thecircumstances of the particular case.The second difficulty arises in connexion with those necessaryoccupations which involve special difficulty, discomfort, boringroutine, or danger. I think that the first tiling to be said aboutthese occupations is that in most and probably in all such casesa great deal more could be done than at present to diminish thedegree in which the deterrent factors operate. Having done thiswe should have to rely on the possibility that, with greatly im-proved methods and conditions, there would be a sufficientnumber of people whose interests and abilities incline themtowards even those occupations which suffer from drawbacks


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POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND SOCIOLOGY 65such as I have indicated. The variety of human nature is suchthat I should not feel unduly pessimistic about such a possibility,especially as one consequence of improved methods, particularlyin regard to mechanical aids, would usually be that the necessarywork could be done by far fewer people in far less time. Evidentlywe could not meet the difficulty by increased ' rewards/ for, byhypothesis, the .personal needs of all would already be met.

Clearly a system on the lines described would apply mostdirectly to a community such as a national state, but I see noreason why, mutatis mutandis, it should not ultimately be appliedinternationally to the whole world-community. Like most of thesuggestions in this book it could not stand alone but would beassociated with certain general fundamental changes in humanmotivation and conduct which, as I am trying to show, areurgently necessary if our human society is to progress, or evento survive in a recognizable form.

I have beenconsidering

the problem regarding means to theapplication in the economic field of certain principles of beliefand conduct. An analogous problem arises, of course, in thepolitical field. Such problems pass over into the realm ofsociology.

I have referred earlier to the interrelatedness of politics,economics, and sociology. But the relation of the two former tosociology is different in kind from their relation to one another.Sociology investigates the means of applying the guidingprinciples adopted in such fields as politics and economics; it istherefore the science on which the latter are based. The logical(but not die psychological) order is, in fact, as follows : first theadoption of an ethical system, which is in the long run itselfdetermined and justified in part by metaphysical considerations.The system I have been advocating is based on the key conceptsof happiness and wisdom. The consequences of the ethicalsystem are then formulated in general principles applicable tothe various fields of human experience and activity, of whichpolitics and economics are important examples. It is then


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66 STRATEGY OF LIVINGnecessary to consider methods of implementing these principles .in the fields in question. This is the province of sociology which,in pursuing its inquiry, draws largely, of course, on such sciencesas biology and psychology, both group and individual.

In accordance with my general purpose I shall deal for themost part only with the broader aspects of sociology, and notwith its more detailed applications. I have said that clues to theway to happiness are provided by experience and can be soughtin experiment. The search for these clues, so far as they are orcan be made apparent in community life, is a prime task ofsociology. It is, indeed, the constructive complement of thatother aspect of sociology which consists in the observation andsystematic description of the conditions of group life andits development both past and present. We must, of course,look ultimately to the nature and development of the individual,for society consists of individuals, and I shall deal with thisspecially in my closing chapters. But it is possible within limitsto consider the characteristics and potentialities of human groupsin themselves without specific reference to the particular indi-viduals composing them.

It would fall to the lot of sociology, then, to attempt to deter-mine the means of achieving progress towards happiness, if sucha goal were adopted, partly through observation and inter-pretation of actual experience, present and past and here itmust seek help from the study of history and partly throughplanned experiment and observation of the results thereof.One result indeed, the most important result of this wouldbe the determination of ways and means of establishing theenvironmental conditions, material and otherwise, which areessential if happiness is to increase, and, at the same time, of pro-ducing in human societies the attitude most conducive to thisincrease. In particular it would be necessary to decide whether,in any given case, existing conditions were so chaotic, or soinimical to the result it is desired to produce, that the onlymethod likely to be effective would be the ruthless removal or


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POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND SOCIOLOGY 67destruction of the factors, including human agents, which aredecisive influences in the state of the community as it actually is,followed by deliberate planning proceeding from an almostentirely fresh start. This is the method of revolution, and its (atleast temporary) consequences in terms of pain and misery aregenerally such that, if it ever be justified at all it can only be onthe basis 'of a very high degree of certainty that the resultultimately arrived at is completely justified in itself, and alsomost likely to be achieved.On the other hand, it may appear that existing conditions aresuch that they can be changed in the direction of the desired end

by a relatively gradual process which starts from things as theyare and moulds and develops them into the things hoped for.This is the method of evolutionary reform, and it would, nodoubt, be generally agreed that it is altogether preferable to themethod of revolution, at any rate provided that it does not fallfar short of the latter in its effectiveness in regard to its aim. Wehave, in fact, to consider the state of happiness of the com-munity, not only in the condition at which we are aiming, butalso in the transition to that condition from the existing state ofaffairs.

There are, of course, certain minimum essentials as regards,for example, material conditions, health, and so on, withoutwhich a steady increase in the happiness of the community seemsto be impossible. With these, as a matter of detail, I am notprimarily concerned, though I shall refer to them incidentally.Here I would only say that it is of the utmost importance thatthe determination and definition of these minimum essentialsshould be precise. For example, it is now commonly consideredthat 'security* is one of the essentials, but this security shouldnot be of a nature to damp down the adventurous creativenessof the human spirit, but only such that, without it, creativeactivity, and therefore satisfaction and fulfilment, would hardlybe possible at all.

