Stereotyping. Lectures 3 & 4: Social Stereotyping Bargh, J.A. (1999). The cognitive monster: The...
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Transcript of Stereotyping. Lectures 3 & 4: Social Stereotyping Bargh, J.A. (1999). The cognitive monster: The...
Lectures 3 & 4:Social Stereotyping
Bargh, J.A. (1999). The cognitive monster: The case against the Bargh, J.A. (1999). The cognitive monster: The case against the controllability of automatic stereotype efects. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope controllability of automatic stereotype efects. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), (Eds.), Dual Process Theories in Social PsychologyDual Process Theories in Social Psychology (pp. 361-382). New (pp. 361-382). New York: Guilford.York: Guilford.
Blair, I.V. (2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Blair, I.V. (2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology ReviewPersonality and Social Psychology Review , , 66, 242-261., 242-261.
Hilton, J., & Von Hippel, W. (1996). Stereotypes. Hilton, J., & Von Hippel, W. (1996). Stereotypes. Annual Review of Annual Review of PsychologyPsychology, , 4747, 237-271. , 237-271.
Macrae, C.N., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2000). Social Cognition: Thinking Macrae, C.N., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2000). Social Cognition: Thinking categorically about others. categorically about others. Annual Review of PsychologyAnnual Review of Psychology, , 5151, 93-120. , 93-120.
Lecture 1 – Stereotype ActivationLecture 1 – Stereotype Activation
Lecture 2 – Stereotype Application Lecture 2 – Stereotype Application
What Are Stereotypes?
• “There is neither time nor opportunity for intimate acquaintances. Instead we notice a trait which marks a well known type and fill in the rest of the picture by means of the stereotypes we carry about in our heads.”
• “Our stereotyped world is not necessarily the world we should like it to be. It is simply the kind of world we expect it to be.”
Walter Lippmann (1922)
Stereotype Components
• Culturally shared beliefs
cognitive component (beliefs)
affective component (feelings)
behavioural component (actions)
• Categorical associations
men are …?
accountants are…?
Italians are…?
Who Should Repair the Car?
• Levy, Sadovsky, & Troseth (2000)
preschoolers (3-4 years) viewed men as more competent than women in male sex-typed jobs and women as more competent
than men in feminine jobs.
Habits of Thought
• What happens if childhood socialization repeatedly furnishes one with stereotype-related beliefs?
• Do stereotypes become habits of mind?
Is Stereotype Activation Inevitable?
““every event has certain marks that serve as a cue to bring the every event has certain marks that serve as a cue to bring the category of prejudgment into action…A person with dark brown category of prejudgment into action…A person with dark brown skin will activate whatever concept of African American is skin will activate whatever concept of African American is dominant in our mind.”dominant in our mind.”
Allport (1954, p. 21)Allport (1954, p. 21)
““the mere presentation of a stimulus person activates certain the mere presentation of a stimulus person activates certain classification processes that occur automatically and without classification processes that occur automatically and without conscious intent.”conscious intent.”
Brewer (1988, p. 5)Brewer (1988, p. 5)
“…“…because the stereotype has been frequently activated in because the stereotype has been frequently activated in the past, it is a well-learned set of associations that is the past, it is a well-learned set of associations that is automatically activated in the presence of a member (or automatically activated in the presence of a member (or symbolic equivalent) of the target group.”symbolic equivalent) of the target group.”
Devine (1989, p. 6)Devine (1989, p. 6)
Automatic Activation:Some Early Evidence
• Dovidio et al. (1986)Dovidio et al. (1986)
stereotypes are knowledge structuresstereotypes are knowledge structures
associative networksassociative networks
semantic priming to access associative knowledgesemantic priming to access associative knowledge
• letter string taskletter string task
doctor/nursedoctor/nurse
doctor/butterdoctor/butter
Dovidio et al’s (1986) Paradigm:Could X ever be true of Y?
Task (verification task)Task (verification task)
participants presented with a priming label (i.e., participants presented with a priming label (i.e., blackblack or or whitewhite) ) followed shortly afterwards by a personality trait (e.g., followed shortly afterwards by a personality trait (e.g., musicalmusical) ) or non-person descriptor (e.g., or non-person descriptor (e.g., metallicmetallic))
Traits
White Black
ambitious musical
practical sensitive
conventional lazy
stubborn imitative
ResultsResults
participants responded more quickly when stereotypic than participants responded more quickly when stereotypic than non-stereotypic items were presentednon-stereotypic items were presented
Problems?Problems?
task demands (triggering category activation)task demands (triggering category activation)
labels (or words and images functionally equivalent?)labels (or words and images functionally equivalent?)
