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STEAM POWER PLANT---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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CONTENTS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PARTICULAR PAGE No.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1. SYNOPSIS

2. INTRODUCTION

3. THERMAL POWER PLANT

4. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

5. WORKING PRINCIPLE

6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

7. APPLICATIONS

8. LIST OF MATERIALS

9. COST ESTIMATION

10. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PHOTOGRAPHY

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Chapter-1---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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SYNOPSIS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-1

SYNOPSIS

Steam Power Plant is convert Mechanical rotary energy into Electrical energy. A

mechanical interface, consisting of a boiler, heater and a suitable coupling transmits the

energy to an electrical generator. The output of this generator is connected to the Battery

or system grid. The battery is connected to the inverter. The inverter is used to convert

DC voltages to AC voltages. The load is drawn current from the inverter.

• Generator

• Mains shaft with Leafs

• Amount of Steam (or) Pressure

The power ratings can be divided into three convenient grouping, small to 1kW,

medium to 50 kW and large 200 kW to megawatt frame size.

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Chapter-2---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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INTRODUCTION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-2

INTRODUCTION

MAN AND ENERGY:

Man has needed and used energy at an increasing rate for its sustenance and well

being ever since he came on the earth a few million years ago. Primitive man required

energy primarily in the form of food. He derived this by eating plants or animals, which

he hunted. Subsequently he discovered fire and his energy needs increased as he started

to make use of wood and other bio mass to supply the energy needs for cooking as well

as agriculture. He added a mew dimension to the use of energy by domesticating and

training animals to work for him.

With further demand for energy, man began to use the wind for sailing ships and

for driving windmills, and the force of failing water to turn water wheels. Till this time, it

would not be wrong to say that the sun was supplying all the energy needs of man either

directly or indirectly and that man was using only renewable sources of energy.

The industrial revolution, which began with the discovery of the steam engine

(AD 1700), brought about great many changes. For the first time, man began to use a

new source of energy, viz. coal, in large quantities.

A little later, the internal combustion engine was invented (AD1870) and the other

fossil fuels, oil and natural combustion engine extensively. The fossil fuel era of using

non-renewable sources had begun and energy was now available in a concentrated form.

The invention of heat engines and then use of fossil fuels made energy portable and

introduced the much needed flexibility in mans movement.

For the first time, man could get the power of a machine where he required it and

was not restricted to a specific site like a fast-running stream for running a water wheel or

a windy hill for operating a windmill. This flexibility was enhanced with the discovery

of electricity the development of central power generating stations using either fossil

fuels or waterpower.

A new source of energy-nuclear energy-came on the scene after the Second World

War The first large nuclear power station was commissioned about 40 years ago, and

already, nuclear energy is providing a small but significant amount of the energy

requirements of many countries. Thus today, every country draws its energy needs from a

variety of sources. We can broadly categorize these sources as commercial and

noncommercial. The commercial sources include the fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural

gas), hydroelectric power and nuclear power, while the non-commercial sources include

wood, animal wastes, geothermal energy and agricultural wastes.

In an industrialized country like USA, most of the energy requirements are meant

from commercial sources, while in an industrially less developed country like India, the

use of commercial and noncommercial sources is about equal. In the past few years, it

has become obvious that fossil fuel resources are fast depleting and that the fossil fuel era

is gradually coming to an end. This is particularly true for oil and natural gas. It will be

use full there fore to first examine the rates of consumption of the different sources of

energy and to give some indication of the reserves available this study will be done for

the world as a whole and then for India in particular with the help of these figures it will

be possible to form estimates of the time periods for which the existing source will be

available. The need for alternative energy options will thus be established and these

options will then be briefly described.

Before passing on to these topics, it is worth noting that while man’s large-scale

use of commercial energy has led to a better quality of life it has also created many

problems. Perhaps the most serious of these is the harmful effect on the environment.

The combustion of the fossil fuel has caused serious air pollution problems in many areas

because of the localized release of large amounts of harmful gases into the atmosphere. It

has also resulted in the phenomenon of global warning, which is now a matter of great

concern. Similarly the releases of large amounts of waste heat from power plants have

caused thermal pollution in lakes and rivers leading to the destruction of many forms of

plants and animals life.

In the case of nuclear power plants there is also concern over the possibility of

radio activity being released into the atmosphere in the event of an accident and over the

long term problems of disposal of radioactive wastes from these plants. The gravity of

most of these environmental problems had not really been foreseen. Now however, as

man embarks on the search for alternative sources of energy, it is clear that the would do

well to keep the environmental in mind. So her we take geothermal energy as a project

and discussed below.

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Chapter-3---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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THERMAL POWER PLANT---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-3

THERMAL POWER PLANT

The steam generator unit has to produce steam at highest purity, and at high

pressure and temperature required for the turbine. This is made up of Economizer, the

steam drum with all internal and external fittings and chemical dosing arrangement,

generating tubes (with necessary headers for uniform distribution of water flow) forming

the Furnace chamber and superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at

suitable points to avoid excessive boiler pressure. Air and gas path equipment are: forced

draught fan (FD fan), air preheater (APH), boiler furnace, induced draft fan (ID fan),

mechanical and electrical dust precipitators and the Stack or Chimney.

