Strategic-Systemic Approach to School Problems

8/6/2019 Strategic-Systemic Approach to School Problems

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StrategicStrategic--SystemicSystemic

Approach to SchoolApproach to SchoolProblemsProblems

StrategicStrategic--SystemicSystemic

Approach to SchoolApproach to SchoolProblemsProblems

Dott. ssa Claudette PortelliDott. ssa Claudette Portelli


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Systemic-StrategicPerspective

Brief strategic-systemic approach to school behavior problemsrepresents a major drift from traditional child theories and theordinary ways of defining and intervening on childrensdifficulties.

Initiated at MRI[1] in Palo Alto (USA) and then further elaborated byGiorgio Nardone and his collaborators at the Centro di Terapia Strategica

in Arezzo (Italy), the Advanced Brief Strategic model represents arevolutionary approach to problem solving in all fields, clinical, family andorganizational.

Yet only recently, has this approach been specifically employed to social,emotional and behaviour difficulties in school-aged children andadolescents. (Amatea, 1988a, 1989; Amatea and Lockhausen, 1988, Kral,1986; Williams and Weeks, 1984; Wiswell, 1986, Nardone, Fiorenza, 1995;

Fiorenza, 2000; Nardone, Portelli, 2005; Hyberger, 200X; Balbi, Artini,2009).

[1] Mental Research Institute Brief Therapy Center by Paul Watzlawick, John Weakland and Richard Fisch,


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Strategic-Systemic

PerspectiveThis approach has been particularly appealing to school helpingprofessionals, who often end up feeling helpless and intimidated bycertain persistent children problems, which result highly resistantto simple corrective conventional actions.

Moreover, being given indications to handle childrens difficultieswill help the school helping professionals to intervene effectively,thus preventing difficulties to turn into serious problems.

This approach also engages well in the school context because it

does not involve long-term commitments of time and energy.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic Approach

The School: An array of constructed realitiesThe School: An array of constructed realities

Constructivism holds that individuals perceive andConstructivism holds that individuals perceive andconstruct reality based on their own experiences.construct reality based on their own experiences.

Everything is perspective and perspectiveEverything is perspective and perspective

is everything.is everything.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-SystemicInterventionsWearewhat wethink. All that weareariseswith our thoughts. Withour

thoughts, wemaketheworld

Buddha (quoted in Boldt, 1999, p.3)

Truthisnotwhatwediscoverbutwhatwecreate

Saint-Expury

WedontseethingsastheyareweseethingsasweareWedontseethingsastheyareweseethingsasweare

The TalmudThe Talmud


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The basic tenets of


Constructivism theory of learning states thatConstructivism theory of learning states thatindividualsindividuals create their own new understandingscreate their own new understandings

on the basis of an interaction between what theyon the basis of an interaction between what theyalready know and believe, and the ideas andalready know and believe, and the ideas andknowledge with which they come into contactknowledge with which they come into contact(Resnick, 1989).(Resnick, 1989).

The assumption is that meaning or knowledge isThe assumption is that meaning or knowledge isactively constructed in the human mind.actively constructed in the human mind.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic Approach This approach has its roots in modernThis approach has its roots in modern

constructivist epistemology, according to whichconstructivist epistemology, according to whichthere isthere is no ontologically true realityno ontologically true reality, but many, but many

subjective realities that vary according to thesubjective realities that vary according to thepoint of view that is adopted (Nardone,point of view that is adopted (Nardone,Watzlawick, 2005).Watzlawick, 2005).

Reality is considered to be a product of theReality is considered to be a product of theperspective, the instruments of knowledge, andperspective, the instruments of knowledge, and

the language by which we perceive andthe language by which we perceive andcommunicatecommunicate (Salvini, 1988).(Salvini, 1988).


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachThis process of creating realities can be represented in the figure

below.

how we perceive an event

affect how significant others respond affect how we ascribe it(language)

affect our reactions


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The basic tenets of


LINEAR CAUSALITYLINEAR CAUSALITY CIRCULAR CAUSALITYCIRCULAR CAUSALITY

Thus, the first step is toThus, the first step is to avoidavoid adoptingadopting deterministic positionsdeterministic positions,,this can be done by taking as our starting point, our initialthis can be done by taking as our starting point, our initialobservations of the reality to be intervened uponobservations of the reality to be intervened upon..