The Invisible Prime:Purdue & Gurtman (1990)
‘‘kind’kind’
is the word favorable or unfavorable?is the word favorable or unfavorable?
• traits preceded by subliminal labels (traits preceded by subliminal labels (oldold or or youngyoung))
• ResultsResults - facilitatory priming observed - facilitatory priming observed
• ProblemsProblems - words, evaluative (rather than semantic) - words, evaluative (rather than semantic) primingpriming
Devine’s (1989) Two-Process Model
• power of childhood socializationpower of childhood socialization
acquiring cultural beliefsacquiring cultural beliefs
societal knowledge vs. personal beliefssocietal knowledge vs. personal beliefs
• individual differences in prejudiceindividual differences in prejudice
high vs. low prejudicehigh vs. low prejudice
• components of stereotypingcomponents of stereotyping
automatic activationautomatic activation
controlled inhibitioncontrolled inhibition
replacing stereotypes with personal beliefsreplacing stereotypes with personal beliefs
Knowledge of Cultural Stereotypes
• Stereotype Contents
bagpipes
booze
stingy
• bigots = humanitarians (Devine, 1989)
Evaluate Donald Paradigm (Devine, 1989)
TasksTasks
Phase 1Phase 1: : parafoveal vigilance task (Negroes, lazy, blues, parafoveal vigilance task (Negroes, lazy, blues, Blacks, Africa, basketball)Blacks, Africa, basketball)
Phase 2Phase 2: : person evaluation (Donald - Srull & Wyer, person evaluation (Donald - Srull & Wyer, 1979) - ambiguously hostile behaviours1979) - ambiguously hostile behaviours
Results:Results: high-P participants rated Donald to be more high-P participants rated Donald to be more hostile than did low-P participants hostile than did low-P participants
Automatic Stereotyping:A Slight Modification
• Lepore & Brown (1997)Lepore & Brown (1997)
categories vs. traits (Blacks vs. lazy) - what activates the categories vs. traits (Blacks vs. lazy) - what activates the
stereotype?stereotype?
• category primes: category primes: only high-P participants activate the stereotypeonly high-P participants activate the stereotype
• trait primes:trait primes: both high-P and low-P participants activate theboth high-P and low-P participants activate the
stereotypestereotype
• individual differences in stereotype activation (Locke et al., 1994; individual differences in stereotype activation (Locke et al., 1994; Wittenbrink et al., 1997)Wittenbrink et al., 1997)
Challenging Orthodoxy:Is Stereotype Activation Really Inevitable?
• triggering stereotype activation (are images and words triggering stereotype activation (are images and words equivalent?)equivalent?)
Belly Dancer
Determinants of Stereotype Activation: Target Salience
• frequency of occurrencefrequency of occurrence
are you unusual?are you unusual?
• immediate contextimmediate context
are you contextually distinctive?are you contextually distinctive?
• processing goalsprocessing goals
are you relevant to my current processing concerns?are you relevant to my current processing concerns?
Processing Goals
• chronic states of the person (Moskowitz et al. 2004)chronic states of the person (Moskowitz et al. 2004)
traits, motives, goalstraits, motives, goals
• transitory factors (Macrae et al., 1997)transitory factors (Macrae et al., 1997)
temporary goalstemporary goals
Stereotypes as Mental Tools:Gilbert & Hixon (1991)
““anyone who has ever lent a socket wrench to a forgetful anyone who has ever lent a socket wrench to a forgetful neighbor knows that a tool is useful only if one can find it. neighbor knows that a tool is useful only if one can find it. Stereotypes are forms of information and, as such, are Stereotypes are forms of information and, as such, are thought to be stored in memory in a dormant state until thought to be stored in memory in a dormant state until they are activated for use.”they are activated for use.”
Gilbert & Hixon (1991, p. Gilbert & Hixon (1991, p. 510)510)
• attention and stereotypingattention and stereotyping
Gilbert & Hixon (1991):Busyness and Stereotyping
TaskTask
participants observe a woman (Caucasian or Asian) turning over cards with a participants observe a woman (Caucasian or Asian) turning over cards with a single word fragment written on each card.single word fragment written on each card.
POLI_EPOLI_E
complete the fragment with the first word that comes to mind (SHY, complete the fragment with the first word that comes to mind (SHY, SHORT, RICE) - participants busy (digit rehearsal) or non-busy (control)SHORT, RICE) - participants busy (digit rehearsal) or non-busy (control)
Results:Results: only non-busy participants activate the stereotype (i.e., only non-busy participants activate the stereotype (i.e.,
conditional automaticity)conditional automaticity)
Processing Goals
ambitious(emotional)(flubitorso)
3 Tasks: animacy (conceptual)dot (perceptual)detection
Accessing Stereotypical Knowledge
• Macrae et al. (1997) in ‘spot’ of botherMacrae et al. (1997) in ‘spot’ of bother
““beyond the hopeful implication that dermatologists are beyond the hopeful implication that dermatologists are unlikely to stereotype their patients, what is the real-world unlikely to stereotype their patients, what is the real-world relevance of studies involving such pre-semantic processing relevance of studies involving such pre-semantic processing goals?”goals?”