For units of about 200 megawatt (MW) capacity, FD fan, APH, dust collectors and

ID fan are duplicated with necessary isolating dampers. On some units of about 60 MW.

The boiler furnace has mounted on it the coal nozzles and igniter guns, soot blowers, and

water lancing. Necessary ports on furnace walls with safety covers for manual

observation inside the furnace are provided. Necessary air vents and drains are provided

on steam drum, superheater coils and headers etc. for initial start up and for maintaining

the boiler water concentration.

Mounted equipment

Economizer, air preheater, etc.

External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The Forced

Draft(FD) fan takes air from atmosphere and injects it through the airpreheater to the air

nozzles on the boiler furnace to give hot air for better combustion. The ID fan sucks out

or draws out the combustible gases from the furnace to assist FD fan and to maintain

always slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring through any opening.

Just at the outlet of furnace and before the furnace gases are handled by ID fan, fine dust

carried by the outlet gases are removed to avoid atmospheric pollution (environmental

limitations prescribed by law) as well as to minimize erosion of ID fan rotors etc.

The drum internals provided are such that the wet steam entering the drum from

the generating tubes is removed of moisture, and then the dry steam enters the

superheater coils. Furnace explosions due to accumulation of combustible gases after a

trip out are avoided by flushing out these gases from combustion chamber before starting

igniters. The general location of equipment in the boiler cycle is shown in the schematic

sketch. The boilers come under the statutory inspection of Chief Boiler Inspectorate in

every state in India.

The coal crushed to about ¾ inch (6 mm) in size from the coal yard is conveyed

and stored in the boiler hoppers above the boilers. The coal then passes through pipes to

the coal feeders for regulating and measuring coal quantity, then to coal pulverizers for

pulverizing coal, and then to a pulverized coal bin. The pulverizers may be of rotary

drum type or ball or roller grinder type. In some power stations what is known as residual

oil is used as main fuel.

This oil congeals (becomes solid like wax) below about 50 °C due to its high

content of wax, about 50%. This oil therefore is always kept above this temperature even

in storage tanks to make it pumpable. For spraying into the furnace the oil temp at burner

tips is maintained at about 100 °C. For all instruments on this oil line lagging or heat

insulation is provided for their proper working.

This oil is transported from refinery direct by means of oil wagons provided with

steam heating coils. This oil is generally loaded at the refinery at about 80 °C. The pipe

line carrying this oil is lagged (insulated) at all points. Some boilers in some power

stations use natural gas also as main fuel.

Fuel preparing system

Gas taken out from gas wells is sent to group gathering station nearby at about 600

psi (4.1 MPa) by reducing the well pressure at wellhead by means of a Beans orifice

(named after the inventor) installed in the outlet of the Christmas tree at the well head. At

the group gathering station the pressure is further reduced by pressure reducing stations

and the separated liquid, known as condensate (highly volatile like petrol) in petroleum

industry (not to be confused with steam condensate), is stored in tanks for disposal

separately. The gas at outlet of group gathering station at about 40 kgf/cm² (4 MPa) is

sent to power station about 20 miles (30 km) away by pipeline, wrapped and protected for

electrolytic corrosion. At the power station site the gas pressure is further reduced to

about 20 kgf/cm² (2 MPa) and supplied to the electricity utility company. The gas up to

the point of supply to utility is handled by a Government of India organization known as

the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation. The gas at boiler burners is at about one half

kgf/cm² (50 kPa), and separate gas burners are provided for this on the boilers.

From the pulverized coal bin coal is conveyed by hot air injectors through coal

pipes to boiler coal burners of one tier or level at a horizontal angle into the furnace to

give a swirling action for powdered coal for proper mixing of coal powder and also the

incoming hot air from FD fans, to give the best combustion.

Fuel firing system and igniter system

If the system does not have pulverized coal bin then coal powder is conveyed

directly to coal burners from pulverizes. Then generally one tier is fed by one pulverizer.

To provide sufficient combustion temperature in the furnace before spraying powdered

coal to catch fire or ignite, the furnace temperature is brought up by spraying and burning

light oil by means of igniter oil guns. Oil is used in a fine spray, as oil can catch fire even

in ambient temperature. Alternatively gas is also used for ignition instead of oil, if

available in plenty. However in this case the igniter gun design differs. To ignite the

ignition oil or gas, an Electric High Tension spark in the path of oil or gas is used

momentarily and then the spark gun is withdrawn.

External to boiler unit

Fly ash collection equipment and disposal

Dust separators are provided immediately at the outlet of the furnace and before

the ID fan. They are of mechanical type or electrical type, sometimes mechanical

followed by electrical type to reduce the load on the electrical type and also may be to

comply with the provisions of law. The dust normally is collected in hoppers below them.

They are emptied periodically by water jet ejectors or by air suction depending on how

they are further disposed off.