In order to do that, we have to orientIn order to do that, we have to orient our method of inquiryour method of inquirytoward changetoward change, starting with the questions we ask., starting with the questions we ask.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachWhile abandoning the reassuring positivistic thesis of theWhile abandoning the reassuring positivistic thesis of theexistence of a scientifically true knowledge of reality, inexistence of a scientifically true knowledge of reality, instrategicstrategic--systemic interventions we are concerned with identifyingsystemic interventions we are concerned with identifyingthethe most functional ways of knowing and actingmost functional ways of knowing and acting, i.e. increasing, i.e. increasing

what von Glasersfeld (1984) has called what von Glasersfeld (1984) has called operative awarenessoperative awareness..

A strategicA strategic--systemic school professional should not getsystemic school professional should not getintrigued and lost in discovering deep realities and theintrigued and lost in discovering deep realities and the whywhyof things, but needs to be effective in his actions, thusof things, but needs to be effective in his actions, thus

focusingfocusing on how things work and how to make them workon how things work and how to make them workbetter.better.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic Approach Based on what we have said so far, we will also replace theBased on what we have said so far, we will also replace the

question why?, which refers to a linear process of causality, withquestion why?, which refers to a linear process of causality, withthe question how does it work?the question how does it work?

By asking how a given situation works, we avoid setting out toBy asking how a given situation works, we avoid setting out tolook for the guilty party and focus instead on whatlook for the guilty party and focus instead on what determinesdeterminesthe persistence of a particular equilibrium, and how thisthe persistence of a particular equilibrium, and how thisequilibrium can be modifiedequilibrium can be modified..

This involves focusing our observation on the persistence of aThis involves focusing our observation on the persistence of a

problem rather than its formation, becauseproblem rather than its formation, because it is on theit is on thepersistence of a problem that we can intervene, not on its pastpersistence of a problem that we can intervene, not on its pastformation.formation.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachFrom a strategicFrom a strategic--systemic perspective,systemic perspective, psychologicalpsychologicalproblems are regarded asproblems are regarded as interactional and noninteractional and non--pathologicalpathological..

In other words, childrens difficulties or problems areIn other words, childrens difficulties or problems areviewed in relation to their wider, ecological perspectiveviewed in relation to their wider, ecological perspectiverather than in isolation within the individual subjectrather than in isolation within the individual subject(Amatea 1974).(Amatea 1974).

Difficulties turn into problems because they areDifficulties turn into problems because they aremishandled.mishandled.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachPersistent psychological problems are viewed asresulting when a childs mundane difficulty inadapting to some life change is mishandledthus,the difficulty begins to be seen and acted upon asa problem.

With all the good intention, a vicious circle is

created in which the very attempt to resolve thedifficulty, actually makes it worse.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic Approach When studying a persistent problem, attention

should be given to the interactional patternsaround the problem behavior that needs to bemanaged and changed.

Anderson, Goolishan and Windermand (1987)consider all significant others involved on aregular basis with the child, as problem-determining figures, which thus are fundamental

in helping us define and resolve the challengingbehavior.


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The basic tenets of


The MRI group from the School Palo Alto focused theirThe MRI group from the School Palo Alto focused theirattentionattention on the vicious circle of the persistence of aon the vicious circle of the persistence of a

problemproblem..

This study led the group to understand that there was aThis study led the group to understand that there was aneed to intervene and devise maneuvers to stop andneed to intervene and devise maneuvers to stop andreorganize the dysfunctional attempted solutions of thereorganize the dysfunctional attempted solutions of the

subjects which maintained and worsened the problem.subjects which maintained and worsened the problem.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachIndividuals seem to take upIndividuals seem to take up repeatedrepeatedmaladaptive behaviourmaladaptive behaviour,, useuse

inappropriate languageinappropriate language andand otherothermeaningmeaning--making proceduresmaking procedures in ain amanner leading to a seemingly nomanner leading to a seemingly no--wayway

out situation.out situation.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachBased on the studies of the Palo Alto school (Watzlawick, Beavin, andBased on the studies of the Palo Alto school (Watzlawick, Beavin, andJackson, 1967; Watzlawick, Weakland, and Fisch, 1974; Watzlawick, 1977;Jackson, 1967; Watzlawick, Weakland, and Fisch, 1974; Watzlawick, 1977;Fisch, Weakland, and Segal, 1982), and on twenty years of research in theFisch, Weakland, and Segal, 1982), and on twenty years of research in theclinical context (Watzlawick and Nardone, 1997; Nardone, 1996; Nardoneclinical context (Watzlawick and Nardone, 1997; Nardone, 1996; Nardoneand Watzlawick, 2004), such reducers of complexity has been found in theand Watzlawick, 2004), such reducers of complexity has been found in theconstructs ofconstructs of

