Status of Education in India National Report - UNESCO

Department of Higher EducationMinistry of Human Resource Development

Government of IndiaNew Delhi, India

Status of Education in India

National Report

Prepared by the

National University of Educational Planning & Administrationfor the

Contents

Section 1

Vision of Inclusion 9-12

Section 2

Indian Education System 13-16

Section 3

Major Reforms and Innovations for Inclusive Education 17-22

Elementary Education

Secondary Education

Higher Education

Section 4

Legal and Policy Framework for Inclusion 23-27

Section 5

Responsiveness of the System: Actions,

Achievements and Vision 28-57

Literacy

Pre-School Education (PSE)

Quality Elementary Education for All

Universalizing Secondary Education

Expanding Higher Education

Section 6

Inclusion in Education of Children and

Persons with Disabilities 58-69

Achievements in Education of Children with Disabilities

Overcoming Inequities for Children with Disabilities

Teachers

Management of Provisions for Persons with Disabilities

Section 7

Major Challenges and Way Forward 70-83

The Way of the Future

1 Percentage Population by Caste, Gender, Muslims toTotal Population and Literacy Rates 30

2 Eleventh Plan Targets and Special Focus Areas 31

3 Progress in Elementary Education Since 2001 33

4 Progress made under NPEGEL 36

5 Drop out Rates at Primary and Elementary Stages by Social Groups 38

6 Out of School Children Aged 6-13 years: All India, 2006 38

7 Secondary Education—Enrolment (in crores) and Dropout, 2004–05 44

8 Enrolment in Higher Education 52

9 Enrolment by Type of Disability (%) 62

10 Educational Achievement of Children with Disabilities by Severity 63

11 Sector-wise Plan and Non-Plan Budgeted Expenditure for EducationDepartments of States and Centre (Revenue Account) 71

List of Boxes

1 Statement by the HRM 11

2 Model Bill on Right to Education, 2008 19

3 Enabling Activities of the Mahila Samakhya 20

4 Technical and Management Education 22

5 Inclusive Education 55

6 Initiatives to Expand Infrastructure in Higher Education during 2007-2012 57

7 Inclusion in ECCE: An Exemplar 61

8 Inclusion under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 62

List of Tables

9 India’s Commitment under UNCRPD 68

10 Targets of SUCCESS for the Eleventh Five Year Plan 72

11 Renewal of Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbooks 73

12 Educational Development Index 74

13 Bhonga Shala…..Bringing the Schools to the Children 76

14 AIE Interventions–Some Examples 77

15 Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh (PSK) 78

16 Accounting for Inclusion 79

17 Prime Minister’s New 15 -Point Programme for the Welfare of Minorities 82

List of Figures

1 Educational Structure in India 14

2 Growth of Primary and Upper Primary Schools 33

3 Growth of Enrolment in Primary and Upper Primary Schools 34

4 Gender Parity Indices (GPI) at Primary, Upper Primary and Elementary Levels 35

5 Dropout Rates at Primary and Elementary Levels 37

6 Growth of Teachers at Primary and Upper Primary Levels 39

7 Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) at Primary and Upper Primary Schools 40

8 Number of Female Teachers per Hundred Male Teachers 41

9 Growth of Secondary/Senior Secondary Schools 42

10 Percentage of Secondary/Senior Secondary Schools under Different Managements 43

11 Growth of Enrolment in Secondary and Senior Secondary Schools 45

12 Growth of Girls Enrolment in Secondary and Senior Secondary Schools 45

13 Growth of Teachers in Secondary and Senior Secondary Schools 46

14 Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) in Secondary and Senior Secondary Schools 47

15 Number of Female Teachers per hundred Male Teachers 47

16 Growth of Higher Educational Institutions 48

17 Growth of Enrolment and Teachers in Higher Education 49

18 Enrolment by Levels in Universities and Affiliated Colleges 50

19 Faculty-wise Enrolment in Higher Education 51

20 Level- wise Share of Girls in Total Enrolment in Higher Education 53

21 Level- wise Share of SCs in Total Enrolment in Higher Education 53

22 Level- wise Share of STs in Total Enrolment in Higher Education 54

23 Coverage of CWSN under Different Schemes/Programmes 59

24 Disabled Person’s Education Status 64

25 Disabled Persons: Social Composition (%) 64

26 Sectoral Allocation of Public Expenditure on Education by Levels of Education in India 72

ADIP Assistance to Disabled Persons for Purchase/

Fitting of Aids/Appliances

AICTE All India Council for Technical Education

AIE Alternative and Innovative Education

BRGF Backward Regions Grants Fund

CABE Central Advisory Board of Education

CBO Community-based Organization

CBSE Central Board of Secondary Education

CCPD Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities

CSS Centrally Sponsored Schemes

CWSN Child With Special Needs

DPEP District Primary Education Programme

EBB Educationally Backward Blocks

ECCE Early Childhood Care and Education

EDI Education Development Index

EDUSAT Education Satellite as launched by Indian Space

Research Organization (ISRO)

EGS Education Guarantee Scheme

GER Gross Enrolment Ratio

GOI Government of India

GPI Gender Parity Index

HRM Human Resource Minister

ICDS Integrated Child Development Scheme

ICT Information and Communication Technology

IEDC Integrated Education for the Disabled Children

IEDSS Inclusive Education for the Disabled at Secondary

Stage

IIITM Indian Institute of Information Technology and

Management

IIM Indian Institute of Management

IIS Indian Institute of Science

IIT Indian Institute of Technology

KGBV Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya

KVS Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangthan

M/HRD Ministry of Human Resource Development

MDMS Mid-Day Meal Scheme

Abbreviations

MS Mahila Samakhya

MSJE Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment

MWCD Ministry of Women and Child Development

NCERT National Council of Educational Research and

Training

NCF National Curriculum Framework

NCMP National Common Minimum Programme

NGO Non- Government Organization

NIOS National Institute of Open Schooling

NIT National Institutes of Technology

NLM National Literacy Mission

NMCME National Monitoring Committee for Minorities

Education

NPE National Policy on Education

NPEGEL National Programme for Education of Girls at

Elementary Level

NSSO National Sample Survey Organization

NUEPA National University of Educational Planning and

Administration

NVS Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti

OBC Other Backward Classes

POA Programme of Action

PSK Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh (Elementary Education

Fund)

PWD Act Persons With Disabilities (Equal Opportunities,

Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act,

1995

SC Scheduled Castes

SSA Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan

ST Scheduled Tribes

SUCCESS Scheme for Universal Access and Quality at the

Secondary Stage

UEE Universalisation of Elementary Education

UGC University Grants Commission

UNCRPD United Nations Convention on the Rights of

People with Disabilities

9��Inclusive Education: The Way of the Future

Section 1

Vision of Inclusion

India, as one of the oldest civilizations of theworld and with its rich cultural heritage, has

traversed a long distance during the lastsixtyone years of its independence. It accountsfor 2.4 per cent of the world surface area andsupports 16.7 per cent of the world population.India’s 1.28 billion people live in 28 States and7 Union Territories. The uniqueness of the Indiansociety is its ‘Unity in Diversity’, which is visiblein its religions, languages and cultures. India isa multi-religious country with a population mixof Hindus 80.5 per cent, Muslims 13.43 per cent,Christians 2.3 per cent and 3.77 per cent others,constituting an important part of Indian diversity.Hindi, in the ‘Devanagari’ script, is the officiallanguage of the country; but both Hindi andEnglish are collectively used by the UnionGovernment for certain specified administrativepurposes. Besides, the eighth schedule of theIndian Constitution recognizes as many as 22scheduled languages. By some count, there areover 200 languages and almost 1,600 dialects

that are spoken in the country (Prakash, Ved,2008).

The Education system of a country does notfunction in isolation from the society of which itis a part. Hierarchies of castes, economic status,gender relations and cultural diversities as wellas uneven economic development also deeplyinfluence issues relating to access and equityin education. Though India was widelyacclaimed as a land of knowledge and wisdomduring ancient times yet access to educationwas limited to select strata of the society. Thesocietal distribution of responsibility andaccountability may have been justified in thosedays but in today’s context deeply entrenchedsocial inequalities between various socialgroups and castes, the centuries- old socialprejudices and inequalities, based on caste atbir th, continue to propose challenges fornational development. Extending educationalopportunities to the marginalized groups has

Inclusive Education the Way of the Future

“..…Every society that values social justice and is anxious to improve the lot of the commonman and cultivate all available talent must ensure progressive equality of opportunity to allsections of the population. This is the only guarantee for the building up of an egalitarianand human society in which the exploitation of the weak will be minimized”.

(The Education Commission, GOI, 1966. 108)

10 �� Inclusive Education: The Way of the Future

Vision of InclusionSection 1

been considered an antidote to thislongstanding discrimination by the framers ofthe Constitution. Several attempts have beenmade by social reformers and others to makeeducation accessible to the marginal groupswith varying degrees of success.

The concepts of social inclusion and exclusionare used in many debates around injustice andinequality. These concepts have found their wayinto mainstream discussions of education policythrough the influence and experience ofdisabled people’s movements and ‘specialneeds schools’ (id21 Insights, undated). Indiais also touched by these internationalinstruments and is signatory to most of them.These developments necessitated that schoolsmay be viewed as the facilitators for exercisingthe Right to Education for growing children andyouth. This school reform approach favours theevolution from integrated education (where thechild is adapted to fit the mainstreamenvironment) to inclusive education (whereenvironment is adapted according to the needsof the child). Inclusion is to be seen as part ofthe wider struggle to overcome exclusivediscourse and practices, and against theideology that each individual is completelyseparate and independent.

The biggest change in education in the last fiveyears is the focus on “Learners” in a pro-activemanner. This being so, learners are central toattempts to improve the quality of education.While this may appear obvious as logic, it needsto be consciously reflected in practice.Education, to be inclusive needs to beresponsive to the diverse needs andcircumstances of learners and to giveappropriate weight to the abilities, skills andknowledge they bring to the teaching andlearning process. The Dakar Framework

(UNESCO, 2000) makes clear that an inclusivelearning environment is an essential attributeof high-quality education. This is the spirit inwhich inclusive education has emerged in India.

One of the landmark developments since thelast conference in 2004 has been the assurancegiven by the Hon’ble Minister for HumanResource Development (HRM) in the RajyaSabha (Upper House of the Parliament) in 2005and now the launch of the Eleventh Five YearPlan (2007-2012): Inclusive Growth in June2008.

The Statement by the HRM is verycomprehensive and covers all the levels ofeducation -from early years to adulthood andcuts across all the related ministr ies,departments and programmes. According to thisStatement, “The Ministry of HRD will assumenodal responsibility to monitor, guide, facilitateand coordinate the new Action Plan. TheMinistry will also be responsible for making anassessment of the additional funds required andfor making the appropriate recommendationsin this regard. A person/ persons with deepexperience of inclusive education practices willbe nominated to the Central Advisory Board ofEducation (CABE) and will, in addition, assistthe MHRD and ensure proper implementationof the new action plan. The Ministry will alsodevise methods to make the implementation ofthe Action Plan transparent, measurable andaccountable and will involve non-governmentalexperts in monitoring this area of work”.