In case of further use of this fine ash, it is generally handled dry by air and taken

to a silo located at a higher level for loading the fine ash in trucks from bottom of silo. In

case of these being dumped in the yard, then wet method by water jet injectors is

employed.

Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage

Since steam is taken out continuously and returned to the boiler, losses due to

blow-downs and leakages have to be made up for maintaining designed boiler water

quantity by means of the level gauges provided on the boiler drum. For this, continuous

make up water is added to the boiler water system. Since this make up requires pure

water this quality water is obtained by a Demineralised (DM) water treatment plant.

However some storage is essential as DM plant may be down for maintenance. For this

purpose a storage tank is installed from which continuously DM water is drawn for boiler

make up.The impurities in water input to this plant generally consist of calcium and

magnesium salts imparting hardness to the water. These salts have to be removed from

the water. If hardness is present in make up water to the boiler, the salts not only form

deposits on the tube water surfaces but also lead to overheating in those localities

resulting in tube failures. Therefore these have to be completely removed for use as boiler

make up. This is done using DM water treatment plant which gives the purest form of

water.

This generally consists of cation, anion and mixed bed exchangers. The final water

from this process consists essentially of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions which is the

chemical composition of pure water. The DM water being very pure becomes highly

corrosive, once it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere because of its very high affinity

for oxygen absorption. The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity

of salts in the raw water input.

The storage tank for DM water is made from materials not affected by corrosive

water, such as PVC. The piping and valves are generally of stainless steel. Sometimes on

top of the water in the tank a steam blanketing arrangement or stainless steel doughnut

float is provided to avoid contact with atmosphere. DM water make up is generally added

to the boiler/TG cycle at the steam space of condenser, i.e. vacuum side. This

arrangement not only sprays the water but also DM water gets deaerated, with the

dissolved gases being removed by the ejector of the condenser itself.

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Chapter-4---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-4

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

The physical setup of this project are given below and it is been explained as follows

1. Boiler Unit

2. Battery

3. Inverter

4. D.C Generator

5. Lighting Load

BOILER UNIT:

Boiler is used to produce the steam from the water by heating water by using any

methods. In our project, the flow lamp is used to heat the water and this water is

converted into the steam.

BOILER TYPES:-

Conventional Boilers:-

In a conventional boiler gas jets play onto a cast

iron heat exchanger through which water passes to be

heated. If used to supply taps, hot water cannot be

provided on demand but must be stored, usually in a

copper cylinder. This type of boiler has relatively simple

controls and tends to be more reliable as less can go wrong. Energy consumption can be

high but the cost of this is moderated by the low maintenance costs. They are versatile in

that they can be used in almost any type of property and can be pumped or gravity fed.

Combination Boilers

A combination boiler heats water for the central heating in the same way as a

conventional boiler but can also provide the taps with instant hot water. The main

difference is that the hot water for the taps is fed directly from the mains rather than from

a hot water storage cylinder. This can also be useful in a small property where space for a

cylinder is at a premium. The internal workings are increasingly technical and can be

perceived as unreliable but are becoming more accepted.

Other than the lack of an airing cupboard one problem can be that in the event of a

breakdown the user can be without both heating and hot water whereas on a conventional

system an electric immersion element can usually be inserted into the cylinder to provide

hot water for the taps. With a combination boiler, hot water and central heating

requirements are provided from the one unit. As well as providing central heating water

into the radiators, it provides all of the domestic water for baths, sinks, and showers.

The big advantage with a combination boiler, or a "combi" as it is usually called,

is that it not only delivers continuous hot water, but more importantly delivers it at mains

pressure too. So, with a combi system you can have a really effective shower without

needing an expensive "Power Shower" booster pump. Combis are also considered to be

amongst the easiest systems to install, because they eliminate the need for both an

expansion tank in the loft and a hot water cylinder in an airing cupboard.

The combi does have limitations. Most standard combis take 40 seconds to heat

water. Combis provide maximum pressure through only one tap at a time. If you have

two taps running, the powerful flow rate is diminished in one (or both) of the taps. So, if

you want high temperature and a high output flow rate from your combi, choose a high

capacity or a storage combi.

Combination Storage Boilers

By adding a storage tank to a combi, the problems of flow rate reduction are

progressively overcome, depending upon the size of the tank. Now you can use a couple

of taps simultaneously, without an unacceptable drop in performance.

The advantage of this system over a conventional boiler and storage tank is that

the hot water never runs out. Even after running a bath, a combi storage boiler doesn't

need time to recover before you can use it again. So there's no need to plan your hot

water requirements, hot water is always there.

However, the flow rate from an average combi storage boiler does not match the

high flow rate from a modern system with an unvented storage tank.

System Boilers

Like conventional boilers, a system boiler can provide central heating and hot

water from a cylinder if required. The key difference with a system boiler is that all the

major components are built in to the boiler. For example the pump, normally installed

remote from the boiler, in built in; so is the expansion vessel, which replaces the

feed/expansion tank often installed in the loft. The safety valve, the automatic air vent

and even the programmer are also included.

With these components built in installation time is reduced significantly, fewer

materials are required, costs are reduced and servicing is simplified. The added bonus of

a "dry loft" removes the worry of any leak or frost damage to tanks and pipe work.