Attempted solutionsAttempted solutions

Perceptions (and blocking sensations)Perceptions (and blocking sensations)

ExceptionsExceptions


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachLooking for theLooking for the

REDUCERS OF COMPLEXITYREDUCERS OF COMPLEXITYWhat has been done to solve or cope with this problem?What has been done to solve or cope with this problem?

In other words what are the redundant unsuccessfulIn other words what are the redundant unsuccessfuli)i) ATTEMPTED SOLUTIONSATTEMPTED SOLUTIONS

When a problem emerges within a certain context, there is a tendency to relyWhen a problem emerges within a certain context, there is a tendency to relyon past experience and reapply interventions that have been successful inon past experience and reapply interventions that have been successful in

solving similar problems in the past.solving similar problems in the past.

If these strategies do not work, rather than applying alternative solutionsIf these strategies do not work, rather than applying alternative solutionsthere is a tendency to apply the initial strategy more vigorously, based onthere is a tendency to apply the initial strategy more vigorously, based on

the illusion that doing more than before will be more effective.the illusion that doing more than before will be more effective.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic Approach Such attempts to reiterate the same ineffective solutionSuch attempts to reiterate the same ineffective solution

eventually give rise to aeventually give rise to a complex process of retroactionscomplex process of retroactionsin whichin whichthe efforts to achieve change actually keep the problematicthe efforts to achieve change actually keep the problematic

situation unchanged.situation unchanged.

Watzlawick, Weakland, and Fisch, 1974, sustained that theWatzlawick, Weakland, and Fisch, 1974, sustained that theattempted solutionsattempted solutions end up maintain and worsening the problem. end up maintain and worsening the problem.

The well-intended effort to establish order, inadvertently

aggravates the situation by attempting solutions that fell into amore-of-the same categoryentrapping the system in a seeminglyno-way out vicious circle.


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The basic tenets of


Withallthegoodintentionsweendupproducingtheworstconsequences

OSCAR WILDE


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachThe StrategicThe Strategic--Systemic approach, view problematicSystemic approach, view problematicsituations as systems haven being stuck using ineffectivesituations as systems haven being stuck using ineffectivesolutions, known as attempted solutions.solutions, known as attempted solutions.

Just because something doesnt do what you planned it to doJust because something doesnt do what you planned it to dodoesnt mean its uselessdoesnt mean its useless..

Thomas EdisonThomas Edison


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachAttempted solutions can pave the way to identify effectivestrategies. Interventions should aim to block the self-feeding loops:

a) Directlyb) Indirectly

Mistakes are the portals of discoveryJames Joyce

Ive gotten a lot of results, by learning from the severalthousand things that didnt work

Thomas Edison


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The basic tenets of


Practitioners of brief strategic-systemicintervention only target key interactional

patternsaround problem behaviour for change.In doing this, the practitioner typically givesexplicit attention to influencing people to stopnon-productive patterns of interaction(attempted solutions) and replace them by more

productive ones in the shortest time as possible.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic Approachii)Perceptionsandblockingemotions

Wedontseethingsastheyare, weseethingsasweare

The Talmud

Ourreactionsareindeedsustainedbyourperceptionsandconditionedbyoursensations(fear,pleasure,pain& anger).

Forexample, thefearsomewilltendtoflight,thefuriouswillopt

tofight,thepleasure-loverwillfallforhistemptations,etc. Yetourperceptionsareincontinuousevolution,oftenfurtherconfirmedandmaintainedbyrecurringreactions(oursandothers).Wecreateourhabitsandourhabitscreateus.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachAmatea (1989) sustains that a teachers perceptions on whya problem exists and how it should be responded to, arefactors that often prevent them from finding a way toresolve it. These perceptions are the reason why certainways of responding are followed while others are ignored.