I cannot help feeling that if the interdependence of human


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POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND SOCIOLOGY 69a peculiarly favourable position to take the lead in initiatingattempts to progress towards a happier world. Yet they will,and can, do so only if their nationals are ready to try the ex-periment of acting consistently on the principle that the satisfy-ing fulfilment of human life can be conceived only in terms ofsomething essentially akin to happiness, and that the individualcannot 'find his own happiness except at the same time he seeksthe happiness of others. Moreover, I would once again emphasizethat this is not a matter of ' softness* or sentimentality but ofinescapable fact. As such it cannot be ignored.I do not underrate the difficulties and complexities of thesociological problem even were these reduced by a fundamentalchange in human attitudes of the kind I have indicated. But thefact remains that the major part of the difficulty arises from theselfish, aggressive and non-co-operative motives which aremanifest too frequently in human behaviour, and the reversal ofthese would be a long step towards the solution of the socialproblem. Moreover, it is easy to exaggerate the difficulties withwhich a would-be reformer might be confronted. For conditionsof acute crisis have revealed, in this and some other countries,the existence of a widespread underlying fund of general good-will and readiness to act in the interests of other individuals andof the whole community. This indicates that the obstacles to theachievement of the desired end, and to the process of transitionto conditions more favourable to the latter, are very far frominsuperable. Indeed, the manifestations to which I have referredin themselves define the most urgent social problem as that ofharnessing and developing the altruistic motives and attitudes,which operate in conditions of crisis, for the service of generalprogress in conditions less obviously acute, and therefore lessspectacular and less stimulating, than those of immediate nationalperil.

There is, I think, apparent in most communities, at some stageof their development, a tendency to split, psychologically if notalways on clear lines of physical or social demarcation, into two


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70 STRATEGY OF LIVINGgroups which conceive themselves to be fundamentally opposedas regards their respective supposed * interests.' There are variousways in which these groups are imagined, and correspondingdifferences in their symbolic names, for example, * Capital*and 'Labour,' 'exploiters' and 'exploited,' 'governors' and'governed,' 'they' and 'we.' If this were all, the resulting groupswould not be stable, or capable of orderly development andprogress, for the basic idea underlying them is that of conflict,which is self-destructive. But fortunately there is usually, andperhaps always, a tendency to the formation of a third group.This group is formed in part (and, perhaps, in the last analysiswholly) by extrusion of individuals from the other two groups.Some individuals raise themselves from the Mower' group byqualities of intelligence and character, and although they arenaturally always influenced by the conditions from which theyhave come, they may frequently divest themselves of bitternessand prove capable of taking up an enlightened and objectiveattitude towards social and ethical problems. On the other hand,some members of the 'upper' group often younger memberseither because they develop a kind of 'social conscience' or forother reasons, detach themselves from the concepts whichdetermine the behaviour of the group from which they springand become exponents of reform, in theory and in practice, underthe pressure of a sense of the wrongs suffered by some of theirfellows. It should be made clear that this third group is essen-tially different in constitution and in motivation, from a socialor economic ' middle class,' though they may overlap physically.Its members may be found in many different social and occupa-tional fields, and most obviously, perhaps, among such people asteachers, doctors, social workers, and ministers of religion. But irtthe existence of this third group there lies one of the main hopesof progress in the sense in which I have defined it, for it impliesthe possibility of bringing together into a harmonious inte-gration the two fundamental groups which have developed inconditions which are the reverse of harmony and happiness*


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POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND SOCIOLOGY 7)I am nevertheless very conscious of the difficulty which arises,

in any systematic attempt to change human attitudes, of makingreal contact with that section of the community known as the'depressed' class. The conditions in which these people live, andby which they have been moulded, almost defeat the imaginationof the rest of the community. It is clear that the initial attemptsat contact must start from the situation as it exists, and by meanswhich appeal to the unfortunate persons concerned by fallingwithin their comprehension and within the pattern of their cir-cumstances and state of mind. No attempt is likely to be suc-cessful which translates them suddenly to what would be con-sidered by other sections of the community as a much higherlevel of existence. They must be gradually prepared for the latter.This point is illustrated, for example, by the at least partialfailure of some of the experiments in destroying the homes ofslum-dwellers and transferring them, more or less abruptly, tofar better housing conditions. This often results in the creationof what, relative to the new environment, is simply anotherslum. But the detailed investigation of the sociological problemof finding the most effective methods of transition does not fallwithin the scope ofmy present purpose.

I should add, however, that I realize that, in any attempt tobring about a change in human attitudes, the difficulty of makingthe initial contact with those concerned is not confined to thecase of one particular group.The community can be cross-classified in many different wayse.g., by age, sex, or occupational level. Apart from the difficultiesraised by foolish motives and beliefs and I use the term ' foolish 'as more appropriate to my philosophy than the term 'wrong* inthe conventional moral sense it is one of the tasks of sociologyto determine the functions of these various classes in a pro-gressive society, and to investigate the conditions which it isnecessary to create if these functions are to be effectively ful-filled. But I believe that with the widespread adoption of an ethosof the kind I have suggested all such sociological problems would


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72 STRATEGY OF LIVINGbe greatly simplified, and this simplification would increase atcompound interest in the course of progress towards the solutionof the problems in question. Things would get rapidly easier asone went on.

Another and more general problem of sociology, to whichsome reference should be made, is that of harmonizing freedomwith order or discipline at every stage and in all conditions.Here again the good will of the individual is of paramount im-portance in reducing the difficulty of the problem. Given this,the general principle of the solution lies in regarding the degreeof order and discipline to be aimed at as the minimum requiredto provide a stable framework within which the activities andcreative impulses of the individual can be given free play withoutendangering or hindering the self-expression of other individuals.Only in such conditions can that harmonious combination ofpersonal and social aims be achieved which is a necessary con-dition of progress towards general and individual happiness.One particular and important aspect of the topic I have justmentioned is that of public restraint and the penal code. It seemsclear that the necessary degree of such restraint and 'punish-ment* would steadily diminish with the transformation of selfishand competitive motivation into a general attitude towards lifein which the true interests of the individual and the communityare reconciled and reinforce one another. But the same broadconsiderations apply at all stages in this process.

In the first place, the belief in the deterrent effect of certainlimitations and penalties which society imposes on those guiltyof anti-social acts is surely fallacious. For not only is its efficacy,even within the narrow range of its own immediate purpose,extremely doubtful, but it is wrong in principle, for it seeks toset up a motive for individual behaviour which is indefensible.To act, or to refrain from acting, in a certain way simply throughfear of the consequences to oneself is to develop motives whichwill set up conflict, not only in the individual himself, but alsoJbetween him and society.