Back Boilers

Back boilers can be fuelled by gas, oil or solid fuel. All require a lined, natural-

draught open flue to expel the potentially harmful gases. Solid

fuel back boilers can only provide hot water when the fire which

heats the house is lit. Gas and oil back boilers however can work

independently of the fire front so are able to provide hot water all

year round. An electric immersion heater can be used as with a conventional boiler.

Condensing Boilers

A Condensing boiler uses modern technology to

maximise the fuel efficiency of either a conventional or

combination system.

The boiler is designed so that the cooler water

returning from the radiators is passed through a

secondary heat exchanger to be warmed by the hot flue

gases which are normally expelled in to the air. The

warmer water is then sent back to the radiators.

It is known as a Condensing boiler because the water from these flue gases

'condenses' in the secondary heat exchanger and drains away at the bottom of the boiler.

Although condensing boilers will become increasingly popular as dramatic savings can

be made on fuel consumption they are at present still in their infancy and may be more

prone to breakdowns. They are also more expensive to buy although grants can often be

obtained to assist with the extra cost.

Storage Tanks

Boilers with a storage tank (hot water cylinder) are better capable of coping with

the demands of multiple use and can deliver water at a high temperature and at a high

flow rate too. Unvented tanks allow mains pressure water delivery, rather than relying on

gravity as traditional open vented systems do.

BATTERIES

INTRODUCTION:

In isolated systems away from the grid, batteries are used for storage of excess

solar energy converted into electrical energy. The only exceptions are isolated sunshine

load such as irrigation pumps or drinking water supplies for storage.

In fact for small units with output less than one kilowatt. Batteries seem to be the

only technically and economically available storage means. Since both the photo-voltaic

system and batteries are high in capital costs. It is necessary that the overall system be

optimized with respect to available energy and local demand pattern. To be economically

attractive the storage of solar electricity requires a battery with a particular combination

of properties:

(1) Low cost

(2) Long life

(3) High reliability

(4) High overall efficiency

(5) Low discharge

(6) Minimum maintenance

(A) Ampere hour efficiency

(B) Watt hour efficiency

We use lead acid battery for storing the electrical energy from the solar panel for

lighting the street and so about the lead acid cells are explained below.

LEAD-ACID WET CELL:

Where high values of load current are necessary, the lead-acid cell is the type most

commonly used. The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). In the

application of battery power to start the engine in an auto mobile, for example, the load

current to the starter motor is typically 200 to 400A. One cell has a nominal output of

2.1V, but lead-acid cells are often used in a series combination of three for a 6-V battery

and six for a 12-V battery.

The lead acid cell type is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged.

The charge and discharge cycle can be repeated many times to restore the output voltage,

as long as the cell is in good physical condition. However, heat with excessive charge

and discharge currents shortends the useful life to about 3 to 5 years for an automobile

battery. Of the different types of secondary cells, the lead-acid type has the highest

output voltage, which allows fewer cells for a specified battery voltage.

CONSTRUCTION:

Inside a lead-acid battery, the positive and negative electrodes consist of a group

of plates welded to a connecting strap.

The plates are immersed in the electrolyte, consisting of 8 parts of water to 3 parts

of concentrated sulfuric acid. Each plate is a grid or framework, made of a lead-

antimony alloy. This construction enables the active material, which is lead oxide, to be

pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the cell, a forming charge produces the positive

and negative electrodes. In the forming process, the active material in the positive plate

is changed to lead peroxide (pbo₂). The negative electrode is spongy lead (pb).

Automobile batteries are usually shipped dry from the manufacturer. The

electrolyte is put in at the time of installation, and then the battery is charged to from the

plates. With maintenance-free batteries, little or no water need be added in normal

service. Some types are sealed, except for a pressure vent, without provision for adding

water.

The construction parts of battery are shown in figure.

CHEMICAL ACTION:

Sulfuric acid is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions. When the cell

discharges, lead peroxide from the positive electrode combines with hydrogen ions to

form water and with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate. Combining lead on the negative

plate with sulfate ions also produces he sulfate. There fore, the net result of discharge is

to produce more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to form lead sulfate on the

plates.

As the discharge continues, the sulfate fills the pores of the grids, retarding

circulation of acid in the active material. Lead sulfate is the powder often seen on the

outside terminals of old batteries. When the combination of weak electrolyte and

sulfating on the plate lowers the output of the battery, charging is necessary.

On charge, the external D.C. source reverses the current in the battery. The

reversed direction of ions flows in the electrolyte result in a reversal of the chemical

reactions. Now the lead sulfates on the positive plate reactive with the water and sulfate

ions to produce lead peroxide and sulfuric acid. This action re-forms the positive plates

and makes the electrolyte stronger by adding sulfuric acid.

At the same time, charging enables the lead sulfate on the negative plate to react

with hydrogen ions; this also forms sulfuric acid while reforming lead on the negative

plate to react with hydrogen ions; this also forms currents can restore the cell to full

output, with lead peroxide on the positive plates, spongy lead on the negative plate, and

the required concentration of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte.