The teachers underlying perception or belief concerningwhy the student is acting in certain way, and how thestudent should respond, keep the teacher committed to acertain course of action, to insist with the failed attemptedsolution. Even when the students behavior does not

improve, the teacher may continue to follow this course ofaction because he believes it is the only logical appropriateway to handle the situation.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic Approach Teaches may be overwhelmedby a

basic emotions (such as fearor

anger) which block them toseebeyondthe problem.

Watzlawicks anecdote of the

drunkenmanandthe policeman


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic Approachiii) Searching for exceptions

Historydoesntrepeatitselfbutsometimesitrhymes

Mark TwainNo problems happen all the time, there arealways exceptions that can be utilized (deShazer, 1988)Identifying and exploring already existingexceptions can be a very powerful tool to beused, which greatly increase the chances forsuccessful change.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic ApproachHowever, there are situations where even though individualsexperience exceptions, they are too trapped and blinded by theirproblem to acknowledge them.Often than not:

they come to overlook them, forget all about them and/ or fail to continue implementing them further.

So, when it is possible, it becomes useful if we manage to pinpointand explore already existing signs of progress and solution in the

seemingly jammed situation, so as to highlight already existingresources and thus encourage further replication of the exceptionpatterns that already work.


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The basic tenets of

Strategic-Systemic Approach By focusing on the already existing exceptions, we

put the relevant parties rigid perception intocrises. The fact that there are exceptions in his

seemingly no-way-out-condition, induces theperson/s to consider and allow for possiblechange.

Analogically speaking, by searching for

exceptions, we will be blocking the door with ourfoot, to make way for the rest of the body.


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The basic tenets of


Searching for Exceptions =Changing lens

Often agents around the child will look forcues that confirm their thesis e.g. badboy, hyperactive, shy, fragile, etc

If there are no exceptions we need tocreate them- Changing prophecies


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Launching and Changing

Prophecies Words are like BulletsWittgenstein

Language used, doubtlessly playsasignificantroleeven in howchildrenschool-relateddifficultiesareapproached.

As Marilyn Wedge (1996) states that words like depression ,attention deficit disorder, phobia or gender identityproblems put a child's problem into a clinical domain , bringingnon-expertise (parents and teachers) to a sense of helplessness.While words like sadness, lack of attention, misbehavior ,lack of confidence or development issues bring the child'sbehavior into everyday life domain , where parents and teachersfeel more capable and thus inclined to do something about it(Madanes, 1981).Secondary and probably more critically, the language used indescribing the child's behavior should avoid crystallizing it into apermanent problem with a label.


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The basic tenetsof

Strategic-Systemic ApproachAustin coined the term performativelanguage:

To name something, even somethingthat does not exist, is to create aninvented realitythat produces

concrete effects, and thus begins to"exist."


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The basic tenetsof

Strategic-Systemic Approach The term psychological difficulty is not a merely

lexical choice but it is deliberately use to imply afunction-oriented perspective toward solutions, incontrast with a taxonomic-oriented perspective

presupposing a syndrome, disorders anddiseases descriptive collection of signs andsymptoms.

From a strategic-systemic perspective, thetraditional idea of normality and pathology is

replaced by the concept of psychological problemor difficulties, seen as a dysfunctional system.


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The basic tenetsof

Strategic-Systemic ApproachFisch & Schlanger (1999) denote thatdiagnosticlabelscan implicitly induceanexpectationof unchangeabilityandasenseof helplessness in theagentsaround thechild.

Example: A child who refuses to go to school, is diagnosed assuffering of Separation Anxiety Disorder (according to DSM-IV)implies a state of unalterableness and an expectation that sincethe child holds such a fearful-dependent character, thus a radicalchange needs to take place, if this is ever possible. Whereasdescribing the child as a sensible kid who needs to find a way tocontrol his incontrollable fear when at school, avoids to entrap usin an intimidating expectation, enfolding the possibility to searchfor a better understanding of the undesired behavior, in whatcontext it is performed and how to stop it.


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Self-fulfilling PropheciesOurpositiveornegativeOurpositiveornegativeexpectanciesexpectancies strongly influencestrongly influence

perception, interaction,perception, interaction,communicationandbehavior,communicationandbehavior,determining the well knowndetermining thewell knownphenomenaof thephenomenaof theselfself--fulfillingfulfillingprophecyprophecy..