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POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND SOCIOLOGY 73The fundamental question for society, in the case of individual

misbehaviour, is not how to establish terrifying preventives,which are, in any case, of limited effect, but what are the con-ditions which have led to a state of mind in the offender whichcauses him to act anti-socially, and whether this state of mind isremediable in such a way as to set the individual concerned onthe path to happiness and at the same time to convert him intoan asset, instead of a liability, in social progress. These con-siderations seem to me to apply even in the more extremeexamples of anti-social behaviour such as homicide. I take it forgranted that mere 'revenge' is now excluded by most peopleas a justifiable motive on the part of society in dealing with itsweaker brethren.

All the resources of the sciences of human motivation andbehaviour should be brought to bear on the re-education of themisguided offender. In particular, the conditions imposed onhim should be expansive rather than restrictive. For example,the confinement as regards space, light, and air which havemarked the penal disciplines of the past are the very negation ofthe needs of the soul which has fallen sick.

It may, of course, happen that in certain cases there appearsto be no possibility of cure, though we shall have to be muchwiser than we are at present before we can certainly assert thatthis can sometimes occur. But if, lacking full wisdom, we muston occasion reluctantly adopt this conclusion, there seems to beno alternative between the painless extermination of the indi-viduals concerned or their perpetual segregation, though underconditions which do not involve suffering or degradation. I shallnot presume to suggest a decision between these most difficultof alternatives.

In closing this present chapter on the group aspects of humanlife, and their relations to human happiness, I would once moreremark that we must in the end look to the state of mind of theindividual human being if we are to find the key to happiness,and this matter I shall later have to consider in some detail. But


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74 STRATEGY OF LIVINGI hope that I have already made clear, among other things, mybelief in the close interdependence of the various aspects ofhuman life. Such abstractions as, for example, the concept of'the economic man,' and the associated belief that the funda-mental causes of the ills of mankind are economic, seem to meto be altogether misleading. The underlying malady is noteconomic, nor political, but spiritual, and its effects are manifestin every sphere of life.


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Chapter VPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPSIh inii I.AOT chapter I was mainly concerned with those aspects ofhuman existence which are determined by the pattern of grouprelationships in a community. In this chapter I shall approach thediscussion of that side of life which is

predominantlyindividual

in character.It would perhaps not be too much to say that personal re-

lationships afford greater possibilities of developing and in-creasing human happiness than any other medium, though it is ofcourse true that, wrongly handled, they may lead to equally greatmisery. The chief reasons for the power of personal relationshipsare that they are fundamentally, though not incidentally, in-dependent of extraneous factors, depending, as they do for themost part, on the inner resources of mind and spirit, and at thesame time can be made intrinsically satisfying in themselves.

I shall offer some comments on the points arising from thegeneral nature of these relationships, though one cannot get veryfar in the discussion of them without specifying more particu-larly the nature of the individuals concerned.

It should be pointed out that, apart from the personal relationsbetween pairs of individuals or within relatively small groups,which is our main topic here, there is a relation of the individualto the community which is personal and quite different incharacter from his relation, simply as one unit constituent, to thecommunity when the latter is regarded objectively as a whole.It is sufficient merely to refer to this point here, for the considera-tion of the relations between community and individual has beenimplicit or explicit in my theme throughout, and I shall return toit again in the sequel.For simplicity, I will write in terms of the relations between

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76 STRATEGY OF LIVINGtwo individuals though, mutatis mutandis, the same generalprinciples apply to the interrelations of members of small groups.The initial cause of the establishment of a relation between twopeople is probably unanalysable, though I think reasons ulti-mately metaphysical reasons of a general character can be givenfor the fact that such relations are a prominent feature of humanlife, but I am not concerned with these reasons here. In the par-ticular case the basis of the relationship is a mutual attractionwhich, though it may be illuminated by psychological considera-tions, seems to derive from some primary factor which cannot beanalysed. The attraction is, in this sense, an ultimate fact whichcan only be accepted as such.

If the relation is to be developed in such a way as to be theoccasion of greater happiness for those concerned it is necessaryfor each of them to explore the personality of die other withall consideration and circumspection, especially in the initialstages. This process should be marked on both sides by toleranceand efforts at sympathetic imagination and understanding, and byan absence of imposition of any kind, especially that particularkind of imposition which may be termed "possessiveness."

In developing contact and adjustment on these lines each willdiscover, on the one hand, those characteristics which are sharedin common, and which therefore enable the two personalities toreinforce one another, and, on the other hand, those character-istics which are complementary, and which therefore enable eachpersonality to fulfil the needs, and correct the deficiencies, of theother. I include among the latter those traits which might beregarded, prima facie, as antagonistic, for in the modification andadjustment of these may well be found means to personal im-provement and enrichment.The process I have described involves on both sides a com-

plete respect for the other partner in the relation as an individualperson whose happiness is in the nature of an ultimate value,having as well founded a right of place in the structure of exist-ence as the happiness of any other individual.


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PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 77It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to say that the relation should

as far as possible be developed in such a way as to contribute, byits reactions on the community, to an increase in the happiness ofall, and certainly so as in no wise to detract from this. But Isuggest that a relation between two people, developed on somesuch lines as I have outlined, can hardly fail of this effect, whetherthe latter is deliberately aimed at or not; for the complete isola-tion of individuals from the community is almost, if not quite,impossible, and the interrelations of a society and its memberscannot in general fall below a certain minimum level.An ideally developed personal relationship, and I do notregard the ideal here as impossible of approximation, may beexpected to tend to a finality which is relatively complete initself. In such a state each partner finds something approachingfull satisfaction in the companionship of the other for its ownsake, through the consequent interplay of the two personalities,in all their aspects, and at times through silent comradeship andcommunion.