The chemical equation for the lead-acid cell is

Charge

Pb + pbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ 2pbSO₄ + 2H₂O

Discharge

On discharge, the pb and pbo₂ combine with the SO₄ ions at the left side of the

equation to form lead sulfate (pbSO₄) and water (H₂O) at the right side of the equation.

One battery consists of 6 cells, each have an output voltage of 2.1V, which are connected

in series to get an voltage of 12V and the same 12V battery is connected in series, to get

an 24 V battery. They are placed in the water proof iron casing box.

CARING FOR LEAD-ACID BATTERIES:

Always use extreme caution when handling batteries and electrolyte. Wear

gloves, goggles and old clothes. “Battery acid” will burn skin and eyes and destroy

cotton and wool clothing.

The quickest way of ruin lead-acid batteries is to discharge them deeply and leave

them stand “dead” for an extended period of time. When they discharge, there is a

chemical change in the positive plates of the battery.

They change from lead oxide when charge out lead sulfate when discharged. If

they remain in the lead Sulfate State for a few days, some part of the plate dose not

returns to lead oxide when the battery is recharged. If the battery remains discharge

longer, a greater amount of the positive plate will remain lead sulfate. The parts of the

plates that become “sulfate” no longer store energy. Batteries that are deeply discharged,

and then charged partially on a regular basis can fail in less then one year.

Check your batteries on a regular basis to be sure they are getting charged. Use a

hydrometer to check the specific gravity of your lead acid batteries. If batteries are

cycled very deeply and then recharged quickly, the specific gravity reading will be lower

than it should because the electrolyte at the top of the battery may not have mixed with

the “charged” electrolyte. Check the electrolyte level in the wet-cell batteries at the least

four times a year and top each cell of with distilled water. Do not add water to

discharged batteries. Electrolyte is absorbed when batteries are very discharged. If you

add water at this time, and then recharge the battery, electrolyte will overflow and make a

mess.

Keep the top of your batteries clean and check that cables are tight. Do not tighten

or remove cables while charging or discharging. Any spark around batteries can cause a

hydrogen explosion inside, and ruin one of the cells, and you.

On charge, with reverse current through the electrolyte, the chemical action is

reversed. Then the pb ions from the lead sulfate on the right side of the equation re-form

the lead and lead peroxide electrodes. Also the SO₄ ions combine with H₂ ions from the

water to produce more sulfuric acid at the left side of the equation.

CURRENT RATINGS:

Lead-acid batteries are generally rated in terms of how much discharge currents

they can supply for a specified period of time; the output voltage must be maintained

above a minimum level, which is 1.5 to 1.8V per cell. A common rating is ampere-hours

(A.h.) based on a specific discharge time, which is often 8h. Typical values for

automobile batteries are 100 to 300 A.h.

As an example, a 200 A.h battery can supply a load current of 200/8 or 25A, used

on 8h discharge. The battery can supply less current for a longer time or more current for

a shorter time. Automobile batteries may be rated for “cold cranking power”, which is

related to the job of starting the engine. A typical rating is 450A for 30s at a temperature

of 0 degree F. Note that the ampere-hour unit specifies coulombs of charge. For instance,

200 A.h. corresponds to 200A*3600s (1h=3600s). the equals 720,000 A.S, or coulombs.

One ampere-second is equal to one coulomb.

Then the charge equals 720,000 or 7.2*10^5ºC. To put this much charge back into

the battery would require 20 hours with a charging current of 10A.The ratings for lead-

acid batteries are given for a temperature range of 77 to 80ºF. Higher temperature

increase the chemical reaction, but operation above 110ºF shortens the battery life.

Low temperatures reduce the current capacity and voltage output. The ampere-

hour capacity is reduced approximately 0.75% for each decreases of 1º F below normal

temperature rating. At 0ºF the available output is only 60 % of the ampere-hour battery

rating. In cold weather, therefore, it is very important to have an automobile battery unto

full charge. In addition, the electrolyte freezes more easily when diluted by water in the

discharged condition.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

Measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte generally checks the state of

discharge for a lead-acid cell. Specific gravity is a ratio comparing the weight of a

substance with the weight of a substance with the weight of water. For instance,

concentrated sulfuric acid is 1.835 times as heavy as water for the same volume.

Therefore, its specific gravity equals 1.835. The specific gravity of water is 1, since it is

the reference.

In a fully charged automotive cell, mixture of sulfuric acid and water results in a

specific gravity of 1.280 at room temperatures of 70 to 80ºF. as the cell discharges, more

water is formed, lowering the specific gravity. When it is down to about 1.150, the cell is

completely discharged.

Specific-gravity readings are taken with a battery hydrometer, such as one in

figure (7). Note that the calibrated float with the specific gravity marks will rest higher in

an electrolyte of higher specific gravity. The decimal point is often omitted for

convenience. For example, the value of 1.220 in figure (7) is simply read “twelve

twenty”. A hydrometer reading of 1260 to 1280 indicates full charge, approximately

12.50 are half charge, and 1150 to 1200 indicates complete discharge.