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PropheciesThe ultimate function ofa prophecyis notto tellthe future,butto make

itWagar, 1963


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Self-fulfilling Prophecies The expressionThe expression Pygmalion effectPygmalion effectwas firstused bywas firstused byRosenthal etal., (1968) to accountfor the effects ofRosenthal etal., (1968) to accountfor the effects ofexpectancies on behavior.expectancies on behavior.

He based this expression on the well known myth of theHe based this expression on the well known myth of theGreek sculptor Pygmalion. This Greek man sculptured aGreek sculptor Pygmalion. This Greek man sculptured afemale statue, so beautiful, so perfect, so ideal, thathefemale statue, so beautiful, so perfect, so ideal, thathefeltin love with and asked Venus to transformitinto arealfeltin love with and asked Venus to transformitinto arealwoman.woman.

This is equivalentto the systemic concepts of the self fullThis is equivalentto the systemic concepts of the self full--filling prophecy and pathological labelling: using ataoisticfilling prophecy and pathological labelling: using ataoisticmetaphor we could call this process as create somethingmetaphor we could call this process as create somethingoutof nothing.outof nothing.


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Prophecies LAUNCHING POSITIVE PROPHECIES:LAUNCHING POSITIVE PROPHECIES: Rosenthal (1968) createdRosenthal (1968) createdintelligent scholars out of nothing by filling the teachers with theintelligent scholars out of nothing by filling the teachers with theprophecy that they were particularly promising students, whereasprophecy that they were particularly promising students, whereasactually they were been only randomly selected among others. Inactually they were been only randomly selected among others. Inthe same way he was able to create adolescents good swimmersthe same way he was able to create adolescents good swimmersand rodents with very good explorative skills. In all these cases heand rodents with very good explorative skills. In all these cases he

demonstrated the effects on behavior of having positivedemonstrated the effects on behavior of having positiveexpectancies.expectancies.

LAUNCHING NEGATIVE PROPHECIES:LAUNCHING NEGATIVE PROPHECIES: However, not only whoHowever, not only whoretains positive expectancies but also who retains negativeretains positive expectancies but also who retains negativeexpectancies can create something out of nothing. For example,expectancies can create something out of nothing. For example,one could observe in a young child bizarre language and behaviorone could observe in a young child bizarre language and behavior

and muteness and avoidance of social interaction and couldand muteness and avoidance of social interaction and couldascribe these observations as signs of psychotic delirium andascribe these observations as signs of psychotic delirium andautistic traits. Once this expectancy has arisen, it works as aautistic traits. Once this expectancy has arisen, it works as aconfirmatory process that creates a feedback perception, creatingconfirmatory process that creates a feedback perception, creatingwhat it expects (vicious circle).what it expects (vicious circle).


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Prophecies StrategicStrategic--systemic therapists examine client symptoms,systemic therapists examine client symptoms,problems and psychopathologies for the sole purpose ofproblems and psychopathologies for the sole purpose ofreframingreframing andand deconstructingdeconstructing them.them.

Clients have come toClients have come to construct a narrativeconstruct a narrative in which thein which thedominant theme of personal problem is obscuring a nondominant theme of personal problem is obscuring a non--dominant theme of personal strength and resourcefulness.dominant theme of personal strength and resourcefulness.

We construct the reality in which we live. According toWe construct the reality in which we live. According tothis perspective,this perspective, we construct and maintain our realitieswe construct and maintain our realities..

We are able to construct functional and dysfunctionalWe are able to construct functional and dysfunctionalrealities.realities.


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ExampleExample

Once upona time,there wasa boywhokeptbreakingschool rulesOnce upona time,there wasa boywhokeptbreakingschool rulesandwasmandatedtocounselling. Whenaskedwhatkindofguyheandwasmandatedtocounselling. Whenaskedwhatkindofguyhe

was,he answered, Im the kindofguywhodoesntgetcaught,was,he answered, Im the kindofguywhodoesntgetcaught,eventhoughthere wasa strongevidence tothe contrary. Hiseventhoughthere wasa strongevidence tothe contrary. Hiscounselloraskedhim toadda newdescriptionofhimself. Incounselloraskedhim toadda newdescriptionofhimself. Inresponse tothe question, whatkindofguyare you?The boywasresponse tothe question, whatkindofguyare you?The boywassupposedtosay, Im the kindofguywhothinksthingsthrough.supposedtosay, Im the kindofguywhothinksthingsthrough.The boythoughtthiswasveryfunny,buthe complied. Eachweek,The boythoughtthiswasveryfunny,buthe complied. Eachweek,inadditiontotheirotherinteractions,the counselorwouldsay,inadditiontotheirotherinteractions,the counselorwouldsay,Whatkindofguyare you?Andthe boywitha biggrin,wouldWhatkindofguyare you?Andthe boywitha biggrin,would