This Statement promised an action plan thathas been developed in 2005 and Departmentof School Education and Literacy in the M/HRDis the nodal agency for monitoringimplementation. Though this statement is madefor the children and youth with disabilities, thesame developments are also true for children



Box 1: Statement by the HRM*

Sir, as promised in this august house during the last session of the Parliament, my Ministry hasformulated a comprehensive Action Plan for the Inclusive Education of Children and Youth withDisabilities. The need for inclusive education arises precisely because it is now well understoodthat most children with disabilities can, with motivation and effort on the part of teaching institutions,become an integral part of those institutions. The government is committed to providing educationthrough mainstream schools for children with disabilities, in accordance with the provisions of thePersons With Disabilities Act, 1995. Non-specialist schools, whether at the elementary, secondaryor higher levels can, with appropriate support within the education community adapt themselves towork with children with disabilities. Worldwide there is a conscious shift away from special schoolingto mainstream schooling of education for children with disabilities. It should, and will be our objectiveto make mainstream education not just available but accessible, affordable and appropriate forstudents with disabilities. I also believe that if we make our schools accessible to children withdisabilities, we will also be improving the quality of education for all children, a key objective of theSarva Shiksha Abhiyan.

The main objectives of the Action Plan will be

(i) To ensure that no child is denied admission in mainstream education;

(ii) To ensure that every child would have the right to access an Aanganwadi and school andno child would be turned back on the ground of disability;

(iii) To ensure that mainstream and specialist training institutions serving persons withdisabilities, in the government or in the non-government sector, facilitate the growth of acadre of teachers trained to work within the principles of inclusion;

(iv) To facilitate access of girls with disabilities and disabled students from rural and remoteareas to government hostels;

(v) To provide for home- based learning for persons with severe, multiple and intellectualdisability;

(vi) To promote and distance education for those who require an individualised pace of learning;

(vii) To emphasize job-training and job-oriented vocational training; and

(viii) To promote an understanding of the paradigm shift from charity to development through amassive awareness, motivation and sensitization campaign.

Hon’ble Minister for Human Resource Development, Shri Arjun Singh Rajya Sabha

(Upper House of the Parliament) in 2005

* Statement made in the Rajya Sabha on 21.3.2005 by the Minister for Human Resource Development on thesubject of the Inclusive Education of Children with Disabilities ( Reference- Office Memorandum dated 22.3.2005of Department of Secondary and Higher Education, M/HRD)



and youth of other marginalized groups that maybe facing the danger of exclusion for the deeprooted historical reasons. This now issubstantiated by the components of theeducation plan as reflected in the Eleventh FiveYear Plan (2007-2012) of India.

It also needs to be noted that Indian Constitutionprovided safeguards for the marginalized andvulnerable groups as early as in 1950s andthese are being continuously executed andmonitored. However, inclusion of children andpersons with disabilities is one of the priorityareas as indicated by the HRM’s statement andalso reflected in policy and plan documents. Thisreport on development of education in India

gives information about education in general,about achievements and challenges for theidentified groups for special focus likeScheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes(STs), Other Backwards Classes (OBCs),Minorities such as Muslims, with gender as thecross cutting concern. However, inclusion ineducation for children and youth with disabilitieswill also be commented separately though Indiarecognizes that issues in education of thedisabled also become more complex due tomultiple disadvantages that these persons faceand also disability like gender is a cross cuttingconcern.

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There has not been any fundamental changeover the past few years in the structure and

organization of secondary and higher secondaryeducation. The period since the ninetiesespecially since last decade has witnessedgrowth in response to the demand generated bythe expansion of elementary education. Whilestate financing of secondary education continuesto grow, participation of non-governmentalorganizations has also increased in themanagement of secondary schools with officialrecognition, and in many cases, with financialassistance. Vocationalization of secondaryeducation provides for diversification ofeducational opportunities so as to enhanceindividual employability, reduce the mismatchbetween demand and supply of skilledmanpower and a viable alternative for those notintending to pursue higher education. Currentlya scheme for universalisation of secondaryeducation is on the anvil under the currentEleventh Five Year Plan.

School education in India is organized in fourstages, namely, pr imary, upper pr imary,secondary and higher secondary. While theminimum number of years required to completegeneral school education remains ten yearsthroughout the country, the division of the ten-year general school education into primary,upper primary and secondary continues to be

different in some of the states and unionterritories. Eighteen states and union territorieshave adopted the 5+3+2 pattern of generalschool education. In twelve other States andUnion Territories, the pattern of general schooleducation is 4+3+3 (i.e. four years of primary,three years of upper primary and three years ofsecondary school education). Three states andunion territories follow a 5+2+3 pattern and oneState follows a general school education systemof 4+4+2. Educational structure of schooleducation in India is depicted in Figure-1.

Literacy is the first rung of the educationalladder. Literacy has for long been considered apre-requisite for development. It is a majordeterminant in achievement of our demographicgoals, be they the reduction in infant mortalityrates, maternal mortality rates or the fall infemale fertility rates. The need for a literatepopulation was recognized as a crucial inputfor nation building and the National LiteracyMission (NLM) was set up by the Late PrimeMinister of India, Shri Rajiv Gandhi in 1988 toachieve this goal. The initial target before theNational Literacy Mission was to make 80 millionpersons literate by 1995, was later enhancedto 100 million persons literate by 1997. Thetarget for the Tenth Plan was to achieve athreshold level of 75% literacy by 2007 whichnow has been revised to achieving 80% literacy.

Section 2

Indian Education System1

1 Most of the information in this section is based on Education in India, prepared by National University of Educational Planningand Administration for the Department of Higher Education, Government of India, October 2007.


Indian Education SystemSection 2

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Figure 1: Educational Structure in India

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The pre-primary education as a part of theeducational ladder is not compulsory.Governmental intervention in the pre-primarysector is through the Early Child Care andEducation (ECCE) programme which includesuniversalising the programme of IntegratedChild Development Scheme (ICDS) to providea functional Anganwadi in every settlement andensure full coverage for all children. The privatesector, mostly in urban areas, supplements thegovernment efforts substantially in catering tothe pre-primary educational needs of children.The National Common Minimum Programme(CMP) envisages a significant expansion of the

ICDS to cover all States and UTs in the country.As per the Census of India (2001), children inthe age group of birth to 6 years number around158 million which is approximately 15.2 per centof the total population of the country. The ICDSoffers a package of health, nutrition andpreschool education services to children, frompre-natal stage to the age of six years and topregnant and lactating mothers, following a lifecycle approach. The Integrated ChildDevelopment Scheme (ICDS) introduced in 33Blocks (Projects) has gradually expanded to6277 Projects as on 14.12.06 under thescheme, and early childhood care and



education is being provided to about 54.34million children (0-6 years) (GOI, MCWD, 2007).

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is thenational programme launched in 2001 toachieve universal primary education by 2007and universal elementary education by 2010.The focus of SSA is on decentralized planningprocess with an emphasis on participatoryplanning approach to ensure full participationof all children of the relevant age group throughincreasing access to education of equitablequality for all. SSA has brought primaryeducation to the doorstep of millions of childrenand enrolled them, including first generationlearners, through successive fast track initiativesin hither to unserved and under-servedhabitations.

In view of the demands of rapidly changingtechnology and the growth of knowledgeeconomy, a mere eight years of elementaryeducation would be grossly inadequate for ouryoung children to acquire necessary skills tocompete in the job market. Therefore, a Missionfor Secondary Education is essential toconsolidate the gains of SSA and to moveforward in establishing a knowledge society. Thethrust of secondary education during the TenthPlan period was on improving access andreducing disparities by emphasizing theCommon School System in which it ismandatory for schools in a particular area totake students from low-income families in theneighbourhood. The Tenth Plan also focussedon revision of curricula with emphasis onvocationalization and employment-orientedcourses, expansion and diversification of theopen learning system, reorganization of teachertraining and greater use of ICT.

The administrative arrangement at the Centre

underwent a change during the year 2000 anda separate Depar tment of ElementaryEducation and Literacy in the Ministry of HumanResource Development was establishedkeeping in view the thrust needed for theUniversalisation of Elementary Education(UEE). Since 2006, secondary education hasalso been merged with the Department ofElementary Education and Literacy. At present,the Ministry of Human Resource Developmenthas two departments, namely the Departmentof School Education and Literacy, and theDepartment of Higher Education.

The higher education system consists of CentralUniversities, State Universities, DeemedUniversities, Institutions established underStates legislations, Institutes of nationalimportance established by Central legislationand Agriculture/Veterinary, Medical includingAyurveda and Open Universities establishedunder State Legislature. The University GrantsCommission is the apex body which looks afterhigher education system in the country.

The Technical Education System coverscourses in engineering, technology,management, architecture, pharmacy, etc. andthe Ministry of Human Resource Developmentcaters to programmes at the undergraduate,postgraduate and research levels. The TechnicalEducation System at the central levelcomprises, among others, the All India Councilfor Technical Education (AICTE), which is thestatutory body for the proper planning andcoordinated development of the technicaleducation system. There are at present sevenIndian Institutes of Technology (IITs); six IndianInstitutes of Management (IIMs); the IndianInstitute of Science (IISc), Bangalore; the IndianInstitute of Information Technology andManagement (IIITM), Gwalior; the Indian



Institute of Information Technology (IIIT),Allahabad, and 18 National Institutes ofTechnology (NITs). By 2007 the Indian highereducation system has grown to be the largest

in the world with 378 universities, 8064 colleges,and faculty strength of 0.492 million and anestimated enrolment of 14 million students.

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India has entered the Eleventh Plan period withan impressive economic growth. Tenth Plan

period (2002–03 to 2006–07) recorded anaverage growth of 7.7%, the highest in any Planperiod so far. Besides, there was accelerationeven within the Tenth Plan period and the growthrate in the last four years of the Plan hasaveraged 8.7%, making India one of the fastestgrowing economies in the world. Thesedevelopments suggest that the economy is nowat a point when it can achieve sustainedeconomic expansion that has the potential tobring significant improvement in the lives of ourpeople. If this momentum can be acceleratedin the years ahead, it will put India on the pathto becoming one of the key players in the worldeconomy over the next two decades. Thesepositive factors notwithstanding, a majorweakness in the economy is that the growth isnot perceived as being sufficiently inclusive formany groups, especially Scheduled Castes(SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Minorities.Gender inequality also remains a pervasiveproblem and some of the structural changestaking place have an adverse effect on women.The lack of inclusiveness is borne out by dataon several dimensions of performance.

The central vision of the Eleventh Plan is to buildon our strengths to trigger a developmentprocess which ensures broad-basedimprovement in the quality of life of the people,

especially the poor, SCs/STs, other backwardcastes (OBCs), minorities and women.However, the target is not just faster growth butalso inclusive growth, that is, a growth processwhich yields broad-based benefits and ensuresequality of opportunity for all. This broad visionof the Eleventh Plan includes several inter-related components: rapid growth that reducespoverty and creates employment opportunities,access to essential services in health andeducation especially for the poor, equality ofopportunity, empowerment through educationand skill development, employmentopportunities underpinned by the National RuralEmployment Guarantee, environmentalsustainability, recognition of women’s agencyand good governance.