It will, I hope, be clear that I regard the development of apersonal relationship as something essentially creative, as wellas exploratory. Indeed I think it possible that the final state ofbeing, if it is believed that the universe, as disclosed to us in thislife, can only be rendered intelligible byassuming that there is foreach of us an experience beyond this life, may consist completelyin something in the nature of personal relationships developed tothe highest order and in a variety of ways beyond the scope ofour present imagination. Such a state (and I purposely refrainhere from enlarging the conception of it by including ourrelations with God, though these might be regarded as the basisof the community structure within the pattern of which the par-ticular personal relationships would exist) would be somethingdynamic and creative of an indefinite variety of patterns of ex-perience, and not in the nature of some static and stagnant con-dition of endlessness the idea of which many people find soterrifying in their ponderings on the nature of immortal life. In


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78 STRATEGY OF LIVINGour present existence the activities that are most completelysatisfying for their own sakes are those which result in thecreation of patterns of experience involving every side of theindividual intellectual, aesthetic, emotional, and spiritual andof which the most striking examples are to be found in the fieldsof science, art, philosophy, and religion. Here and now ourcreative activity works often through the medium of the inter-play of personalities and material things, but ultimately it maywork, and to its highest effect, through the interplay of per-sonalities alone.In leaving the purely general aspects of personal relationshipsand passing on to the consideration of more specific conditionsone is confronted with so great a variety of possible combina-tions that it would be impossible to traverse these with anyapproach to completeness. But one or two particular types ofrelation stand out in importance, and these may be taken asillustrative, and discussed not only in their personal but also intheir community aspects.As a first example we may take the relation of an older personto a younger. The details of such a relation will depend in parton the degree of disparity in age, but certain general considera-tions apply. In view of his usually greater maturity and experi-ence the main responsibility for the satisfactory development ofthe relationship falls, especially in the initial stages, on the olderperson. The latter should not only act upon general principles ofa kind which I have already outlined, but will be required tomake a special effort of memory and imagination in understand-ing and interpreting the impulses and the point of view of theyounger partner in the relation. While it may be inevitable that,as people grow older, they have a tendency to drift away from asympathetic understanding of a younger generation, it is mostimportant that this tendency should be kept in check and itseffects reduced to a minimum. This is quite possible if it is madea conscious and deliberate aim. Two things are necessary: thefirst is that as we grow older we should try to keep fresh in our


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PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 79memory the experiences intellectual, physical, emotional, andspiritual of our own youth, not in the form of infantile oradolescent fixations, but as the material of rational and objectivereflection regarding the process by which we have ourselvesdeveloped from youth to maturity or farther. The secondnecessity is that we should take fully into account the changesin the environrftental conditions, understood in the fullest sense,which have taken place since our own youth, and so be in a posi-tion to contrast the factors which combined to produce our ownyouthful experiences with those operating in the case of ageneration younger than our own. Where we find it difficult orimpossible to understand the behaviour of youth, or to imagineits causes, we should suspend judgment.Some of the most important examples of the relationship ofolder and younger people are those which fall within the familygroup. I shall consider these more particularly in the last part ofthis chapter. For the moment I would only offer a reminder ofthe obvious fact that, in the young-old relation, the contributionof the younger partner, at its best, lies in its general vitalizingeffect, its urgent sense of the need for beneficial change, itsfreshness of outlook and, often, clarity of aim (if only within anarrow range and frequently mistaken in kind), and its im-patience of hypocrisy, complacency, or temporizing. Per contra,the contribution of the older partner, at its best, is that of astabilizing influence, a security factor in reserve, a balanced viewof desirable changes in relation to existing conditions whichdetermine the best method of approach (which may not beapparently the quickest) in trying to bring about the changes inquestion, rational tolerance, and a fund of knowledge, experi-ence, and wisdom.Though I have approached the question of the respectivefunctions of younger and older, in their interrelations, in a per-

sonal context, the extension to community life is immediate andof the first importance. The sociological problem is to developa system in which the most effective potential contributions of


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80 STRATEGY OF LIVINGolder and younger can be brought to realization in a harmoni-ously co-operative way. Youth is quite ready to accept the claimof its elders to lay down reasonable but not unwarrantablyrestrictive regulations regarding conduct ; to give advice whenthis is sought, but not to pontificate or to assume infallibility;and to play a main part in the general governance of communitygroups large and small, provided full use is made of the qualitiesand capacities of young people in this field where these havebeen justified through opportunities which they have beengiven, and for which youth reasonably asks, of manifestingthemselves. Above all the young take comfort, even if unac-knowledged, in the presence in the background of older people towhom recourse may be had when difficulties and conflicts arisewhich they themselves find irresolvable or overwhelming, alwaysprovided that this potential source of security and comfort is notimposed by the elders, and that the recognition of its existenceis tacit and not too openly expressed.I come now to what is, in many respects, the most importantof all relationships, both from the personal and from the socialangle namely, those between individuals of opposite sex. If adiscussion of this topic is to be significant we must rid ourselvesof all prejudices and influences of taboo or convention, andapproach it with exactly the same openness and freedom fromconstraint and inhibition with which we try to approach anyother matters of vital human interest. Fortunately recent changesin public opinion have been such that the disabilities formerlysuffered by those who felt the necessity of a fundamental treat-ment of this matter now operate only in a greatly diminisheddegree. Indeed, the removal of the ancient taboo, mainly underthe pressure of urgent social problems, has patently resulted in agrowing atmosphere of relief and release which is highlysignificant.