The importance of the specific gravity can be seen from the fact that the open-

circuit voltage of the lead-acid cell is approximately equal to

V = Specific gravity + 0.84

For the specific gravity of 1.280, the voltage is 1.280 = 0.84 = 2.12V, as an

example. These values are for a fully charged battery.

CHARGING THE LEAD-ACID BATERY:

The requirements are illustrated in figure. An external D.C. voltage source is

necessary to produce current in one direction. Also, the charging voltage must be more

than the battery e.m.f. Approximately 2.5 per cell are enough to over the cell e.m.f. so

that the charging voltage can produce current opposite to the direction of discharge

current.

Note that the reversal of current is obtained just by connecting the battery VB and

charging source VG with + to + and –to-, as shown in figure. The charging current is

reversed because the battery effectively becomes a load resistance for VG when it higher

than VB. In this example, the net voltage available to produce charging currents is 15-

12=3V.

A commercial charger for automobile batteries is essentially a D.C. power supply,

rectifying input from the AC power line to provide D.C. output for charging batteries.

Float charging refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are always

connected to each other for supplying current to the load. In figure the charger provides

current for the load and the current necessary to keep the battery fully charged. The

battery here is an auxiliary source for D.C. power.

It may be of interest to note that an automobile battery is in a floating-charge

circuit. The battery charger is an AC generator or alternator with rectifier diodes, driver

by a belt from the engine. When you start the car, the battery supplies the cranking

power. Once the engine is running, the alternator charges he battery. It is not necessary

for the car to be moving. A voltage regulator is used in this system to maintain the output

at approximately 13 to 15 V.

The constant voltage of 24V comes from the solar panel controlled by the charge

controller so for storing this energy we need a 24V battery so two 12V battery are

connected in series.

It is a good idea to do an equalizing charge when some cells show a variation of

0.05 specific gravity from each other. This is a long steady overcharge, bringing the

battery to a gassing or bubbling state. Do not equalize sealed or gel type batteries.

With proper care, lead-acid batteries will have a long service life and work very

well in almost any power system. Unfortunately, with poor treatment lead-acid battery

life will be very short.

INVERTER

INTRODUCTION:

The process of converting D.C. into A.C. is known as INVERSION. In other

words, we may define it as the reverse process of rectification. The device, which

performs this process, is known as an INVERTOR. Inversion is, by no means, a recent

process. In olden days gas-filled tubes and vacuum tubes were used to develop inverters.

Thyratron inverter is popularly used as a large power device. Vacuum tube inverters

were generally used for high-frequency applications. Some of the main disadvantages of

the tube as well as the mercury pool type inverters are:

1. They are very costly

2. They are very big in size and heavy in weight

3. They have very poor efficiency

4. The voltage drop across these devices is very high

5. They are less accurate

6. They are very slow in response, etc.

The basic principle of an inverter can be explained with the help of a simple circuit, as

shown in figure. If switch S is connected alternately to position 1 and 2 at a rapid speed

and if S is not kept closed to any of the two positions (1 and 2) for too long, and then an

alternating voltage will appear across the primary winding. This can be explained by the

direction of the current flow in the primary winding.

Although the voltage applied is D.C. in nature, the direction of current flow in the

primary winding when S is connected to position 1 is from top to bottom whereas when S

is connected at position 2, the current flows from bottom to top. This change in the

direction of current flow in the primary winding gives rise to an alternating voltage in it.

The frequencies of this alternating voltage will depend on how rapidly the switch (S)

positions are interchanged. This alternating voltage in the primary winding will induce

an alternating emf in the secondary winding, which will act as the A.C. output.

With the development of semi-conductor devices, a lot of improvements to took

place in the design of inverter circuits. Transistor being a fast-switching device was used

as a switch for developing low and medium power inverters.

LAMP

STEAM P.M.D.C. GENERATOR BATTERY INVERTOR

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

IN 4007 IN 4007

9V-0-9V

CHARGER POLARITY PROTECTOR + -

100μF CHARGING ON/OFF

50V INDICATOR LED SWITCH 12 V / 7.5 A.H

BATTERY

220Ω

IN 4007

A.C MAINS 100µF/50V

RF 220Ω

CHOKE 100µF/25V 0.1µF 120Ω DISCHARGE

INDICATOR

INVERTER

BC 547 10k

TRANSFORMER 2N3055 POWER O/P 4.7µF 560Ω

100µF/25V CUM OSCILATOR

40 W

TUBE LIGHT

Working principle:-

• CHARGING CIRCUIT:-

The step down transformer is used to reduce the supply voltages in

to 9-0-9V. This signal is rectified by the rectifier unit with the help of

diodes. The Capacitor is used to filter the rectified signal and this signal is

given to the battery input supply.

• INVERTING CIRCUIT:-

The inverter circuit is activated when the switch is in on condition.

The discharge indication is given with the help of discharge LED. The

variable resister is used to varying the intensity of the tube light. The

capacitors and transistors are used to amplifier cum oscillator circuit. This

will produce the a.c signal and this signal is given to the inverter

transformer. The inverter output is given to the load.