The vision of inclusiveness must go beyond thetraditional objective of poverty alleviation toencompass equality of opportunity, as well aseconomic and social mobility for all sections ofsociety, with affirmative action for SCs, STs,OBCs, minorities and women. There must beequality of opportunity to all with freedom anddignity, and without social or political obstacles.This must be accompanied by an improvementin the opportunities for economic and socialadvancement. In par ticular, individualsbelonging to disadvantaged groups should beprovided special opportunities to develop theirskills and participate in the growth process.

Section 3

Major Reforms and Innovations forInclusive Education


Major Reforms and Innovations for Inclusive EducationSection 3

Education and skill development receive highpriority in the Eleventh Five Year Plan of India,both to meet the needs of a growing economyand to promote social equality by empoweringthose currently excluded because of unequalaccess to education and skills to participate fullyin the growth process. Public expenditure(Centre and States) on education is only around3.6% of GDP. The National Common MinimumProgramme (NCMP) had set a target of raisingit to 6%. The Eleventh Plan places the highestpriority on education as a central instrument forachieving rapid and inclusive growth. It presentsa comprehensive strategy for strengthening theeducation sector covering all segments of theeducation pyramid (GOI, 2008).

The Tenth Plan laid emphasis onUniversalization of Elementary Education (UEE)guided by five parameters: (i) Universal Access,(ii) Universal Enrolment, (iii) UniversalRetention, (iv) Universal Achievement, and (v)Equity. The major schemes of elementaryeducation sector during the Tenth Plan includedSSA, District Primary Education Programme(DPEP), National Programme of NutritionalSupport to Primary Education, commonlyknown as Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS),Teacher Education Scheme, and KasturbaGandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme (KGBVS). Theschemes of Lok Jumbish and Shiksha Karmiwere completed but DPEP will extend up toNovember 2008. KGBV has now beensubsumed within Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)the principal programme for UEE, culminatingall previous endeavours and experiences inimplementing various education programmes.

Major reforms and innovations for promotinginclusive education across all levels of educationare briefly presented below broadly covering thedevelopments since 2003, marking the onset

of the Eleventh Five- year plan that has adoptedthe term “Inclusive Growth” as its focus. Theseare being reported keeping the concerns for theeducation of children and youth fromdisadvantaged groups including persons withdisabilities and marginalized communities.

Elementary Education

Free and compulsory education to all childrenup to the age of fourteen is a constitutionalcommitment in India (Box-2). In order to achieveUEE, the Government of India has initiated anumber of programmes and projects.

The Right of Children to Free and CompulsoryEducation Bill, 2008

More emphasis is now being given to thosesections of the community, which are mostunderprivileged and disadvantaged like girls,scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, minorities,children and youth with disabilities. Theschemes of National Programme for Educationof Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) andKasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas (KGBV) arespecifically designed for this purpose. NPEGELmakes additional provisions for enhancing theeducation of underprivileged anddisadvantaged girls at elementary level throughintensive community mobilisation, thedevelopment of model schools in clusters,gender sensitization of teachers anddevelopment of gender sensitive learningmaterial. Recently, all Educationally BackwardBlocks (EBB) have been included under theNPEGEL. Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas(KGBV) have been designed to encouragegreater participation in education of girlsbelonging to SC, ST, OBC and minoritycommunities in EBBs, having high gender gapsand low female literacy at the upper primary



level. The Education Guarantee Scheme andAlternative & Innovative Education (EGS & AIE)is a transitory facility till a primary schoolreplaces it in two years.

Mid-Day Meal (MDM) Scheme

In accordance with the National CommonMinimum Programme of the Government, theMid-Day Meal Scheme was revised inSeptember 2004. This was initially launched asa Centrally Sponsored Scheme in August 1995to support universalization of primary educationand to improve the nutritional status of childrenat primary stage. This programme ensuresprovision of cooked mid-day meal of minimum300 calories and 8-12 grams of protein tochildren studying at elementary level ingovernment, local body and government-aidedschools as also children studying in EducationGuarantee Scheme (EGS) and Alternative andInnovative Education (AIE) Centres. Feedbackon the programme points to its positive impacton enrolment and attendance of children. Socialequity is fostered through sharing of meals bychildren. The nutritional support provided by the

Box 2: The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Bill, 2008

The Constitutional (Eighty Six) Amendment Act, 2002, notified on 13th December 2002, insertedArticle 21-A in the Constitution, which provides that ‘’the State shall provide free and compulsoryeducation to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law,determine’. Section 1(2) of the Constitutional (Eighty Six) Amendment Act, 2002 provides that ‘itshall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the OfficialGazette appoint’.

On 30.10.2008 the Union Cabinet accorded approval to ‘The Right of Children to Free andCompulsory Education Bill, 2008’ and its introduction in the Parliament in the current session. TheNotification of the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 would be issued in the official Gazetteafter ‘The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Bill, 2008’ is enacted.

programme to children is increasingly beingacknowledged by States resulting in concertedefforts to improve the implementation of theprogramme. The programme has also providedexcellent opportunities of employment towomen belonging to disadvantaged sections,particularly SCs and STs who are beingengaged as cooks and helpers. Women Self-Help Groups have also been productivelyengaged in implementing the programme.

Mahila Samakhya (Programme forWomen’s Empowerment)

The Mahila Samakhya (MS) programmerecognizes the centrality of education inempowering women to achieve equality. Theprogramme started in 1989, seeks to bringabout a change in women’s perception aboutthemselves and the perception of society withregard to women’s traditional roles. The coreactivities of the MS programme centre aroundissues of health, education of women and girls,accessing public services, addressing issuesof violence and social practices which



discriminate against women and girls, gainingentry into local governance and seekingsustainable livelihood.

Secondary Education

Secondary Education is a crucial stage in theeducational hierarchy as it prepares the youngpersons for higher education and also for theworld of work. The Government of India’sintervention in secondary education is at twolevels: (i) Through apex national level bodieslike National Council of Educational Researchand Training (NCERT), Central Board ofSecondary Education (CBSE), National Instituteof Open Schooling (NIOS), Navodaya VidyalayaSamiti (NVS), Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangthan(KVS), and Central Tibetan SchoolAdministration (CTSA); and (ii) Throughcentrally sponsored schemes, such as (a)Scheme of Boarding and Hostel Facilities forGirl Students of Secondary and HigherSecondary Schools, (b) Integrated Educationfor Disabled Children, (c) Information andCommunication Technology in Schools, and (d)Quality Improvement in Schools.

The Scheme of Boarding and Hostel Facilitiesfor Girl Students of Secondary and HigherSecondary Schools provides for financialassistance to voluntary organizations forrunning hostels for girl students of Secondaryand Higher Secondary schools. Preference isgiven to organizations having hostels inEducationally Backward Districts, particularlythose which are predominantly inhabited by SCsand STs and educationally backward minorities.

The Scheme of Integrated Education forDisabled Children (IEDC) aims to integratechildren and youth with moderate disabilities inthe normal school system. The Scheme

Box 3: Enabling Activities of theMahila Samakhya

� Formation of women’s collectives(Sanghas) by women facilitators(Sahayoginis) for mobilizing women;

� Dissemination of information,awareness building and facilitatingcollective action on core themes;

� Development of supportive structures(such as Mahila Shikshan Kendras) forthe education of older girls and youngwomen who have never been enrolledor have dropped out of school; and

� Setting up Nari Adalats for addressingissues of violence against women, etc.

Source: Annual Report, 2006-07, MHRD,Government of India

provides 100% financial assistance to State/UTgovernments and NGOs under variouscomponents for the education of childrensuffering from mild to moderate disabilities innormal schools. The components includeallowances for books and stationery, uniform,transport, escort, readers for blind children,equipment etc, and salary of teachers recruitedfor teaching the disabled children.

The Scheme of Information and CommunicationTechnology (ICT @ Schools) was launched bymerging the erstwhile schemes of EducationalTechnology (ET) and Computer Literacy andStudies in Schools (CLASS) which works as awindow of opportunity to the learners in theschools of India to bridge the digital divide.

Quality Improvement in Schools is a centrallysponsored scheme and is an amalgamation ofthe schemes of Improvement in Science



Education, Mathematics Olympiads,Environment Orientation, Promotion of Yoga andPopulation Education and has a new componentof Educational Libraries. Under this scheme,State governments and registered societies aregiven grants for the specified activities undereach of the erstwhile programme.

In order to provide for diversification ofeducational opportunities so as to enhanceindividual employability, reduce the mismatchbetween demand and supply of skilledmanpower and provide an alternative for thosepursuing higher education, the centrallysponsored scheme of Vocationlisation ofSecondary Education was launched in 1988. Itwas revised in 1992-93 and now provides forfinancial assistance to the States to set up anadministrative structure, conduct area-specificvocational surveys, prepare curricula,textbooks, workbooks, curriculum guides,training manuals, teachers trainingprogrammes, strengthening technical supportsystems for research and development, trainingand evaluation etc. It also provides financialassistance to NGOs and other voluntaryorganizations for implementation of specificinnovative projects for conducting short-termcourses.

Higher Education

Higher education is of vital importance for thecountry, as it is a powerful tool to buildknowledge- based society of the 21st Century.Improvement of access and quality, the adoptionof state-specific strategies, enhancing therelevance of higher education throughcurriculum reform, vocationalisation, networkingand information technology and distanceeducation are the main policy initiatives of thehigher education sector. The other important

policy initiatives in higher education areprogrammes for general development ofuniversities and colleges; special grants for theconstruction of hostels for women; provision ofDay-Care Centres in universities; promotion ofsocially relevant programmes; strengthening ofinternational cooperation and educationalexchange programmes; setting-up of SimpleSanskrit Speaking Centres in universities andcolleges; establishment of Population EducationResource Centres in select universities, setting-up of Women Studies Centres and Cells;networking of universities and colleges;establishment of special cells for SC and STsin universities, and establishment of AdvancedCentres and Institutes for Science Educationand Research. Emphasis has been laid onexpansion with quality, use of ICT and promotionof quality research.

The last fifteen years have seen a phenomenalincrease in the number of institutions providingtechnical and management education in thecountry. A number of significant steps have beentaken by the government during the last fiveyears, especially for the growth of TechnicalEducation in India (Box-4).

The new mode of delivery of education, namelythe distance and virtual university mode, hasbroken down physical barriers and has thepotential to provide the opportunity for highereducation to persons located in any part of thecountry. This mode has immense capacity toenroll vast number of students. Distanceeducation and open and flexible learning arewell established and well positioned today tostrategically meet the challenges outlined aboveand reform the educational organization andprocesses. About two million students studyingthrough distance education constitute nearly



20% of the total enrolment in higher educationin the country. A part of the requirement for

Box 4: Technical and Management Education

� A National Programme of HRD in Information Technology (IT) to meet the emerging needfor quality manpower in IT and related areas;

� The Technical Education Quality Improvement Programme (TEQIP) launched with theassistance of the World Bank, aims at up-scaling and supporting of ongoing efforts of theGovernment of India in improving quality of technical education;

� The National Programme for Technology Enhanced Learning aims at enhancing learningeffectiveness through technology to supplement classroom teaching;

� Massive expansion of Technical Education through increase in intake in technical institutions;and

� Expedition of accreditation process of institutes by AICTE

expansion of higher education facilities couldwell be met by this mode of education.