Sex is undoubtedly a basic element in life in some respects,perhaps, even the basic element. The ultimate ground for thismay lie in the fact that a necessary condition of concrete


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PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 8!existence is differentiation completely undifferentiated being,structureless and relationless, is nothing. Moreover it seemsreasonable to regard the differentiations, which are a conditionof existence, as necessarily complementary in character, for,when undifferentiated, they may be conceived as neutralizingone another to produce, in effect, a state of nothingness. Thismay be the reason for the prevalence, in all fields of experience,of a feature which gives rise to the concept of polarity and theattraction of opposites. Sex is the development of basic differ-entiation to higher levels of existence those of life and con-sciousness. But the differentiation, though it may be progressive,is rarely, if ever, complete. This is true of sex. No individual iscompletely male or completely female, a point to which I shall referagain shortly.

In any case, whatever may be die ultimate ground of thedifferentiation, sex permeates the whole of life, and it seems clearthat the main characteristics of the two sexes are complementary.In saying this I forget neither those characteristics which arecommon to both sexes as human beings nor the existence ofcertain individuals who are bi-sexual, or even more complicatedin nature, in varying degrees. But I do not think that anythingarises in these connexions which contradicts what I have said,though it; is a point which I cannot pursue further here.On the mental side, the evidence for the ubiquity of sexualfactors in the life processes has long been known to, and acceptedby, psychologists without their by any means necessarily sub-scribing to the doctrines of the more extreme disciples of theFreudian school. On the physiological side the cruder evidenceof this ubiquity, manifest in structural differences between thesexes, is obvious. But as research has progressed it has becomeincreasingly apparent that the influence of sexual factors operatesalso in other less obvious, though profound, ways. For example,it is now known that the sex hormones exercise a far-reachinginfluence on those basic metabolic processes on which the wholefunctioning of the organism depends.


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PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 83members of one sex exhibit vestigial or atrophied traces ofcertain elements of structure which are specially characteristicof the other sex, e.g. in the breast and the genital organs. More-over, in the body of every individual there are present hormonesof the opposite sex to his or her own, and the degree of balancebetween these and the hormones which, by their normal pre-ponderance, determine the individual's own sex, has a profoundinfluence in varying circumstances and at different periods oflife on organic processes and therefore on health and happiness.

Again, every man has something of the feminine, though invarying degrees, in his mental make-up, and vice versa. Butwhether the mental and physical differentiation of the sexes willincrease with further evolution is perhaps an open question.There seem to be obvious advantages, especially on the psycho-logical side, in the existence of a certain degree of bi-sexualityin every individual, for this may not only result in an increaseof efficiency in meeting life situations and in a certain enrich-ment of personality, but also in promoting better understandingbetween the sexes. On the other hand, a too incomplete differenti-ation may lead to results which most people would, no doubt,regard as undesirable, as in the case of the over-* effeminate* manor the Masculine' woman.

Although the original biological function of sexual activitymay have been only the perpetuation of the species, it is clearthat, at the human level, sex fulfils a more extended purpose.Thefe are, in fact, two main aspects of the latter which, thoughno doubt interrelated, are justified, each in its own right, asconducive to happiness. The one remains die purpose of pro-creation, though in a much fuller sense than at the animallevel owing to the development of those particular relationswhich hold within the family group. The other is the personaljoy occasioned by sexual companionship, which reaches its mostintense degree in the more intimate relations ofman and woman.To those who tend to depreciate the worth of this secondfunction of human sexual activity, or to regard it as altogether


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84 STRATEGY OF LIVINGsubordinate on the grounds of the evolutionary primacy of theprocreative function, one might reply that, to understand fullythe nature of a developing process, we must look not simply atits origin but at the process as a whole. Indeed, the end reachedat any stage may be far more important and revealing than theorigin, for it is in the developing end that the true inner purposeof the process tends to become ever clearer. In the case of sexthe personal aspects of the trend of development, and the relationof these to human happiness, are more and more manifest.

Conversely, sex, just because of its ubiquity and profundity,contains not only some of the greatest possibilities of happiness,but also, if wrongly directed, some of the worst possibilities ofunhappiness and misery. For this reason it is of the first import-ance that every human being should have the chance of living afull and satisfying sex life, and should be suitably prepared forthis through factual information given objectively, guidance inmeeting and dealing with emotional problems, and preparationfor marriage. In this connexion account has to be taken of thelimitations as well as the possibilities of sublimation of theimpulse associated with the primary sexual function.

I shall here pass to the more specific consideration of thepersonal sex relation between man and woman and of relationswithin the family. For I think that the relevant evidence fromall quarters tends to show that potentially the most effective unitof society in this context, in the furtherance of individual andcommunal happiness, is typified by the family group centredon a permanent relation between a man and a woman. Ihave used the word potentially' because the possibilities ofmarriage and of family life have, in general, been much mis-handled.The ability to live continually in the closest association witha person of the opposite sex, in such a way as to develop to the

full all the possibilities of happiness latent in such a situation, isan art requiring, and, indeed, worthy of, all the resources ofpersonality intellectual, aesthetic, and emotional. The principles


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PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 85which I offered for consideration, in regard to personal relation-ships in general, apply here in the highest degree. The greatestdifficulties are naturally encountered in the early stages, but ifthese are overcome and the beginnings of a fully harmoniousand creative relation is established the further development ofdie relationship tends to become less and less a matter ofdeliberate effort and control, and more and more a spontaneousgrowth in happiness, marked by joy and variety in sharedexperiences of all kinds of which the partners are intenselyconscious though they no longer find it necessary to exercisecontinual conscious control over it. On the other hand, if theinitial efforts at adjustment go awry the result is conflict andunhappiness resulting in a breaking of the relationship or adegeneration into dullness and monotony as a defence against aneven more unhappy condition.

It is, of course, true that an important contributory cause ofthe failure of our present society so far to develop the fullpotentialities of marriage as a prime factor in happiness aredie manifold anxieties, great and small, which accompany theeconomic and social life of so many people. If only for therepercussion of this state of affairs on marriage the remedyingof it is a matter of great sociological importance. But the factremains that the major cause of unhappiness in married life islack of true understanding and sympathy between the partners.Where such understanding and sympathy exist the effect ofdisturbing factors is correspondingly mitigated.

