Stephen E. Lucas C H A P T E R McGraw-Hill © 2007 Stephen E. Lucas. All rights reserved. Methods of...

Stephen E. LucasStephen E. Lucas

C H A P T E RC H A P T E R

McGraw-HillMcGraw-Hill © 2007 Stephen E. Lucas. All rights reserved.© 2007 Stephen E. Lucas. All rights reserved.

Methods of PersuasionMethods of Persuasion

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Methods of PersuasionMethods of Persuasion

• Building credibility

• Using evidence

• Reasoning

• Appealing to emotions

• Building credibility

• Using evidence

• Reasoning

• Appealing to emotions

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CredibilityCredibility

The audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.

The audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.

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EthosEthos

The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility.

The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility.

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Factors of CredibilityFactors of Credibility

• Competence

• Character

• Competence

• Character

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CompetenceCompetence

How an audience regards a speaker’s intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject.

How an audience regards a speaker’s intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject.

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CharacterCharacter

How an audience regards a speaker’s sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience.

How an audience regards a speaker’s sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience.

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Types of CredibilityTypes of Credibility

• Initial

• Derived

• Terminal

• Initial

• Derived

• Terminal

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Initial CredibilityInitial Credibility

The credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak.The credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak.

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Derived CredibilityDerived Credibility

The credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech.

The credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech.

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Terminal CredibilityTerminal Credibility

The credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech.The credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech.

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Tips for Enhancing CredibilityTips for Enhancing Credibility

• Explain your competence

• Establish common ground with your audience

• Deliver your speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction

• Explain your competence

• Establish common ground with your audience

• Deliver your speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction

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LogosLogos

The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning.

The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning.

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EvidenceEvidence

Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something.Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something.

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Tips for Using EvidenceTips for Using Evidence

• Use specific evidence

• Use novel evidence

• Use evidence from credible sources

• Make clear the point of your evidence

• Use specific evidence

• Use novel evidence

• Use evidence from credible sources

• Make clear the point of your evidence

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ReasoningReasoning

The process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence.The process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence.

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Four Types of ReasoningFour Types of Reasoning

• Reasoning from specific instances

• Reasoning from principle

• Causal reasoning

• Analogical reasoning

• Reasoning from specific instances

• Reasoning from principle

• Causal reasoning

• Analogical reasoning

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Reasoning from Specific Instances

Reasoning from Specific Instances

Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion.Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion.

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Guidelines for Reasoning from Specific Instances

Guidelines for Reasoning from Specific Instances

• Avoid hasty generalizations• If your evidence does not justify a

sweeping conclusion, qualify your argument

• Reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony

• Avoid hasty generalizations• If your evidence does not justify a

sweeping conclusion, qualify your argument

• Reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony

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Reasoning from PrincipleReasoning from Principle

Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion.Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion.

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Guidelines for Reasoning from Principle

Guidelines for Reasoning from Principle

• Make sure listeners will accept your general principle

• Provide evidence to support your minor premise

• Make sure listeners will accept your general principle

• Provide evidence to support your minor premise

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Causal ReasoningCausal Reasoning

Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects.

Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects.

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Guidelines for Causal Reasoning

Guidelines for Causal Reasoning

• Avoid the fallacy of false cause

• Do not assume that events have only a single cause

• Avoid the fallacy of false cause

• Do not assume that events have only a single cause

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Analogical ReasoningAnalogical Reasoning

Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.

Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.

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Guidelines for Analogical Reasoning

Guidelines for Analogical Reasoning

Above all, make sure the two cases being compared are essentially alikeAbove all, make sure the two cases being compared are essentially alike

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FallacyFallacy

An error in reasoning.An error in reasoning.

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FallaciesFallacies

• Hasty generalization

• False cause

• Invalid analogy

• Red herring

• Hasty generalization

• False cause

• Invalid analogy

• Red herring

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FallaciesFallacies

• Ad hominem

• Either-or

• Bandwagon

• Slippery slope

• Ad hominem

• Either-or

• Bandwagon

• Slippery slope

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Hasty GeneralizationHasty Generalization

A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

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Hasty GeneralizationHasty Generalization

“Last year alone three members of our state legislature were convicted of corruption. We can conclude, then, that all of our state's politicians are corrupt.”

“Last year alone three members of our state legislature were convicted of corruption. We can conclude, then, that all of our state's politicians are corrupt.”

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False CauseFalse Cause

A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.

A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.

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False CauseFalse Cause

“I'm sure the stock market will rise this year. It usually goes up when the American League wins the World Series.”

“I'm sure the stock market will rise this year. It usually goes up when the American League wins the World Series.”

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Invalid AnalogyInvalid Analogy

An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.

An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.

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Invalid AnalogyInvalid Analogy

“Of course Lisheng can prepare great Italian food; his Chinese cooking is fabulous.”

“Of course Lisheng can prepare great Italian food; his Chinese cooking is fabulous.”

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Red HerringRed Herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion.

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion.

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Red Herring Red Herring

“Why should we worry about endangered animal species when thousands of people are killed in automobile accidents each year?”

“Why should we worry about endangered animal species when thousands of people are killed in automobile accidents each year?”

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Ad HominemAd Hominem

A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

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Ad Hominem Ad Hominem

“The governor has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let’s not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family.”

“The governor has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let’s not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family.”

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Either-OrEither-Or

A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.

A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.

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Either-Or Either-Or

“The government must either raise taxes or reduce services for the poor.”

“The government must either raise taxes or reduce services for the poor.”

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BandwagonBandwagon

A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

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Bandwagon Bandwagon

“The President must be correct in his approach to domestic policy; after all, polls show that 60 percent of the people support him.”

“The President must be correct in his approach to domestic policy; after all, polls show that 60 percent of the people support him.”

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Slippery SlopeSlippery Slope

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.

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Slippery Slope Slippery Slope

“Passing federal laws to control the amount of violence on television is the first step in a process that will result in absolute government control of the media and total censorship over all forms of artistic expression.”

“Passing federal laws to control the amount of violence on television is the first step in a process that will result in absolute government control of the media and total censorship over all forms of artistic expression.”

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Emotional AppealsEmotional Appeals

Appeals that are intended to make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic, reverent, or the like.

Appeals that are intended to make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic, reverent, or the like.

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PathosPathos

The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal.

The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal.

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Tips for Generating Emotional Appeal

Tips for Generating Emotional Appeal

• Use emotional language

• Develop vivid examples

• Speak with sincerity and conviction

• Use emotional language

• Develop vivid examples

• Speak with sincerity and conviction

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Using Emotional Appeal Ethically

Using Emotional Appeal Ethically

• Make sure emotional appeal is appropriate to the speech topic

• Do not substitute emotional appeal for evidence and reasoning

• Make sure emotional appeal is appropriate to the speech topic

• Do not substitute emotional appeal for evidence and reasoning

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Stephen E. Lucas C H A P T E R McGraw-Hill © 2007 Stephen E. Lucas. All rights reserved. Methods of...

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Transcript of Stephen E. Lucas C H A P T E R McGraw-Hill © 2007 Stephen E. Lucas. All rights reserved. Methods of...