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Legal and Policy Framework for InclusionSection 4

Section 4

Legal and Policy Framework for Inclusion2

The Indian Constitution as adopted in 1950enshrines equality and social justice as the

cardinal principles of the Indian democraticsystem. The unique feature of the IndianConstitution is that while it upholds the principleof equality before law, it provides for affirmativediscriminatory actions to uplift the social,economic and educational well being ofdisadvantaged groups. The Constitutionrecognizes the Scheduled Castes (SCs),Scheduled Tribes (STs) and educationally OtherBackward Classes (OBCs), Minorities andWomen as disadvantaged groups.

The ultimate objective of the ConstitutionFramers was to establish a casteless societywithin the framework of a welfare state bygradually eliminating caste hierarchy, castedistinction and caste stigma and thus to ensuredignity of the individual and equality of statusamong all citizens of India. The Preamble of theConstitution assures Justice, social, economicand political, as well as Equality of status andof opportunity with a view to promoting amongall citizens Fraternity, assuring the dignity of theindividual and the unity and integrity of thenation. Article 14 of the Constitution of Indiaguarantees equality before the law and theequal protection of law to all persons. Article15(1) prohibits discrimination against any citizenon grounds of religion, race, caste or sex. Article16(1) guarantees equality of opportunity for all

citizens in matters relating to employment orappointment to any office under the State.

In order to make the Fundamental Rightsmeaningful to the socially disadvantaged peopleof this country, particularly those who had beensubjugated to social injustice for centuries, theConstitution makers made several provisionsto raise their level so that they may live withdignity and respect. Article 17 provides forabolition of untouchability, and the enforcementof any disability arising from it was madepunishable as an offence according to law.

Article 15(4) was not there initially in theConstitution when it was adopted and wasintroduced as a first amendment to theConstitution. It enabled the government to makespecial provisions for the advancement ofbackward classes including the ScheduledCastes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs). Asper Article 16(4), the Government can makereservations in favour of any backward class ofcitizens.

Political representation was guaranteed for SCsand STs through the proportionate reservationof seats in all elected legislative bodies fromParliament to Village Councils. Not only that,the Government of India instituted a programmeof ‘Compensatory Discrimination’, an Indianversion of affirmative action, which provides for15% reservation to SCs and 7.5% reservation

2 Mainly based on Prakash, Ved, 2008 opcit



to STs in all public services as well as inadmissions to all public universities andcolleges. Article 46 of the Constitution clearlystates that the State shall promote with specialcare the educational and economic interests ofthe weaker sections of the people, and, inparticular, of the SCs and the STs, and shallprotect them from social injustice and all formsof exploitation. The 86th Amendment to theConstitution inserting Article 21 A, in 2002,making elementary education a fundamentalright is going to make positive impact on theeducation of SCs, STs, OBCs and women.

Besides, the National Policy on Education(1968) calls for strenuous efforts to correctregional imbalances and inter-group disparitiesin education. Reinforcing the 1968 Resolution,the National Policy on Education andProgramme of Action (1968/1992) emphasisedon the removal of disparities and equalizationof educational opportunities by attending to thespecific needs of those who have been deniedequality so far. Both the Policies have dealt withthe educational needs of the SCs, STs, Womenand Minorities in great detail with a specialconcern for neglected groups like nomadictribes and de-notified tribes. Based on theconstitutional commitment and policy directives,planned effor ts have been made sinceindependence to promote educationaldevelopment in equitable manner.Consequently, there has been considerableimprovement in the educational status of thedeprived groups.

The Government of India set up the Kaka KelkarCommission in 1952 with a view to identifyingthe Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and givingthem similar benefits as it had extended to SCsand STs. The Commission submitted its reportin 1955 but its recommendations werecontested in the courts until the Supreme Court

of India ruled in 1963 that total reservation,inclusive of the quantum for SCs and STs couldnot exceed 50%. It was in 1978 that theGovernment of India decided to set up theSecond Backward Classes Commission underthe Chairmanship of Mr. B.P. Mandal. TheCommission aimed at providing affirmativeaction policies for backward and disadvantagedcastes in order to redress caste discrimination.The Commission used as many as 11 indicatorsto determine the backwardness. TheCommission identified 3,743 castes andcommunities, constituting 52% of the totalpopulation, as OBCs. Driven by the 1963Judgement of the Supreme Cour t, theCommission recommended 27% reservation toOBCs in all services and public sectorundertakings under the Central Government. Italso recommended 27% reservation to OBCsin admission to all public institutions of higherlearning. In August 1990, The Government ofIndia announced the implementation of theCommission’s recommendation. Theannouncement met with tremendousresistance, and a writ petition was filed in theSupreme Court against the implementation ofthe Commission’s recommendations. TheSupreme Court, however, in its judgment(November 16, 1992) upheld 27% reservationsin services for OBCs. Subsequently, the CentralGovernment introduced the Bill. The CentralEducational Institutions (Reservation inAdmission) Bill No.76 of 2006 in the Parliamentmade 93rd Constitutional Amendment whichprovided for reservation in admission ofstudents belonging to SCs, STs and OBCs toeducational institutions established, maintainedor aided by the Central Government, and formatters connected therewith or incidentalthereto.

The Bill was passed by both the Lower Houseand the Upper House of the Parliament on



December 14 and 18, 2006 respectively. Nosooner did the Bill receive an assent of thePresident and became the Central EducationalInstitutions (Reservation in Admissions) Act,2007 than its Constitutional validity waschallenged in the Supreme Court. The SupremeCourt in its judgment delivered on April 10, 2008upheld the 93rd Amendment to the Constitutionenabling the Government to reserve 27% percent OBC quota in all centrally fundedinstitutions of higher learning.

The Muslim community in India constitutes13.43% of the total population; is consideredas a minority community. Article 29 provides theminorities the right to conserve their language,script and culture. Article 30 gives the right tothe minorities to establish and administereducational institutions of their choice. It hasbeen expressed that amongst the minoritieswhich have suffered educationally, the senseof inequity may be perpetual as a result ofdiscrimination that the minority may face dueto difference in ‘identity’. the Government ofIndia has initiated several measures to bringabout qualitative improvement in the status ofthe Muslim community. The present governmentat the centre has created a new ‘Ministry ofMinority Affairs’ which has been entrusted withthe responsibility of overall policy, planning,coordination, evaluation and review of theregulatory and developmental programmes ofthe minority communities. The governmentthrough an Act of Parliament established theNational Commission for Minority EducationalInstitutions on 11th November, 2004 to advisethe central or any state government on anyquestion relating to education of minorities. Ithas to look into specific complaints regardingdeprivation or violation of rights of minorities toestablish and administer educational institutionsof their choice and dispute relating affiliation to

a scheduled university and has to do other actsand things necessary, incidental or conduciveto the attainment of all or any of the objects ofthe commission.

The Government also set up a ‘NationalMonitoring Committee for Minorities Education(NMCME)’ under the chairmanship of UnionMinister for Human Resource Development(MHRD) in the year 2004. A StandingCommittee of the NMCME has also beenconstituted to attend to the problems related tothe education of minorities on an ongoing basis.Not only that the Government of India alsoconstituted a high power Committee tounderstand social, economic and educationalstatus of the muslim community in India underthe Chairpersonship of Justice Rajindar Sacharin 2005. The report consolidates, collates andanalyses information with regard to the states,the regions, the districts and blocks wheremuslims of India mostly live; geographicalpattern of their economic activities; incomelevels; level of their socio-economicdevelopment; relative share in public and privatesector employment; proportion of OBCs fromthe muslim community in the total OBCpopulation. Information on these aspects hasbeen indicated in the report of this committeeto identify areas of interventions by thegovernment to address relevant issues relatingto the social, economic and educational statusof the muslim community. Besides, the PrimeMinister has also introduced a new 15 pointprogramme, for the welfare of minorities, whichrelate to enhancing opportunities for theireducation, equitable share in economicactivities and employment, improving theconditions of living of minorities and preventionand control of communal riots.

Article 350 (A) of the Constitution of India



advocates instruction in mother tongue atprimary stage and Article 350 (B) provides fora special officer to safeguard the interests oflinguistic minorities.

Further, the Constitution of India in its ‘Union’,‘State’ and ‘Concurrent Lists’ defines the powersand functions of the Centre and the States.Under the Constitution originally adopted,education was primarily a State subject. Sincethis led to differential educational progressacross the States, education was transferredto the Concurrent List through a ConstitutionalAmendment in 1976, which implied meaningfulpartnership between the Centre and the States.Though this shift did not change the role andresponsibility of the States, it gave the CentralGovernment a major role in strengthening theeducation system in the country. Since then, alarge number of schemes and programmes inthe form of affirmative policy interventions havebeen launched by the Central Government incollaboration with the State Governments toovercome the inadequacies hindering theeducational progress. Consequently, the age-old discriminatory practices have nearlyvanished. The educational status of marginalgroups has greatly improved compared to thesituation before country’s independence.

Article 14 of the Constitution of India guaranteesthat no person will be denied equality beforethe law. The State is directed to provide reliefand help to the disabled and the unemployablevide Entry 9 in List II of the Seventh Schedule.Article 41 states that the State shall, within thelimits of its economic capacity and development,make effective provisions for securing the rightto work, to education and to public assistancein cases of unemployment, old age, sicknessand disablement. Additionally, there are fourlegislations specifically directed towards the

protection, welfare, rehabilitation anddevelopment of people with disabilities—theMental Health Act, 1987; Persons withDisabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection ofRights and Full Participation) Act, 1995; theNational Trust for Welfare of Persons withAutism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation andMultiple Disability Act, 1999 and theRehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992. Inaddition to the legal framework, acomprehensive National Policy for Persons withDisabilities was announced in February 2006(6.173 of Eleventh Plan, p130, Vol.1, 2008).

Persons with Disabilities are served by twoMinistries – Ministry for Social Justice andEmpowerment and Ministry for HumanResource Development through special andinclusive programmes and schemes. TheNational Policy on Education (NPE) brought thefundamental issue of equality centre stage.Section 4.9 of the policy clearly focuses on theneeds of the children with disabilities, “Theobjective should be to integrate the physicallyand mentally handicapped with the generalcommunity as equal partners, to prepare themfor normal growth and to enable them to facelife with courage and confidence.” The followingmeasures were suggested in this regard:

� Wherever it is feasible, the education ofchildren with motor handicaps and othermild handicaps will be common with thatof others;

� Adequate arrangements will be made forvocational training to the disabled;

� Teachers’ training programmes will bereoriented, in particular for teachers ofprimary classes, to deal with the specialdifficulties of the handicapped children;and



� Voluntary effort for education of thedisabled will be encouraged in everypossible manner.

The NPE was followed by the Plan of Action(1992) which suggested a pragmatic placementprinciple for children with special needs. Itpostulated that a child with disability who canbe educated in a general school should beeducated in a general school only and not in aspecial school. Even those children who areinitially admitted to special schools for trainingin plus curriculum skills should be transferredto general schools once they acquire daily livingskills, communication skills and basic academiccompetence.