I believe that an essential condition of the/^//development ofmarriage as a ground for happiness is the existence between manand wife of a deep-rooted love, tenderness and passion. To somethis may appear a truism, but it is, in fact, by no means univer-sally accepted as such. If it appears that marriages 'arranged* onother grounds are often relatively more successful than Movemarriages,' it is not, I think, because arranged marriages aresounder in principle but only because, even when love isinitially present, so many marriages come to grief through lack


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86 STRATEGY OP LIVINGofadequate preparation and through misunderstanding for whichthe people concerned are not primarily to blame. But, grantedsuitable preparation, the existence of a mutual love theultimate reasons for which, and for the spontaneous attractionon which it is often based, are probably unanalysable is a greataid in the overcoming of the inevitable difficulties ^nd in theachievement of a considerable measure of lasting joy and happi-ness. It is on the emotional side that the rational and physicalaspects of marriage find their only adequate complement.

In considering the preparation of young people for marriageone might add that it is natural for both sexes to grow up togetherand to mix freely at all stages and in all conditions. At the sametime it must be remembered that each sex has its own particularinterests and ways of approach to life which it may wish topursue from time to time in separation from the other sex, andsuitable opportunities should be provided for this. Moreover,the points of view of the sexes differ greatly in certain importantrespects and the various aspects of life appeal to them in differentways. But for many social and recreative activities the sexesshould join, and they should be able to discuss freely andthoroughly among themselves all matters of common interest.In short, we should so arrange matters that it is easy for thesexes to mingle or to separate as may be most appropriate to theoccasion.There is one point here the importance of which is oftenoverlooked. It is not enough for young people to mix in groups.To achieve anything approaching a full understanding of thepersonality of another individual something more private isneeded. Our failure to make possible for pairs of young peoplean adequate amount of controlled privacy is not only unfair tothem but may also be one of the root causes of some of thesocial evils with which we have to contend.We should be quite honest with young people, in matters ofsex as in everything else. One of the chief causes of cynicismand selfishness in the young is, I think, the shock of realizing


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PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 87that the actual practice of adult life falls far short of, and is oftencontradictory to, the conventional standards preached or im-posed by adults in home, school, and elsewhere. No communitycan hope to make real progress while such a situation remainsunresolved.

But, however suitable and adequate a preparation for marriagewe may be able to develop, it is inevitable that, when two peopleenter more or less suddenly for the first time upon the experienceof living in conditions of the closest continuous intimacy withone of the opposite sex, the establishment of harmonious adjust-ment and a creative relationship that will realize all the possi-bilities of a happy marriage is a problem requiring the mostintelligent and understanding approach of which those con-cerned are capable.

While, as I have already said, the presence of a mutual lovemust be regarded as an essential factor in a happy marriage, thisis only the basis. Without respect, sympathy, and tolerance onboth sides it is likely to wither or turn to dislike, or even tohatred. Each of the partners should constantly remember thatthe interests of the other, and the degree and kind of importanceattached by the other to the various aspects of life, are verydifferent from his or her own. Women often ascribe value, inthe common sense of the term, to things which may seem to mentrivial or of little importance, and vice versa. Each sex has there-fore some tendency to ridicule the tastes and predilections of theother. There is no ground for this, for, as I have tried to show,value is relative to the individual, and that a man cannot under-stand why a woman feels certain interests is no reason fordepreciating them. It is just a fact that, by her very nature, thatis the kind of thing a woman likes she finds that it fulfils orexpresses her personality and therefore contributes to herhappiness. In the same way there are male interests which seemincomprehensible to women as regards the degree of importanceattached to them.

Evidently there is no reason why this situation should not be


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88 STRATEGY OF LIVINGdealt with in a sane and rational way. Yet misunderstanding andlack of sympathy, especially when they extend to deeper issuesand, in particular, to the more intimate sides of sexual life, arefruitful causes of unhappy marriages. It is important for bothman and wife to realize the kind of situation with which theywill be confronted, and to anticipate it by taking all opportunitiesof understanding the opposite sex before marriage. Every effortshould be made to develop sympathetic imagination and insightin order to understand the point of view of the other partner inmarriage, and, where the difference is so fundamental as to makethis impossible, to accept it as a fact without ridicule or resent-ment, which has to be fitted into the pattern of the dual life.Difficulty will no doubt arise where differences relate to mattersin which some decision or action has to be taken, but theseshould be dealt with on the plane of rational discussion, fullweight being given to factors which are of an 'intuitive' ratherthan an intellectual character, and not in an atmosphere of sensi-tiveness, aggressiveness, or censorious criticism. Where differ-ences are finally irresolvable it would seem a sane principle forhusband and wife to agree beforehand on the respective pro-vinces in which the judgment of one or the other will be loyallyaccepted as final.Another condition of a happy marriage is that the' situationinvolved in it should not be, broadly speaking, stationary. Therelation should be a truly creative one, at levels appropriate tothe individuals concerned. On the negative side there should beno attempt to limit the conditions of personal life through anykind of jealousy or possessiveness, while, on the positive side,each partner should not only seek every opportunity of enrichinghis or her own personality, and this will in itself react favourablyon the relations between the two, but should also try to developcontinually the pattern of experiences of all kinds which can beshared in common. In particular, no individual can find completefulfilment and stimulus in all spheres in but one person of theopposite sex, and attempts by married couples to isolate them-


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PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 89selves are not conducive to successful marriage on the con-trary, the establishment of personal relationships, on the generallines I have described at the beginning of this chapter, by eitherpartner with individuals of the opposite sex can make a valuablecontribution, through its reactions on personality, to the successof the marriage itself, always provided that such relationshipsare, so far as can be judged, in no way inimical to the happiness ofall concerned, and have no harmful reactions on the community.A marriage only approaches its complete fulfilment, however,in the raising of a family. Though the conduct of family life andthe bringing up of children still fall, for the most part, con-siderably short of the ideal, there are sound reasons, on the basisof the relevant evidence, for holding that family life is, at worst,a safeguard against the complete breakdown of a marriage and,at best, the source of greatly increased happiness for husbandand wife.