answer, Im the kindofguywhothinksthingsthrough.answer, Im the kindofguywhothinksthingsthrough.A fewweekswentbyandbelieve itornot,the boysrule breakingA fewweekswentbyandbelieve itornot,the boysrule breakingdeclinedandhe wasable toterminate therapy. Sometime later,hedeclinedandhe wasable toterminate therapy. Sometime later,hetoldhismum thatthose wordsechoedinhisheadeverytime hetoldhismum thatthose wordsechoedinhisheadeverytime hestartedtoscrewup andbreaka rule. He toldherthatevenwhenstartedtoscrewup andbreaka rule. He toldherthatevenwhenhe wantedtothink, I wontgetcaught,those otherwordswerehe wantedtothink, I wontgetcaught,those otherwordswerethere, lurkinginthe background,whichsomehowmade him thinkthere, lurkinginthe background,whichsomehowmade him think

aboutthe factthathe oftendidgetcaughtanditwasntworthit.aboutthe factthathe oftendidgetcaughtanditwasntworthit.The boyhadbecome the kindofguywhothoughtthingsthrough.The boyhadbecome the kindofguywhothoughtthingsthrough.


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Changing RealitiesIs theboy in theprecedingstoryaIs theboy in theprecedingstoryabuddingantisocialwhocompiledwithabuddingantisocialwhocompiledwithasillysaying thatactuallychanged thesillysaying thatactuallychanged the

way he thoughtabout himselfand hisway he thoughtabout himselfand hisactions? Canasimpleshift inactions? Canasimpleshift inperspectiveperspective-- theboyparroting (andtheboyparroting (andperhapsbeginning tobelieve) adifferentperhapsbeginning tobelieve) adifferentinternaldescriptioninternaldescription-- reallyproduceareallyproducea

suddenandlastingchange in humansuddenandlastingchange in humanbehaviour?behaviour?


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The Art of ReframingReframing involves redefining the meaning ofbehaviour in a way that makes change possiblewithin a jammed system. Such definitions are

designed to alter premises or labels which governproblem-maintaining patterns of interactions(Tennen, Eron, Rohrbaugh, 1991).

How teachers see the explanation of the child's

behaviour will make a difference as how they act(Thacker, Studwick and Babbedge 2002).


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Reframing is one of the most subtleyet effective techniques of change:

putting the same fact into adifferent context of meaning,changes its perspective but also itsvalue.


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Reframing: promoting

changeReframing can be achieved either verbally by means of dialogue orby certain actions (direct and indirect behavioural prescriptions)that lead persons to change their view of reality.

This change can take place, by altering a person's meaning of theperception of reality and this can be reached through:

a) a simple redefinitions of perceptions or re-connotations ofbehaviour patterns (positive connotation),b) the use of analogical evocative suggestions creating aversion

towards an undesired behaviour or positive regard towards adesired behaviour ,

c) performative utterances (as if)d) and the use of seemingly complicated paradoxical reframing or

interventions (Nardone, Watzlawick, 2005


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Rosenthal R, Jacobson L. Pygmalion in the classroom. 1968 New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Rosenthal R, Jacobson L. Pygmalion in the classroom. 1968 New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

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Watzlawick P, Beavin JH, Jackson DD. Pragmatic of human communication. A study of interactional patterns,Watzlawick P, Beavin JH, Jackson DD. Pragmatic of human communication. A study of interactional patterns,pathologies and paradoxes. 1967 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., New York.pathologies and paradoxes. 1967 W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., New York.

Watzlawick P, Weakland, JH, Fisch, R. Change: Principles of Problem Formulation and Problem Resolution.Watzlawick P, Weakland, JH, Fisch, R. Change: Principles of Problem Formulation and Problem Resolution.1974 New York: W. W. Norton.1974 New York: W. W. Norton.

Watzlawick P. The Invented Reality. 1983 New York:Norton.Watzlawick P. The Invented Reality. 1983 New York:Norton.

Strategic-Systemic Approach to School Problems

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