The Persons with Disabilities (EqualOpportunities, Protection of Rights & FullParticipation) Act, 1995 (PWD Act 1995) definesdisability as one or more of the following sevendisabilities namely blindness, low vision, hearingimpaired, locomotor impaired, mentalretardation, leprosy cured and mental illness.According to the Act, to be considered disabled,a person must suffer from not less than 40 percent of any disability, as certified by a medicalauthority. The medical model of disability clearlyinforms the act, with tight and selectivedefinitions of disability and 40 per centthreshold, implying that key disabling conditionssuch as autism, learning disabilities etc areexcluded. Chapter V (Section 26) of the saidAct, which deals with education, mentions thatthe appropriate Governments and the localauthorities shall:

� Ensure that every child with a disabilityhas access to free education in anappropriate environment till he attains theage of eighteen years; and

� Endeavour to promote the integration ofstudents with disabilities in the normalschools.

A reference has already been made to theComprehensive National Action Plan forInclusion in Education of the Children andPersons with Disabilities (MHRD, 2005) that flowfrom all these legal instruments. Ministry ofSocial Justice and Empowerment (MSJE) isalso developing a national policy on Disability.The National Policy for Persons with Disabilitiesissued by MSJE was adopted in 2006. Itrecognizes that disabled people are valuablehuman resources for the country. The policyfocuses primarily on prevention of disability,early detection and appropriate interventions,physical and economic rehabilitation measures,inclusive education, employment in the publicas well as private sector and self-employment,creation of a barrier-free environment anddevelopment of rehabilitation professionals. TheUnited Nations Convention on the Rights ofPeople with Disabilities (UNCRPD) was ratifiedby India in October 2007. It enjoins upon Indiato ensure that all the rights enshrined in theConstitution, the current legislations, as well asUNCRPD, are speedily and effectivelyoperationalize.

All the departments and programmes areprogressively striving for convergence andcoordination to efficiently address the specialneeds of the marginalized groups by improvingaccess, equity and quality. Vision and strategiesof the Eleventh Plan captures all thesedevelopments across sectors especiallyeducation.

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Responsiveness of the System: Actions, Achievements and VisionSection 5

Section 5

Responsiveness of the System:Actions, Achievements and Vision

“India’s commitment to planned economic development is a reflection of our society’s determination

to improve the economic conditions of our people and an affirmation of the role of the government in

bringing about this outcome through a variety of social, economic and institutional means. The Eleventh

Five Year Plan, which was approved by the National Development Council on 19 December, 2007

reaffirms this commitment. It provides a comprehensive strategy for inclusive development, building

on the growing strength of the economy, while also addressing weaknesses that have surfaced.The

transition to high growth is an impressive achievement, but we must not forget that growth is not the

only measure of development. Our ultimate objective is to achieve broad based improvement in the

living standards of all our people. Rapid growth is essential for this outcome because it provides the

basis for expanding incomes and employment and also provides the resources needed to finance

programmes for social uplift. However, it is not by itself sufficient. We also need to ensure that growth

is widely spread so that its benefits, in terms of income and employment, are adequately shared by

the poor and weaker sections of our society, especially the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and the Scheduled

Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and minorities. For this to happen, the growth must be

inclusive in the broadest sense. It must occur not just in our major cities but also in our villages and

small towns. It must be spread across all states and not just limited to some. It must generate sufficient

volumes of high quality employment to provide the means for uplift of large numbers of our population

from the low income low quality occupations in which too many of them have been traditionally

locked.”

(Excerpts from the Foreword by the Prime Minister to the Eleventh Five Year Plan, pp iii, GOI, 2008).

India’s commitment to inclusive approach in allits plans and strategies is evident from theabove statement of the Prime Minister of India.This section captures the evolvingresponsiveness of the education system acrossall levels,with special reference to all the groupsand categories of people identified through theconstitutional provisions and educationprogrammes for special focus.

Literacy

Independent India began its educational journeywith a serious handicap as only around 18 percent adults possessed basic literacy skills. Thesituation has vastly changed as successivegenerations got the opportunity to pursue schooleducation. Thus, examining literacy statusacross the country indirectly reflects on the



efficiency and effectiveness of the schoolsystem that has grown multi-fold during the lastsix decades.

In 1901, a little over 5% of Indian populationwas literate, which increased to around 16% in1950, a mere increase of 11 percentage pointsin the literacy rate during the first half of thecentury. In the post-independence period, thedecadal growth in literacy has shown asubstantial progress. In 2001, almost two-thirdsof India’s population (65.38%), and aroundthree-fourths of males (75.85%) and more thanhalf of females (54.16%) were literate.Sustained increase in adult literacy dependsvery much on improving the efficiency andeffectiveness of elementary schooling. Whileregional variations across the states and unionterritories are significant and important, thevariation in the literacy rate across social groupsand household types is also very high.

According to the 2001 Census, India has 16.2%and 8.2% of SC and ST population respectively.The greatest concentration of population of SCsis in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, WestBengal, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Punjab,Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra,Karnataka, and Orissa. Besides thenortheastern states, STs are found in greaternumbers in Orissa, Maharashtra, MadhyaPradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat andRajasthan. The composition of population ismildly changing in favour of SCs and STs. Theproportion of SCs increased from 14.7 per centin 1961 to 16.2 per cent in 2001. Similarly theproportion of STs also increased from 6.8 to8.2 per cent between 1961 and 2001.

The literacy rate of population including thoseof marginal groups has improved a lot. Forexample, in case of SCs, the literacy rateincreased from a little over 10 per cent in 1961

to 55 per cent in 2001. In case of STs, itincreased from less than 9 per cent to 47 percent during the same period. It may be notedthat the educational status of ST households isrelatively better in majority of the predominantlytribal northeastern states.

The process of collection of data on socio-economic and educational status of minorityMuslim community commenced only from 2001Census. According to the latest figures, Muslimliteracy stands at 59.13 per cent. The literacyrate with respect to total population increasedfrom 28.3 per cent to 65.4 per cent between1961 and 2001.

The SC and ST populations are generallydisadvantaged in most of the states in India.Analysis of Census 2001 and National SampleSurvey data reveals that the seven states havingaround 65% of illiterates have highconcentration of SCs and STs, and the illiteracyrates of agricultural and casual labourhouseholds are relatively very high. Besides, inmost of the sates, where female illiteracy rateis high, the percentage share of females in totalagricultural labourers is also high. However,there are a few states where high femaleilliteracy rate is accompanied by low share offemale agricultural labourers, primarily becausewomen are engaged in other household-basedpaid activities or other commercial activities,particularly in Rajasthan and northeasternstates.

As per NSS, 55th round, the educationalattainment and economic status of householdsare directly related to each other. Illiteracy rateis relatively high among members of householdshaving low MPCE, both in rural and urban areas.Compared to urban areas the literacy rateincreases at a relatively slower rate with



Table 1: Percentage Population by Caste and Gender toTotal Population and Literacy Rates

Population Literacy

Year % of SC % of ST % of Female Total SC ST Female

1961 14.7 6.8 48.48 28.31 10.27 8.53 15.35

1971 14.6 6.9 48.18 34.45 14.67 11.30 21.97

1981 15.3 7.6 48.29 43.56 21.38 16.35 29.76

1991 16.4 8.0 48.10 52.11 37.41 29.60 39.29

2001 16.2 8.2 48.26 65.38 54.69 47.10 54.16

Source: Census of India, Govt. of India, New Delhi

increase in the MPCE of rural households. Infact, the illiteracy rate declines very sharply withthe increase in the MPCE of the urbanhouseholds (Govinda, 2007).

Literacy for Persons with Disabilities is also nowbeing reported. Currently, it stands at 55.36overall and 70.05 for males and 63.85 forfemales indicating much better rates than thatof SC and ST communities, but still needingmore support and inputs especially acrossdifferent disability categories. Literacy levels ofpersons with disabilities in general point to theneed for increased sensitivity and challengesahead. Only 49.31% are literate, with males andurban people having the best advantages.Within the disabled people, however, Mentaldisability makes a case for serious multipledisadvantages. Highest percentage of illiteratesamong persons with disabilities is found amongpersons with mental retardation (87%).

The Planning Commission has laid down a

target of 80% literacy rate to be achieved by

the end of the XI Plan. The NLM programmes

will be revamped in the Eleventh Plan. The

targets and special focus areas are as given

below in Table -2.

Goal 4 of EFA, as applicable to literacy, aims at

achieving a 50% improvement in levels of adult

literacy by 2015, especially for women and

equitable access to basic and continuing

education for all adults. The social mobilization

generated by the literacy campaigns has had

an impact on the other social sectors, most

notably women’s empowerment, health and

environmental awareness. Democratic

participation has been enriched by promoting

ar ticulation in society, especially of the

disadvantaged and the underprivileged. The

campaigns have served the cause of promoting

equity, in redefining gender relations and in

questioning caste-based social categorization

(Govinda, 2007).



Table 2: Eleventh Plan Targets and Special Focus Areas

Eleventh Plan Targets Special Focus Areas

Achieve 80% literacy rate A special focus on SCs, STs, minorities, and ruralwomen.

Reduce gender gap in literacy to 10% Focus also on low literacy States, tribal areas, otherdisadvantaged groups and adolescents.

Reduce regional, social andgender disparities

Extend coverage of NLM programmesto 35+ age group

Source: GOI, 2008

Pre-School Education (PSE)

As per Census 2001, the country hasapproximately 60 million children in the agegroup of 3–6 years. The 86th amendment to theConstitution, making education for children inthe 6–14 age groups a fundamental right, doesnot cover children less than six years of age. Itis for this age group that early childhood carein the form of childcare programmes, crècheprogrammes, and pre-school interventions arecritical. Current figures suggest that pre-schoolprogramme under Integrated ChildDevelopment Scheme (ICDS) and other privateinitiatives covers about 34 million children;approximately 26 million children are left out ofpre-school activities. Thus, the gap between thenumber of preschool children and availablepreschool services is large. Moreover, there aredisparities in provision of ECCE in rural andurban areas. As per findings of a studyconducted by the National Institute of UrbanAffairs though the share of urban population inthe country is approximately 27.78% (expectedto go up by 33%), corresponding provision ofECCE facilities in these areas is insufficient.

Urban slums are under-represented in ICDS(GOI, Vol. II, p 209, 2008).

The Pre-School Component (PSE) componentof ICDS known as Anganwadi is very weak withhigh repetition and low learning levels. This inturn discourages many children from continuingtheir education. SSA will have a component ofone year pre-primary, which can beuniversalized to cover 24 million children in aphased manner. This is critical for schoolreadiness/entry with increased basic vocabularyand conceptual abilities that help schoolretention. Besides, it will free the girl child ofsibling care. The existing coverage of pre-primary classes in schools is over 11 million. Alarge number of primary schools in States likeUP and Rajasthan already have ECCE. Primaryschools within the habitations are ideal for suchECCE. In other habitations, Anganwadis needto be supported.

This programme is quite critical for children fromdeprived communities. Though nutritioncomponent for these communities is being takencare of but education component for school



“Sarva Shiksha Mission is the heart and soulof the education process in the country now. Ifwe are able to implement this successfully, Iam sure all of us can claim that we have doneour duty to the country.”