Apart from these considerations, there are two complementaryreasons which indicate that the family is the most appropriatetype of social unit. On the one hand, children have to be rearedand cared for, and the parents are not only those most suitablyplaced for this task but they alone can provide that backgroundof immediate security and personal love, a background which isstill too often deficient, in which children thrive best. On theother hand, the organization of a community in family unitsgives to it a balance and stability which could probably not besecured to a comparable degree by any other means. It is, how-ever, desirable that members of a family should mix as freely aspossible with others, and not form in any sense a segregated andself-centred group. There is a tendency for this to happen some-times, especially, perhaps, in large families.The difficulties and responsibilities of parents in bringing uptheir children are, in any case, so great that it would probablynow be generally agreed that the community should see to it

that all sources of economic anxiety in regard to this shouldbe removed as far as possible. Ways and means of doing this


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90 STRATEGY OF LIVINGconstitute another sociological problem of the first importance.Closely connected with this question is that of the appropriatesize for a family. Two sound general principles seem to be thatfamilies should consist of more than one child, and, so far aspossible, should include children of both sexes a matter whichcannot yet be controlled. Apart from these principles it issuggested that the size of the family should be determined onlyby the wishes and circumstances of the parents, within limitswhich are such as to make the raising of a family pre-eminentlya contribution to, and not a restriction of, the personal life of theparents, while at the same time avoiding the danger of any neg-lect of the children.

In bringing up children it is important to preserve a rightbalance between the emotional and the rational; the establish-ment of a sense of security and the encouragement of independ-ence ; and freedom of growth and expression, on the one hand,and control of conduct for family and social reasons on theother. This is an extremely difficult business, and, unfortunately,serious damage may be done early in life of a kind which issubsequently very hard to repair. Moreover, this damage is notalways apparent. For example, 'good* behaviour and quietnessin a child, which tend to please adults because it saves themtrouble, or, by contrast, noisiness and assertiveness, whicii adultsmay tend to explain as 'natural,' may equally be symptoms ofsome underlying maladjustment which may lead to trouble later.But in many cases the damage is quite obvious, and the numberof children who present minor or major 'problems' of variouskinds is too great for any complacency.

I think this situation can be met only by a wider recognitionby parents that the bringing up of children is a task of extremecomplexity, beginning at the birth of the child, in which acceptedroutine and tradition are apt to be misleading guides, and whichrequires continuous thought and recourse to the best adviceobtainable. At the same time the community should take everypossible step to make such advice available to parents.


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PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS 9!I have pointed out that children feel a great need for a back-

ground of love and security ; but within this general atmospherethey should be able to feel that particular situations which ariseare dealt with on a sane, rational, and objective basis eventhough they may not be old enough to comprehend this ex-plicitly. If conditions of this kind are established from the be-ginning the balance to which I have previously referred is themore easily preserved. This is particularly so in regard to thecontrol of conduct, and if need for 'punishment* arises it is asymptom of some failure on the part of parents or other adults.Punishment of children should never be retributive in nature,or carried out in an emotional atmosphere, angry or otherwise,for in that case it defeats its own end. Punishment should berational, should be seen by the child to be rational, and should,as far as possible, be appreciated by him as of a nature designedto help future control of conduct rather than merely to deter byfear of pain.The general attitude of parents towards children, especially asthey grow up, should be not that of superiority or 'possession 1towards a dependent or subordinate, but should be directedtowards making the child feel that, as a human being, he isregarded as an equal, whose feelings, interests, and opinions aregiven fbll weight, though admittedly he lacks the knowledgeand experience of his elders, a fact of which account must betaken on both sides. Moreover, when there are a number ofchildren in a family, it is most important that the parents shouldgive no evidence of differences in their regard for the individualchildren, because some of the latter possess qualities whichspecially appeal to them, or for any other reason.

It is evident that in all this the nature of the relations betweenthe parents is a paramount influence. No amount of love ortenderness shown to the child by the parents individually cancompensate for the unhappy effects on him of the tension set upwhen the parents are at cross purposes. Children are particularly-sensitive to such a situation, and it cannot be fully concealed


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92 STRATEGY OF LIVINGfrom them. The development of the kind of relationship betweenhusband and wife which I have already tried to outline is there-fore an indispensable condition of real happiness in family life.Where such a condition is notably absent it calls for serious con-sideration whether the community ought not to step in to decidewhether the happiness of the children, with its social repercus-sions, would not be better served by removing them from theirparents. It is a difficult and delicate question, involving the care-ful weighing of all factors according to the circumstances of theparticular case, but it is of such importance that it ought to besquarely faced. A child can hardly be regarded as the propertyof his parents, and the paramount consideration is respect forhim as an individual in himself whose happiness is an ultimatevalue.

I have dealt with other points relevant to the relations ofparents and children in considering the more general questionof the relationship of older to younger people. The detailedexploration of this topic might be pursued indefinitely, but thatis beyond my present purpose or the scope of this chapter, inwhich I have offered for consideration certain general principleswhich seem to me to be well founded in regard to the influenceof personal relationships as such, and particularly those whicharise in connexion with sex and family life, on the happiness ofindividuals and the well-being of the community.


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Chapter VIHEALTHTHE RELATION BETWEEN health and happiness needs no stressing.Although some people manage to achieve a considerable measureof happiness in spite of a serious degree of bodily ill-health, itwould hardly be denied that an essential condition of happinessin the fullest sense is a completely healthy organism body andmind.