Bargh (1999)Bargh (1999)
Context and Stereotype Activation:Wittenbrink et al. (2001)
In an evaluative priming task, activation of African-American stereotype was moderated by the context in which targets were located.
Summary
Things Worth KnowingThings Worth Knowing
1.1. What are stereotypes? What are stereotypes?
2.2. Process and consequences of stereotype activationProcess and consequences of stereotype activation
Next WeekNext Week
1. Stereotype Application1. Stereotype Application
Why Do People Apply Stereotypes?
• ‘personality’ approaches
• ‘socio-cultural’ accounts
• ‘cognitive’ perspective
Applying Stereotypes:Possessing a ‘Dodgy’ Personality
• authoritarian personality (Adorno et al., 1950)
intra-psychic conflict from childhood (internalized values of the father) is projected to other people (members of minority groups – ethnic, relgious, political) - societal scapegoating.
Applying Stereotypes:Learning to Discriminate
• socio-cultural approaches (e.g., realistic conflict theory, Sherif & Sherif, 1953)
stereotypes are conceptualized as negative beliefs about a
group that serve to legitimize the existing social structure (i.e., system justification)
Applying Stereotypes:Cognitive Efficiency
• cognitive perspective (Hamilton, 1981)
stereotyping is a product of category activation and basic cognitive limitations.
Applying Stereotypes:Basic Paradox
• perils of stereotypical thinking
discrimination
prejudice
legal sanctions
• benefits of stereotypical thinking
cognitive efficiency
What Can Stereotyping Do For You?
• content-related effects
• structural effects (processing consequences)
perception
memory
attention
Accessing Stereotype Contents:Target Enrichment
• semantic knowledge (Fiske & Neuberg, 1990)
traits
behaviours
opinions
lifestyle
• ‘indirect’ person knowledge
Stereotypes and Information Processing:Perceptual Effects
• does stereotype application moderate the ease with which people can detect information in the world?
• if so, which type of information is most facilitated?
Activating Social Stereotypes:A Functional Analysis
• stereotypical thinking is functional (Allport, 1954)stereotypical thinking is functional (Allport, 1954)
• reducing the information-processing burdenreducing the information-processing burdenease of detectionease of detectionperceptual identificationperceptual identification
• measurement issues - climbing inside the headmeasurement issues - climbing inside the head
The Need For Speed:Categorical Person Perception is Efficient
• perils of a cluttered mindperils of a cluttered mind
enter the cognitive miserenter the cognitive miser
target simplification/elaborationtarget simplification/elaboration
• some cognitive benefitssome cognitive benefits
stimulus locationstimulus location
stimulus identificationstimulus identification
• category primingcategory priming
Find the Word (Stereotype Priming):Congruent vs. Irrelevant
QQ HH AA PP PP YY TT VV
DD PP VV MM NN II OO BB
AA EE LL QQ BB YY VV TT
RR NN MM KK VV RR EE AA
II PP MM II VV WW MM LL
NN CC CC NN YY TT AA LL
GG MM LL DD YY TT VV RR
GG SS HH NN LL RR II OO
Stimulus Identification
• repeated presentation of degraded wordsrepeated presentation of degraded words
dot density maskdot density mask
• what’s the word?what’s the word?
number of trials takennumber of trials taken
Stereotypes and Information Processing:Attentional Effects
• does stereotype application preserve valuable attentional resources?
• if so, when does this take place?
Person Impressions:With and Without Stereotypes
NigelNigel JulianJulian
(doctor)(doctor) (artist)(artist)caringcaring creativecreative
honesthonest temperamentaltemperamental
reliablereliable sensitivesensitive
responsibleresponsible unconventionalunconventional
upstandingupstanding individualisticindividualistic
unluckyunlucky fearlessfearless
forgetfulforgetful activeactive
passivepassive cordialcordial
clumsyclumsy progressiveprogressive
enthusiasticenthusiastic generousgenerous
Efficiency and Automaticity
• stereotypical efficiency - conscious or unconscious?stereotypical efficiency - conscious or unconscious?
• overt or covert allocation of attention?overt or covert allocation of attention?