Shri Arjun Singh,

Union Human Resource Development Minister,

Excerpt from the Address at a Conference of

State Education Ministers,

New Delhi October 28, 2004

readiness is not very strong. School readinessand early intervention is also very critical forchildren with disabilities. According to the NSSOSurvey, 58th Round (2005), the proportion ofdisabled persons of age 5-18 years whoattended the pre-school interventionprogramme is only about 13 per cent of thedisabled persons. The proportion of populationwith disabilities accessing early childhoodservices in urban areas is 20 per cent, whilerural areas are estimated only at 11 per cent.

Quality Elementary Education forAll

India’s commitment to Universal ElementaryEducation dates back to 1951. The DirectivePrinciples of the Indian Constitution stipulatedthat the State would endeavour to provide freeand compulsory education to all children uptothe age of 14 years. This commitment wasreinforced by the National Policy on Education,1986. A very important step forward has beenthe 86th Constitution Amendment Act, passedin December 2002, making free and compulsoryelementary education a Fundamental Right forall children in the age group of 6-14 years.Elementary education in India comprisesclasses I to VIII, and covers children of 6 to 14years, the years covered by constitutionalprovisions. Elementary education is furtherdivided into two stages, primary education upto class V (6-11 years age-group) and upperprimary covering classes VI to VIII (11-14 yearsage-group).

Concerted efforts during the last five decadeshave resulted in manifold increase in the numberof institutions, teachers and students’ enrolment(Table-3). During 1990-91 to 2004-05, thenumber of primary schools increased from 0.56million to 0.77 million. However, the annual

average growth rate of primary schools was1.31% from 1990-91 to 2000-01 and it increasedto 4.7% during 2000-01 to 2004-05. Similarly,the annual average growth rate of upper primaryschools was 3.14 during 1990-91 to 2000-01and it increased to 7.43% during 2000-01 to2004-05. This increase in number of primaryand upper primary schools may be attributedto the launching of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan inthe country (Figure-2). Increase in the numberof schools is also reflected in the ratio of primaryto upper primary schools/sections which haveshown consistent improvement during the sametime period.

During 1990-91 through 2004-05, enrolment inthe elementary education increasedsubstantially, more with respect to the upperprimary stage. However, the annual averagegrowth rate of enrolment in primary classes was1.22% during 1990-91 to 2000-01 whichincreased to 3.52% during 2000-01 to 2004-05.Similarly, the annual average growth rate ofenrolment in upper primary classes was 1.86%during 1990-91 to 2000-01, which increased to4.58% during 2000-01 to 2004-05. Both inprimary and upper primary stages,proportionate increase in girls’ enrolment washigher than in the case of boys both in primary



Table 3: Progress in Elementary Education Since 2001

Indicators 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2004-05 2005-06

No. of Elementary Schools 845007 883667 897109 1042251 1061061

No. of Teachers inElementary Schools (in million) 3.22 3.39 3.49 3.75 3.85

Enrolment in LowerPrimary Schools -Classes 1-5 (in millions) 113.83 113.90 122.4 130.8 132

Enrolment in UpperPrimary Schools -Classes 5 - 8 (in millions) 42.81 44.80 46.9 51.2 52.2

Enrolment in ElementarySchool Stage -Classes 1-8 (in millions) 156.64 158.70 169.3 182.0 184.2

Average Pupil Teacher Ratioat Elementary Stage 41 39 38 42 41

Sources: Selected Educational Statistics: 2003-04 and 2005-06, MHRD, GOI, New Delhi; and Education in India,MHRD, GOI.

Figure 2: Growth of Primary and Upper Primary Schools

Source: Selected Educational Statistics, 2004-05, MHRD, Government of India, New Delhi.

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Num

ber

of S

choo

ls (

in ‘0

00)

* Provisional

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

561

151

639

206

664

220

651

245

712

262

768

275

Primary Upper Primary



ny

al

Figure 3: Growth of Enrolment in Primary andUpper Primary Schools

Source: Selected Educational Statistics, 2004-05, MHRD, Government of India, New Delhi

* Provisional

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Enr

olm

ent

(in m

illio

n)

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

34.00

42.80 44.08 46.90 48.70 51.20

97.40

113.80 113.90

122.40128.30 130.80

Primary Upper Primary

and upper primary stages. In primary classes,whereas the annual average growth rate forboys was 1.45%, the same for girls was 3%.For upper primary, the annual average growthrate for boys was 2.03%, the same for girls was4.35% (Figure-3).

Girls’ Enrolment

One of the very important attributes to achieveUEE is to ensure gender parity which ismeasured by girls’ enrolment as a proportionof the total enrolment. The participation of girlsat all levels of education has been increasingsteadily through the years and has reached44.50 percentage points at the upper primaryand 46.70 percentage points at the primarylevel.

Gender Parity Index (GPI) measures progresstowards gender equity in education. When theGPI shows a value equal to 1 at any level ofeducation, it means that there is no genderdisparity at that level and learning opportunitiesas available for girls are equal to those asavailable for boys. Figure-4 indicates gradualincrease in Gender Parity Index in primary andupper primary stages of school education. It hasimproved from 0.75 in 1990-91 to 0.95 in 2004-2005 at primary stage, from 0.61 to 0.88 atupper primary, and from 0.71 to 0.93 atelementary stage during 1990-91 to 2004-05.It shows that gender disparity is higher at upperprimary stage than at primary stage.

In the context of such observations, while the



Figure 4: Gender Parity Indices (GPI) at Primary, Upper Primary and Elementary Levels


PrimaryElementary

Upper Primary

0.20

0.10

0.00

Per

cent

age

0.30

0.60

0.50

0.40

0.70

0.90

0.80

1.00

0.75

0.61

0.71

0.82

0.75

0.80 0.

83

0.77 0.

81

0.95

0.86

0.93 0.95

0.86

0.93 0.

95

0.88

0.93

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

flagship programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyanis envisaged to continue contributingsignificantly towards gender specific goals andtargets, two special programmes with particularfocus on social equity and locationaldisadvantage among gir ls have beenoperationalised, namely, the NationalProgramme for Education of Girls at ElementaryLevel (NPEGEL) and the Kasturba GandhiBalika Vidyalaya.

National Programme for Education ofGirls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL)

NPEGEL is a focussed intervention financed byGovernment of India to reach basic educationto the “Hardest to Reach” girls. Launched in July2003, the programme provides for developmentof a “model school” in every cluster with moreintense community mobilization and supervisionof gir ls’ enrolment in schools. Gender

sensitization of teachers, development ofgender-sensitive learning materials, andprovision of need-based incentives like escorts,stationery, workbooks and uniforms are someadditional features of the programme. Whatdistinguishes the NPEGEL schools from othersis their holistic approach and intensive natureof inputs provided in all aspects of developmentof the girl child.

The scheme is being implemented ineducationally backward blocks (EBBs) wherethe level of rural female literacy is less than thenational average and the gender gap is abovethe national average; in blocks of districts whichare not covered under EBBs but are having atleast 5% SC/ST population and where SC/STfemale literacy is below 10%; and also in selecturban slums. Currently, more than 3000educationally backward blocks are covered



Table 4: Progress made Under NPEGEL

2004-05 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07

Block 2157 2157 3122 3164

Clusters 19575 19575 3874828917

Fund Allocation(Rs. in millions) 6539.3 6539.3 8133.6

6865.4

Source: Annual Report, MHRD, 2006-07

under the Scheme spread over 25 States. Till2006-07, under NPEGEL, around 29,532 Modelschools have been developed, 73,788 teachershave received gender sensitizationprogrammes, and skill building programmeshave been provided to girls on diverse tradesand life skill; 7713 additional classroomsconstructed for being used as space for bridgecourses, teacher training and skill buildingactivities for girls; over 50,000 ECCE centresare being supported in non-ICDS areas to helpfree girls from sibling care responsibilities;further, free uniforms have been given as adirect educational incentive to about 20 milliongirls in EBB blocks. Data given in Table-4indicates the massive nature of the inputs beingprovided under the scheme.

Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya(KGBV)

While the main goal of the NPEGEL is to getmore girls into the fold of primary education,the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV)launched in July 2004 focuses on providingeducation to the girls at upper primary level. With

a view to consolidating the gains made inenrolling girls at the lower primary stage, theScheme provides for residential facilities to girlsat convenient locations for continuing theireducation beyond the lower primary stage.According to the Report of the Ministry ofHuman Resource Development, 2075residential KGBV schools have been sanctionedin SC/ST and minority dominated areas. 428KGBVs have been set up in Muslim dominatedblocks and 441 in ST dominated blocks. TillDecember 2006, 1039 KGBV schools wereopened benefiting 6400 children with 27%belonging to SCs, 30% to STs.

A recent evaluation of the scheme has revealedthat the schools are well managed andfunctioning properly. It was also found that thestudents, parents and community members hadpositive opinion about the scheme. The teacherswere also found committed. In some states theoperation of the Scheme is further reinforcedas Mahila Samakhya (MS) Societies areinvolved in its implementation. Encouraged bythe positive observations from external



Figure 5: Dropout Rates at Primary andElementary Levels


1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

Primary Elementary

* Provisional

42.6

0

60.9

0

40.7

0

53.7

0

39.0

0

54.6

0

34.8

9

52.7

9

31.4

7

52.3

2

29.0

0

50.8

4

Rat

e (%

)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

evaluation of the Scheme, a massive expansionof the programme is being envisaged in the nextfive years under the Eleventh Five Year Plan(Annual Report MHRD, 2006-07).

Declining Drop-out Rates

Reduction in dropout rates is another importantindicator of quality of elementary education. Thedropout rate has registered large decline since1990s that can be attributed to the efforts madeunder District Primary Education Programme(DPEP), SSA and other programmes.

With respect to SC children, the dropoutbetween classes I and V declined from 45.2%in 2000-01 to 33.8% in 2005-06. Similarly withrespect to ST children, it declined from 52.3 %

to 39.8% during the same period. Between2001-02 and 2005-06, i.e., within a span of fiveyears, the dropout rate at primary level wasbrought down by more than 10 percentagepoints for both SC and ST children. The declineis very steep particularly from 2001 suggestingthat the efforts made under SSA are making adent. The proportion of children who dropoutbefore reaching class VIII and X has alsodeclined substantially.

The rural urban differences as well as situationwith respect to certain religious minorities alsomerits attention. For instance, a survey of out-of-school children reported that the estimatesof children out-of-school are highest amongMuslims at 9.97%. The situation is even more



Table 5: Drop out Rates at Primary and Elementary Stages by Social Groups

Year Primary (I-V) Elementary (I-VIII)

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

SC ST SC ST SC ST SC ST SC ST SC ST

2001-02 43.7 51 47.1 54.1 45.2 52.3 58.6 67.3 63.6 72.7 60.7 69.5

2002-03 41.1 50.8 41.9 52.1 41.5 51.4 58.2 66.9 62.2 71.2 59.9 68.7

2003-04 36.8 49.1 36.2 48.7 36.6 48.9 57.3 69 62.2 71.4 59.4 70.1

Source: Selected Educational Statistics: 2003-04 MHRD, GOI, New Delhi, 2006. (Provisional)

Table 6: Out of School Children Aged 6-13 years: All India, 2006

S.No. Details Out-of-School Children Percentage Out-of-School children

Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total

1. All Children(6-13 years) 11353597 2106137 13459734 7.80 4.34 6.94

2. SC Children 2706025 398841 3104866 8.55 6.25 8.17

3. ST Children 1585833 71145 1656978 10.11 4.21 9.54

4. MuslimChildren 1567717 685535 2253252 12.03 7.17 9.97

Source: SRI- IMRB Survey, 2006

pronounced for Muslims in rural areas at12.03% which is the highest among all socialgroups.