For this reason it is natural and right that people should takea keen interest in health ; not that kind of morbid interest whichresults in a valetudinarianism fearful of contracting every kindof disease, but an interest consisting in a positive recognition ofthe great contribution to happiness which results from the senseof well-being associated with a high degree of health, and adetermination so to order life as to achieve, as far as possible,such a desirable condition.

It is true that some misguided persons sneer at, or ridiculeeven, the positive and constructive attitude to health which Ihave indicated, declaring that one should carry on as one feelsinclined without thinking about one's health. This might beunobjectionable if we had reached that fortunate state in whichan approximation to complete health was the rule rather than theexception ; but as it is I suspect that such persons are promptedby a psychological mechanism in defence of their own unhealthyhabits, and an implicit fear of being urged to changes in theirhabits, and in some of the features of their environment, whichmight interfere for a time to some extent with their pleasure andcomfort.

It is a truism that mental and physical health are closely inter-relatedindeed, in the end, they are probably inseparable.But they can be dealt with as distinct aspects of a single

93


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94 STRATFCY OF LIVINGcondition, and in this chapter I shall be concerned mainly withphysical health. Mental health involves so many sides of thewhole personality that, apart from some references at the end ofthis chapter to certain types of mental attitude or function whichhave an immediate bearing on physical well-being, I shall leavethe general question of mental health to be dealt with, by im-plication, in my closing chapter.

It is sometimes said that it is impossible to define the term* health' precisely. I feel that this statement is perhaps too sweep-ing. Every bodily organ or part seems to manifest a pattern de-fining an ideal structure, even though the particular organ orpart examined may be palpably defective in some respect ; whileat the same time, when in action, it indicates an ideal method offunctioning even though, again, the actual process may be tosome extent defective in the particular instance. Health mightthen be defined with reference to these ideal standards, defectfrom 'perfect* health consisting in the degree of departure fromthese standards.

Structure and function are, of course, closely interdependent,and can probably only be defined completely in terms of bio-logical purpose. This purpose, again, is relative to the environ-ment of the organism, and it is here that the difficulty of defining'health* is perhaps most apparent. For there is always a tendencyon the part of the organism to adjust structure and function toenvironmental changes, interpreted in the widest sense, and thequestion therefore arises as to when such adaptations are to beregarded as 'unhealthy.' The truth is that we must considerorganism and environment together. But human beings have aconsiderable measure of control over the details of their environ-ment. It therefore seems reasonable to suggest as an aim acontrol of the environment, and a consequent adaptation ofstructure and function, of such a kind as to produce in theindividuals concerned the highest possible degree, for the longestpossible time, of that sense of bodily well-being which is so im-portant a factor in happiness. Level of health would then be


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HEALTH 95defined in terms of approximation to the achievement of thisaim.

I am not directly concerned with the great contribution tohealth made by medical treatment and medical research, but withthe contribution which the individual himself can make to hisown health, and therefore to that of the community, by the wayin which-he liVes. These two factors evidently interact, but theonly comment I will make here on the former is to draw attentionto the notable, and desirable, tendency of medical practice toshift its emphasis to the preservation of good health and the pre-vention of ill-health, while continuing to give due attention tothe cure of disease when this has been contracted. This tendencyis more and more taking the form, not merely of protectingmankind against the results of its own bad habits, but of deter-mining wise rules of living and, as a result, educating the com-munity and its members to substitute good health for bad.Two facts have always seemed to me to constitute a standingchallenge if not a standing disgrace to our civilization. The

first is that most of us, from our earliest years, drag about withus a load of what are, relatively and initially, minor ills whichtake the fine edge off living and so detract seriously frompotential happiness. I am not referring here to the results ofdegenerative processes or of infections of parasitic origin whichoccur from time to time in the form of individual breakdownsor epidemics that affect whole groups. I am speaking rather ofsuch minor ill-defined conditions as headaches, lassitude, loss ofappetite, foot troubles, skin troubles, gastrointestinal ailments,and so on (some of which I realize may ultimately be due toparasitic agents), which are not in themselves, and for the timebeing, regarded as very serious, but which produce a definitelowering of

*

tone' in the human organism.It is difficult to resist the conclusion that the almost universalprevalence of such ills, in some degree at every age, is due tofundamental faults in our way of living and in the environmentwe make for ourselves. So far as I am aware, there is nothing


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96 STRATEGY OF LIVINGcorresponding to this in animals living in a natural state. It istrue that these have, from time to time, their own diseases andpests and their own epidemics, but I suggest that, so far as onecan judge, they live in general at a level of health undiminishedby multifarious ailments of the kind which I have listed asmanifest in human beings.The second disturbing and challenging fact, which is no doubtconnected with the first, is that bodily death in human beings,instead of taking place as a peaceful passing at the end of a pro-cess of gradually waning vitality, is accompanied in most casesby some unpleasant disease and occurs in circumstances of con-siderable pain and indignity.The main bodily processes and conditions can be broadlygrouped under the following five headings : physical activity,rest and sleep, breathing, nutrition, and elimination. In the caseof the first two and the last of these accurate knowledge nowseems reasonably clearly defined, and practice is well on the wayto conformity with it.Much attention has been given to the development of soundtypes of bodily activity and to that specially organized form ofthe latter known as ' physical training.1 The associated techniqueshave undergone considerable change in the course of recentyears, of a kind which it seems reasonable to regard as pro-gressive, and an increasing number of people are now aware ofthe importance of this aspect of bodily life and are prepared toact accordingly.The importance of adequate and suitable rest and sleep is alsonow generally recognized, together with the most effectivemeans of ensuring this. It is worth referring, however, to thewell-established value of deliberate bodily relaxation, as distinclfrom casual rest. There is a simple technique of beneficialrelaxation which has to be acquired though this is no difficultmatter and the spread of knowledge on this might well b

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