PERMANENT MAGNET D.C. GENERATOR:

Voltage Production

DC Circuits, that there are three conditions necessary to induce a voltage into a

conductor.

1. A magnetic field

2. A conductor

3. Relative motion between the two.

A DC generator provides these three conditions to produce a DC voltage output.

Theory of Operation

A basic DC generator has four basic parts:

(1) A magnetic field;

(2) A single conductor, or loop;

(3) A commutator; and

(4) Brushes

The magnetic field may be supplied by either a permanent magnet or an

electromagnet. For now, we will use a permanent magnet to describe a basic DC generator.

Basic Operation of a DC Generator A single conductor, shaped in the form of a

loop, is positioned between the magnetic poles. As long as the loop is stationary, the

magnetic field has no effect (no relative motion). If we rotate the loop, the loop cuts

through the magnetic field, and an EMF (voltage) is induced into the loop.

When we have relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor in that

magnetic field, and the direction of rotation is such that the conductor cuts the lines of

flux, an EMF is induced into the conductor. The magnitude of the induced EMF

depends on the field strength and the rate at which the flux lines are cut.

The stronger the field or the more flux lines cut for a given period of time, the

larger the induced EMF.

Eg = KFN

where Eg = generated voltage

K = fixed constant

F = magnetic flux strength

N = speed in RPM

The direction of the induced current flow can be determined using the

"left-hand rule" for generators. This rule states that if you point the index finger of

your left hand in the direction of the magnetic field (from North to South) and point the

thumb in the direction of motion of the conductor, the middle finger will point in the

direction of current flow.

For example, the conductor closest to the N pole is traveling upward across the

field; therefore, the current flow is to the right, lower corner. Applying the left-hand rule

to both sides of the loop will show that current flows in a counter-clockwise direction in

the loop.

DC GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION

Output Voltage-vs-Load Current for Shunt-Wound DC Generator the shunt-

wound generator, running at a constant speed under varying load conditions, has a much

more stable voltage output than does a series-wound generator. Some change in output

voltage does take place. This change is caused by the fact that, as the load current

increases, the voltage drop (I R) across the armature coil increases, causing output

voltage to decrease.

As a result, the current through the field decreases, reducing the magnetic field

and causing voltage to decrease even more. If load current is much higher than the

design of the generator, the drop in output voltage is severe. For load current within the

design range of the generator, the drop in output voltage is minimal.

LIGHTING LOAD:

FLUORESCENT TUBES:

INTRODUCTION:

This type of lamps is a low-pressure mercury vapor discharge lamp. Fluorescent

lighting has a great advantage over other light source in many applications. It is possible

to achieve quite high lighting intensities without excessive temperature rises. The

efficiency of fluorescent lamp is about 40 lumens per watt, about three times the

efficiency of an equivalent tungsten lamp. The average life of a fluorescent lamp is about

4,000 working hours.

CONSTRUCTION:

The fluorescent tube consists of a glass tube and 0.6 meter, 1.2 meters and 1.5

meters in length. The inside surface of the tube is coated with a thin layer of fluorescent

material in the form of a powder.

Various fluorescent materials give different color light. By mixing the various

powders light of any desired color including daylight can be obtained.

The glass tube of the fluorescent lamp is provided at both ends with bipin caps and

oxide coated tungsten filaments. The tube contains organ gas with a small quantity of

mercury under low pressure. Even with organ gas the discharge will not start at ordinary

main voltage. A choke and a starter switch are therefore incorporated in the circuit of the

tube lamp to give a momentary high voltage across the tube to start the discharge. The

choke is connected in series with the tube the starter is connected across tube.

The circuit is suddenly opened at the starter, the flux around the choke collapse

causing a kick of about 1000V. This voltage is applied across the two electrodes and

sufficient to start the discharge of the tube. During the steady operation of this lamp the

voltage across the tube drops to about 150 volts. This voltage is sufficient to maintain the

discharge of the tube. During the steady operation of this lamp, the voltage across the

tube drops to about 150 volts. This voltage is sufficient to maintain the discharge. The

choke in series with the tube now acts as a stabilizer. A capacitor is connected across the

circuit it improve the power factor.

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Chapter-5---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

WORKING PRINCIPLE---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-5

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The block diagram of steam power plant is shown in figure, it consist of a boiler

unit, 12 voltage battery, an inverter and a florescent lamp. As we studied from the

generator gives a D.C. output of 12V this D.C. output is not always constant there is

some variation in this D.C. output this cannot be given to the battery storage it may

weaken the life of the battery. So in order to get constant D.C. output and also to avoid

the reverse flow of current to the panel in the case of no load a charge controller have

been used this help us to allow only the constant voltage of 12V D.C. to the battery and

also it act as an blocking diode and protect the motor principle.