Teachers

India supports a policy of one teacher per classat the primary level and a minimum of twoteachers per primary school as expansion ofaccess in remote and difficult areas also witnessa number of small schools. Targeted teacherpupil ratio is 1:40. To staff this ever- expandingsystem with adequate number of qualified

teacher is a humongous task to ensure equityand quality. Information on the size and humanresources available in primary schools indicatethat one-fourth of the total number of primaryschools in the country are very small with onlyone teacher and/or one classroom andgenerally located in small habitations. It is inthis context that modifying traditional distanceand population norms and opening schools insmall habitations has yielded positive resultsby bringing in more children to school.

In absolute terms, a substantial increase in the



Figure 6: Growth of Teachers at Primary and Upper Primary Levels


500

No.

of T

each

ers

(in ‘0

00)

* Provisional

0

1000

1500

2000

2500

Primary

Upper Primary

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

1616

1073

1896

1326

1928

1468

1913

1581

2097

1592

2161

1589

number of teachers has been registered since1990-91. The total number of teachers inprimary schools increased from 1.62 million in1990-91 to 1.9 million in 2001-02 and further to2.2 million in 2004-2005. While the number ofmale teachers increased from 1.14 million in1990-91 to 1.32 million in 2004-05, i.e., by 1.2times, the number of female teachers increasedfrom 0.5 million in 1990-91 to 0.8 million in 2004-2005, i.e., by about 1.8 times. In case of upperprimary schools, the number of male teachersincreased from 0.72 million in 1990-91 to 1million in 2004-05, i.e., by 1.4 times, the numberof female teachers increased from 0.4 millionin 1990-91 to 0.6 million in 2004-2005, i.e., byabout 1.7 times. It is worth mentioning that after2000-01, more female teachers than maleteachers are being appointed at elementarylevel (Figure-6).

DISE 2005-06 data also suggests that thenumber of teachers in place was 2.79 million inthe primary stage and 1.5 million in the upperprimary stage. The growth of teachers in placein the elementary sector, thereby, works out to8.2% per year during 2003-04 through 2005-06. This increase is on account of the largenumber of teachers recruited under SSA inthese years.

Pupil-Teacher Ratio

At the time of independence, there was apaucity of educational institutions in the country.During the year 1990-91, the Pupil -TeacherRatio (PTR) in primary schools was 1:43; andin upper primary schools, it was 1:37. In 2004-2005, this ratio increased to 1:46 in primaryschools, but decreased to 1:35 in upper primaryschools. Though the number of educational



Figure 7: Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) at Primary and Upper Primary Schools


* Provisional

10

0

20

30

40

50

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

Primary

Upper Primary

43 43 43

42

45

46

37

38

34 34

35 35

institutions considerably increased during 1990sas also the number of teachers, the higher PTRindicates that the increase in enrolment at eachlevel is comparatively more than the increasein the number of teachers. The increasedenrolment at various levels also underscoresthe need for opening of a greater number ofeducational institutions as well as employingmore teachers for improving the quality ofeducation (Figure-7).

Female Teachers

The number of female teachers per hundredmale teachers increased from 41 to 64 inprimary classes, and 50 to 60 in upper primaryclasses during 1990-91 to 2004-05 which showsthat women par ticipation in educationprogrammes at all levels has increased manyfolds after independence (Figure -8).

Improving Teacher Provision

Addressing Imbalances and Inequities inteacher provision is a critical issue that countryis conscious of addressing. The situation withrespect to demand for additional school placesand the consequent need for additional physicalinfrastructure and teacher supply is not uniformacross different states. Kerala, Tamil Nadu,Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh haveexperienced declining trend in child populationand this would cause decline in demand forschool places and teachers at the lower primarystage; but even in these states, there will be ademand for school place and teachers in nearfuture, particularly at the upper primary stage.On the other hand, some states like Bihar, UttarPradesh, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa etc.would still require to employ teachers both atprimary and upper primary stages. The need to



Figure 8: Number of Female Teachers per Hundred Male Teachers


41

5055

6259 59

64

6966

69

64

60

Primary Schools

Upper Primary Schools

* Provisional

Num

ber

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

provide qualified number of teachers to keeppace with the ongoing expansion of educationsector remains a challenge.

Learner Achievement and Equity

Improving the quality of education provided inthe schools has been a goal pursued for thelast 10-15 years. While there are areas ofconcern, a positive development has been theimprovement achieved with respect toinfrastructure. Student-classroom ratio (SCR)has improved from 48 in 2002-03 to 41 in 2005-06 at the primary level and from 36 to 33 at theupper primary level during the same years(DISE, NUEPA, New Delhi, 2007)

Recognizing that in the final analysis effectiveacquisition of basic learning competencieswould determine the value of primary schooling.In this context, measurement of learning levelsof school going children has come to occupy aplace of central importance within and outside

the public education system. The wide variationamong different states in this regard is clearlyhighlighted by the data collated from nationalsurvey conducted by NCERT in 2003-04.Clearly, the overall achievement levels are farfrom satisfactory. What is even more disturbingis that several states which have been doingwell in enrolment and participation lag behindwhen it comes to quality of learning.

Considering that quality of learning also criticallydepends on what is transacted in the classroomas much as how it is done, there has beenincreased attention paid to the issue ofdeveloping relevant curriculum for schooleducation. In this regard, the massive nationallevel consultation carried out by NCERT towardspreparation of the National CurriculumFramework, 2005, needs special mention. It isenvisaged that the new National CurriculumFramework along with corresponding syllabi andtextbooks would become the guiding documents



for State level organizations to work towardsrevising their curricula and syllabi (Govinda,2007).

Universalizing SecondaryEducation

The success of SSA in achieving large scaleenrolment of children in regular and alternateschools has thrown open the challenge ofexpanding access to secondary education.Rapid changes in technology and the demandfor skills also make it necessary that youngpeople acquire more than eight years ofelementary education to acquire the necessaryskills to compete successfully in the labourmarket. Moreover, secondary education servesas a bridge between elementary and highereducation. The stage is thus set foruniversalization of secondary education. Thepopulation of children in the age group (14–18

years) is estimated at 107 million in 2001, 119.7million in 2006, and 121.1 million in 2011,whereas, the current enrolment in secondaryand senior secondary education together isaround 37 million only (2004–05).

The thrust of secondary education during theTenth Plan period was on improving access andreducing disparities by emphasizing theCommon School System in which it ismandatory for schools in a particular area totake students from low-income families in theneighbourhood. The Tenth Plan also focussedon revision of curricula with emphasis onvocationalization and employment-orientedcourses, expansion and diversification of theopen learning system, reorganization of teachertraining and greater use of ICT. These objectiveshave been partly achieved.

During the period 1990-91 to 2004-05, the

Figure 9: Growth of Secondary/Sr. Secondary Schools


No.

of

Sch

ools

(in

‘000

)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

130

140

* Provisional

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

80

126133

137

146152



number of secondary and senior secondaryschools increased from 0.08 million to 0.15million. The annual average growth rate ofsecondary and senior secondary schools was4.7% during 1990-91 to 2000-01 which furthermarginally increased to 4.8% during 2000-01to 2004-05. There are inter-State and intra-Statevariations in enrolment, dropouts, and accessto secondary and higher secondary schools. Atthe national level, the average number ofsecondary/higher secondary schools per 1 lakhpopulation is quite low. The national averagenumber of secondary and higher secondaryschools per 100 sq. km is only four;consequently, the GER in many States is lowerthan the national average of 39.91%.

Nearly 60% of secondary schools are withprivate management both aided and unaided,

almost in equal proportions. The share ofgovernment and local body schools and privateaided schools shows a declining trend withprivate unaided schools showing an increasefrom 15% in 1993–94 to 24% in 2001–02 andfurther to 30% in 2004–05.

The doubling of the share of private unaidedschools indicates that parents are willing to payfor education that is perceived to be of goodquality. The factors underlying this perceptioninclude better English teaching, bettermonitoring and supervision of students’performance, better attention, attendance andaccountability of teachers. There is, however,no evidence to show that the enrolments inthese schools are additional. Only those whocan afford to pay apparently opt for theseschools and their average enrolment is much

Figure 10: Percentage of Secondary/Sr Secondary Schools underDifferent Managements


Private Un-aided

29.60% Government

33.12%

Local Body

7.93%

Private aided

29.35%

* Provisional



lower than that in the aided and governmentschools. Public sector investment in secondaryschools has, therefore, to be increased evenfor incentivizing Pulic-Private Partnership (PPP).

The enrolment in 1.02 lakh secondary and 0.50lakh higher secondary schools is 24.3 millionand 12.7 million respectively (2004–05). TheGER for secondary education (IX and X) is51.65% and that for higher secondary 27.82%.The combined GER both for the secondary andhigher secondary schools is only 39.91%. Thedropout rate at secondary level is as high as62% (Table-7).

During the decade ending 2004–05, enrolmentat the secondary and higher secondary levelsincreased at an average annual rate of 5.32%.During the three years of the Tenth Plan up to2004–05, it increased at a faster rate of 6.75%per annum and an additional 7.5 million childrenwere enrolled. There will be further accelerationin secondary enrolments during the EleventhPlan period as the dropout rates at the primary

Table 7: Secondary Education - Enrolment (in crores) and Dropout, 2004-05

Indicators Boys Girls Total

Enrolment GER Enrolment GER Enrolment GER

Secondary (IX–X) 1.42 57.39 1.01 45.28 2.43 51.65

Hr. Secondary (XI–XII) 0.74 30.80 0.53 24.46 1.27 27.82

Secondary &Hr. Sec.(IX–XII) 2.16 44.26 1.54 35.05 3.70 39.91

Dropout (%)Rates (I-X) 60.41 63.88 61.92

Source: Selected Educational Statistics (2004–05), MHRD and as reported in the Eleventh Five Year Plan Vol. II,2008.

level are declining and the transition rate fromprimary to upper primary level is getting closerto 90%.

Share of Girls and SC & ST Students

The participation of girls at secondary level ofeducation has been increasing steadily throughthe years. In 1990-91, 32.9% of the studentsenrolled in secondary and senior secondaryschools were girls. Their percentage increasedto 38.6% in 2000-01 and further to 41.5% in2004-05 (Figure-12).

The secondary education GERs for SCs andSTs are 45.4% and 37.2% respectively, ascompared to the overall GER of 51.6%indicating a substantial social gap in enrolmentsfor these groups. The GER for girls belongingto SCs and STs is 37.6% and 30.5%respectively, indicating a substantial gender gapin enrolment for these groups. Information onthese lines needs to be generated now for thechildren and youth with disabilities.