• probe-reaction tasksprobe-reaction tasks
turn off the soundturn off the sound
Person Impressions:With and Without Visible and Invisible Stereotypes
NigelNigel JulianJulian
(doctor)(doctor) (artist)(artist)caringcaring creativecreative
honesthonest temperamentaltemperamental
reliablereliable sensitivesensitive
responsibleresponsible unconventionalunconventional
upstandingupstanding individualisticindividualistic
unluckyunlucky fearlessfearless
forgetfulforgetful activeactive
passivepassive cordialcordial
clumsyclumsy progressiveprogressive
enthusiasticenthusiastic generousgenerous
3 conditions:
(i)category-supraliminal(ii)category-subliminal(iii)no category
Auditory Probe Reaction Task
Stereotyping is Efficient
• Stereotypes
(i) guide perception
(ii) organize memories
(iii) preserve attention
• Is stereotyping Intentional?
awareness
consent
When are Stereotypes Most Likely to Be Deployed?
• Stereotypes save people the ‘trouble of thinking’ (Gilbert & Hixon, 1991)
• Stereotypes as judgmental heuristics
motivation (e.g., involvement)
speed (e.g., times pressures)
attention (e.g., competing tasks)
Stereotype Application:A Brief Review
• Task Complexity
simple vs. complex judgments (Bodenhausen & Lichtenstein, 1987)
information overload (Bodenhausen & Wyer, 1985)
• Time Pressures
Dijker & Koomen (1996)
• Dual Tasking
cognitive load (Gilbert & Hixon, 1991)
• Involvement with Target
outcome dependence (Neuberg & Fiske, 1987)
accountability (Tetlock, 1983)
Reaching Your Peak
• attention and stereotypingattention and stereotyping
stereotypes as heuristicsstereotypes as heuristics
• laboratory manipulationslaboratory manipulations
• naturalistic factorsnaturalistic factors
circadian variationscircadian variations
morning vs. evening peoplemorning vs. evening people
Meeting Linda
• Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.
• Which of the following is more likely to be true?Which of the following is more likely to be true?
Linda is a bank teller.Linda is a bank teller.
Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.movement.
Conjunction Fallacy
• the erroneous belief that the joint probability of two events the erroneous belief that the joint probability of two events is greater than the probability of either of the constituent is greater than the probability of either of the constituent events separately.events separately.
The Problem of Multiple Construal
• categorical competitioncategorical competition
• the winner takes it allthe winner takes it all
but where do the losers go?but where do the losers go?
• consequences of category dominanceconsequences of category dominance
What Does It Mean?Linguistic Ambiguity
• Under cover of darkness, Brian slipped into the port.Under cover of darkness, Brian slipped into the port.
• It can be fun playing with your hair.It can be fun playing with your hair.
• It happened at the bank.It happened at the bank.
Resolving Mental Conflict:Inhibition
• evolved solutionsevolved solutions
cognitive inhibitioncognitive inhibition
dampening competing representationsdampening competing representations
conflict resolutionconflict resolution
• inhibition and category activationinhibition and category activation
Priming Categories
• dynamics of multiple construaldynamics of multiple construal
• priming categoriespriming categories
winners & loserswinners & losers
are the losers inhibited?are the losers inhibited?
Experiment 1:Parafoveal Priming
• Phase 1Phase 1 - parafoveal priming (women or Chinese) - parafoveal priming (women or Chinese)
• Phase 2Phase 2 - view videotape (Chinese woman reading a book) - view videotape (Chinese woman reading a book)
• Phase 3Phase 3 - lexical decision task (category accessibility) - lexical decision task (category accessibility)
Experiment 2
• Phase 1 - view videotapePhase 1 - view videotape
eating with chopsticks vs. applying cosmeticseating with chopsticks vs. applying cosmetics
• Phase 2 - lexical decision task (category accessibility)Phase 2 - lexical decision task (category accessibility)
Inhibition and Category Selection
• dealing with conflictdealing with conflict
cognitive inhibitioncognitive inhibition
• nature of inhibitionnature of inhibition
lateral vs. strategiclateral vs. strategic
• role of processing goalsrole of processing goals
Sinclair & Kunda (1999)Sinclair & Kunda (1999)
Motivation and Inhibition:Sinclair & Kunda (1999)
Favorable feedback - activate doctor, inhibit Black
Unfavorable feedback - activate Black, inhibit doctor
Consequences of Category Activation
• identity salienceidentity salience
which identity dominateswhich identity dominates
behavioral consequencesbehavioral consequences
• stereotype threatstereotype threat
scholastic performance (Steele & Aronson, 1995)scholastic performance (Steele & Aronson, 1995)
math test, diagnostic of abilitiesmath test, diagnostic of abilities
• competing identitiescompeting identities
performance conflictsperformance conflicts