By this way the battery gets charged then this D.C. storage is given to an inverter

this inverter inverts 12V D.C. to input in to AC output, step upped in to 230V.The 230V

AC supply is given to the supply to the lamp. The lamp used for street lighting is 230V,

50 Hz, single-phase supply.

LAMP

BOILER UNIT

D.C GENERAT

OR

BATTERY INVERTOR

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

IN 4007 IN 4007

9V-0-9V

CHARGER POLARITY PROTECTOR + -

100μF CHARGING ON/OFF

25V INDICATOR LED SWITCH 12 V / 7.5 A.H

BATTERY

220Ω

IN 4007

A.C MAINS

RF 4K7 220Ω

CHOKE 220Ω 1K 4K7 DISCHARGE

1K INDICATOR

INVERTER D882 BC 547

BC 547 2K BC 547

AUTO OFF VR 1K2

3K3 pF TRANSFORMER D 882 POWER O/P 220Ω 330Ω

2KV CUM OSCILATOR

11 W

/11S CFL TUBE

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-6--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Steam is produced by the simply the flow lamp

This is a Non-conventional system

Battery is used to store the generated power

High pressure steam produced

DISADVANTAGES

• Only applicable for the particular place.

• Initial cost of this arrangement is high.

• Input Fuel supply needed

CHAPTER-6

ADVANTAGES

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-7--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPLICATIONS--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPLICATIONS

Direct heat applications

Mechanical motion derived from water power can be used to drive heat pumps or

to produce heat from the friction of solid materials, or by the churning of water or other

fluids, or in other cases, by the use of centrifugal or other types of pumps in combination

with restrictive orifices that produces heat from friction and turbulence when the working

fluid flows through them. This heat may then be stored in materials having a high heat

capacity, such as water, stones, eutectic salts, etc.,

A home heating system that uses a water powered pump and a restrictive orifice to

derive direct heat for a building, without first generating electricity also has been

developed.

Electric Generation Applications:

Water power can be used in centralized utility applications to drive synchronous

A.C. electrical generators. In such applications the energy is fed directly into power

networks through voltage step-up transformers.

CHAPTER-7

This unit can be integrated with existing hydro electrical networks and used in a

“water-saver” mode of operation. When the water is blowing, electrical an amount equal

to the being can reduce generation at the hydroelectric plants in the network produced by

this unit. Thus, the water turbines supply part of the network load that is ordinarily

produced by the hydroelectric generators. Under these conditions some of the water that

would have been used by the hydroelectric plant to supply the load is saved in the

reservoir and made available for later use when the water is not blowing.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-8--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LIST OF MATERIALS--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-8

LIST OF MATERIALS

SL. NO. NAME OF THE PARTS MATERIAL QUANTITY1 Boiler tank Mild Steel 12 Gate Valve Brass 13 Generator (D.C 12 V) Aluminium 14 Battery (12 V) Lead-acid 15 Inverter Electronic PCB 5 meter6 Frame Stand Mild Steel 17 Hose Collar Brass 28 Turbine blade Mild Steel 19 Connecting Wire Cu 2 meter

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-9--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

COST ESTIMATION--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-9

COST ESTIMATION

1. MATERIAL COST:

SL.

NO.

NAME OF THE PARTS MATERIAL QUANTITY AMOUNT

(RS)1 Boiler tank Mild Steel 12 Gate Valve Brass 13 Generator (D.C 12 V) Aluminium 14 Battery (12 V) Lead-acid 15 Inverter Electronic PCB 5 meter6 Frame Stand Mild Steel 17 Hose Collar Brass 28 Turbine blade Mild Steel 19 Connecting Wire Cu 2 meter TOTAL =

2. LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

Cost =

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost

=

=

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

=

TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

=

=

Total cost for this project =

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter-10--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCLUSION--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-11

CONCLUSION

A strong multidiscipline team with a good engineering base is necessary for the

Development and refinement of advanced computer programming, editing techniques,

diagnostic Software, algorithms for the dynamic exchange of informational different

levels of hierarchy. Simulation techniques are suitable for solving some of the problems.

But a good quantitative model and a test set-up will help to understand the systems. This

project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to use our limited

knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning, purchasing,

assembling and machining while doing this project work. We feel that the project work

is a good solution to bridge the gates between institution and industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time successfully.

The STEAM POWER PLANT is working with satisfactory conditions. We are able to

understand the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances and also quality. We have done

to our ability and skill making maximum use of available facilities. In conclusion

remarks of our project work, let us add a few more lines about our impression project

work. Thus we have developed a “STEAM POWER PLANT” which helps to know how

to achieve low cost steam power plant model. By using more techniques, they can be

modified and developed according to the applications.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

BIBLIOGRAPHY

RAI. G.D. “NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES”, KHANNA

PUBLISHERS, DELHI.

RAMESH. R, UDAYA KUMAR, K.ANANDAKRISHNAN “RENEWABLE

ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES”, NAROSA PUBLISHING HOUSE, MADRAS.

A.K.SAWHNEY. “A TEXT BOOK OF ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS,

INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS”

B.L.THERJA, A.K. THERAJA. “A TEXT BOOK OF ELECTRICAL

TECHNOLOGY”

G.R.NAGPAL. “POWER PLANT ENGINEERING” KHANNA PUBLISHERS,

DELHI.

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PHOTOGRAPHY--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------