Figure 11: Growth of Enrolment in Secondary and Senior Secondary Schools


19.10

27.60

30.50

33.20

35.0037.10

* Provisional

Per

cent

age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

Figure 12: Growth of Girls Enrolment in Secondary and Senior Secondary Schools


Per

cent

age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

32.90

38.6039.50

41.30 41.10 41.50

* Provisional

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*



The Union Government is implementing thescheme ‘Strengthening of Boarding and HostelFacilities for Girl Students of Secondary andHigher Secondary Schools (Access & Equity)’.Under the scheme, financial assistance is givento societies and NGOs to provide boarding andhostel facilities to girls, predominantly belongingto the rural, desert, hilly areas, and particularlyfor those belonging to SCs, STs, andeducationally backward minorities. Theperformance of the scheme is not up to themark. The scheme will be restructured andmerged with the new umbrella scheme of‘Universalization of Access and Improvementof Quality of Secondary Education’.

Teachers

In absolute terms, a substantial increase in thenumber of teachers has been registered since1990-91. The total number of teachers in


Figure 13: Growth of Teachers in Secondary and Senior Secondary Schools

1334

1761 1777

2033 20242083

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05** Provisional

No.

of T

each

ers

(in ‘0

00)

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

secondary and senior secondary schoolsincreased from 1.3 million in 1990-91 to 1.76million in 2001-02 and to 2.08 million in 2004-2005(Figure-13).

Number of Female Teachers per HundredMale Teachers

The number of female teachers per hundredmale teachers increased from 46 in 1990-91 to49 in 2000-01 and further to 63 in 2004-05 withrecruitment of more female teachers insecondary and senior secondary schools after2000-01 (Figure-15).

Expanding Higher Education

India presently has 425 universities, comprising216 State universities, 20 Central universities,101 Deemed universities, 5 institutionsestablished under States legislations, 13



Figure 14: Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) in Secondary and Senior Secondary Schools


1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

Rat

io

0

10

20

30

40

50

31 3234 33 33 33

* Provisional

Figure 15: Number of Female Teachers per hundred Male Teachers


* Provisional

Num

ber

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1990-91 2000-01* 2001-02* 2002-03* 2003-04* 2004-05*

4649

54

66

62 63

0



institutes of national importance established byCentral Legislation, and 60 Agricultural/Veterinary, Medical, inducing Ayurveda, Openuniversities and institutes established underState Legislature Act. Four new CentralUniversity Acts are in the process of beingbrought into force. The number of collegesincreased by four times from 4,577 in 1990-91to 18,064 in 2005-06 (Figure-16).

Growth in Enrolment

The total enrolment in the higher educationsystem increased from 0.17 million in 1950-51to 2.75 million in 1980-81 and 4.92 million in1990-91. From the level of 2.75 million in 1980-81, it increased by four times to 11.03 million in2005-06 (Figure-17). During the period 1950-51 to 2005-06, total enrolment at highereducation level increased at an average annual

Figure 16: Growth of Higher Educational Institutions in India

Source: UGC Annual Reports.

Num

ber

of U

nive

rsiti

es

Num

ber

of C

olle

ges

Universities

Colleges

1980-81 1990-01 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-06 2006-08*

123

184

12806

1543716206

1688517625 18064

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

* Includes Central, State, Demed Universities and National Institutions of Importance; * Estimated

growth rate of 8.04%. At the beginning of theacademic year 2006-07, the total number ofstudents enrolled in the universities andcolleges was reported to be 11.03 million. Ofthe total enrolment, 1.43 million (12.94%) wereenrolled in University Departments and 9.60million (87.06%) in affiliated colleges.

The number of teachers in the higher educationsystem in India in 1950-51 was only 24,000,which increased substantially by 11 times to271,000 by 1990-91. Later on, by 2005-06, theirnumber marginally improved to the level of488,000. Among the regular faculty strength,16.15% were in universities while 83.85% werein colleges.

Enrolment in Higher Education

Though the overall demand for higher education



Figure 17: Growth of Enrolment and Teachers inHigher Education in India

Source: UGC Annual Reports.

Teachers

Enrolment

Enr

olm

ent

(in m

illio

n)

Teac

hers

(in

mill

ion)

* Estimated

1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-5 2005-06*

244

272

8.4

8.96

9.529.95

10.48

11.03

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

488

in India is increasing, there are wide variationsin GER across States. The GER at the highereducation level ranges from as low as 4.7% inNagaland to as high as 14.1% in HimachalPradesh.

Keeping in view the increasing demand for theskilled manpower in the emerging knowledgesociety, the CABE Committee in its report of2005 has recommended that it would benecessary to provide for a substantial increasein the GER, in the range of about 20% in thenext 15 to 20 years, by doubling the existingcapacity. The Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012) proposes to increase the gross enrolmentratio by 15% by the end of year 2011-12.

Of the total enrolment in higher education, theshare of undergraduate students is as high as

89%, while post-graduate enrolment is 9%. Thedistribution of enrolment at various levels ofhigher education remained almost similar during2005-06, except that there is a marginal rise inthe share of diploma and certificate courses.

Enrolment by faculty includes the stream-wiseenrolment in Ar ts, Science, Commerce,Education, Engineering and Technology,Medicine, Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Lawand others. The total enrolment at highereducation level was 11 million in 2005-06. It isevident from the Figure-19 that four out of tenstudents in higher education were in the facultyof Arts, enrolled for courses in the humanitiesand social sciences in 2001-02. Nearly two outof 10 students were enrolled in science courses.The percentage enrolment for commerce



Figure 18: Enrolment by Levels in Universities and Affiliated Colleges

Source: UGC Annual Reports, 2001-02 and 2005-06.

20010-02

2005-0689.12 88.91

9.25 9.42

0.70 0.64 0.93 1.03

Under-Graduate Post-Graduate Research Diploma/Certificate

Per

cent

age

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

marginally increased from 17.87% in 2001-02to 18.01% in 2005-06. Over 70 percent of totalenrolment was in the three faculties namely,arts, science and humanities in 2005-06 whilethe remaining 16 per cent were enrolled in theprofessional courses. Enrolment in engineeringand technology accounted for only 7.5 per centof the total enrolment. On the other hand,enrolment in agriculture was 0.6 per cent andin veterinary science, it was a miniscule, 0.16per cent (Figure-18). It can also be seen fromTable-8 that as against 2001-02, the distributionof enrolment across the faculty in 2005-06remained more or less the same.

Participation of Girls, SCs and STs

The institutions of higher education during itsinitial years largely catered to the elite sections

of the society. However, with the adoption ofseveral policies towards inclusion and todiversify the intake of higher educationinstitutions, the winds of change have blown infavour of marginalized social groups includingwomen. The enrolment in higher educationinstitutions increased from 1.71 million to 10.16million students between 1970-71 and 2005-06 (Prakash Ved, 2008)* (Table-8).

The share of girls and marginal groups has alsoincreased along with the expansion of highereducation. The proportion of girls in enrolmentat higher education level increased from 24 percent in 1970-71 to 39 per cent in 2005-06. Theaffirmative policies like special scholarships, feewaivers, separate hostels, etc for girls along withattitudinal change are responsible for thesepositive developments.



Figure 19: Faculty-Wise Enrolment in Higher Education in India

Source: UGC, Annual Reports, 2001-2002 & 2005-2006

Others

Law

Vaternity/

Agriculture

Medicine

Engineering/Technology

Education

Commerce

Art (Including Oriental

Learning)

0.800.88

3.05

3.18

0.150.16

0.58

0.60

3.163.13

7.21

6.87

1.46

1.30

18.01

17.87

20.4519.89

45.13

46.14

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

2001-02 2005-06

The marginal groups like SCs and STs are alsobeginning to enter the higher education systemin large numbers. This may be attributed toseveral affirmative actions which thegovernment has introduced in the form ofreservations, scholarships, fee waivers,relaxation in minimum requirements for entryto these institutions. The proportion of SCs inenrolment at higher education increased from8.5 per cent in 1990-91 to 12.3 per cent in 2005-06.

The proportion of STs in enrolment at highereducation increased from 2.1 per cent in 1990-91 to 4.3 per cent in 2005-06. It shows thatthough some ground has been covered, theirshare in enrolment in higher education is stillless than their share in the total population.

Though Indian higher education system isconsidered to be the largest system in terms ofnumber of institutions, in relative terms only asmall propor tion of corresponding agepopulation is enrolled in higher education. TheGER at higher education level increased from9.2 per cent in 2003-04 to 11.6 per cent in 2005-06. The GER for girls was 9.4 per cent comparedto 13.6 per cent for boys in 2005-06. Similarlythe GER for SC girls was 6.4 per cent comparedto 10.16 per cent for boys in 2005-06. The GERfor ST girls was 4.69 per cent compared to 8.59per cent for boys in 2005-06. It shows that theGER for girls is almost 4 percentage pointslower than the GER for boys across varioussocial groups. Concerted efforts are, therefore,required to close these gender gaps, on the one



Table 8: Enrolment in Higher Education

Year PG and Ph.D. Graduation BE B. Ed MBBS Total

A. Total Enrolment

1970-71 136825 1363060 88494 48893 78244 1715516

1980-81 316788 1886428 103195 68250 67822 2442483

1990-91 387684 3285776 241368 92217 84393 4091438

2000-01 692342 7244915 418193 121733 148699 8625882

2002-03 847947 6864812 708643 118593 208465 9516773

2003-04 872252 7052274 772923 114681 223236 9035366

2004-05 845619 6728029 696609 155192 256748 8682197

2005-06 1230054 6741592 1681716 199676 308705 10161743

B. Share of Girls’ Enrolment (%)

1970-71 25.8 24.4 1.0 37.3 22.4 23.6

1980-81 31.7 27.8 3.6 40.9 24.3 27.5

1990-91 32.2 34.7 10.9 44.2 34.3 33.2

2000-01 36.7 37.4 22.3 42.8 40.6 36.8

2002-03 42.3 42.0 22.6 52.0 41.6 40.1

2003-04 42.8 41.5 23.8 49.9 42.0 45.3

2004-05 44.2 41.2 26.4 36.9 36.5 40.1

2005-06 33.6 41.9 26.0 43.7 47.5 38.5

C. Share of Enrolment of SCs (%)

1990-91 8.7 8.7 5.7 8.4 8.6 8.5

2000-01 10.1 9.6 8.7 12.3 9.6 9.7

2002-03 11.4 12.0 6.7 13.9 13.2 11.3

2003-04 11.6 12.0 6.3 15.7 13.0 11.5

2004-05 12.5 12.7 8.5 12.9 11.5 12.3

2005-06 9.5 13.3 9.7 16.2 14.5 12.3

D. Share of Enrolment of STs (%)

1990-91 1.8 2.2 1.1 2.3 0.7 2.1

2000-01 2.6 3.0 3.3 5.3 3.6 3.0

2002-03 2.7 3.7 3.2 5.0 4.9 3.6

2003-04 2.8 3.8 2.0 5.5 4.5 3.6

2004-05 4.0 4.4 3.1 5.9 3.7 4.2

2005-06 3.2 4.6 3.5 4.7 6.2 4.3

Source: Prakash, Ved, 2008 based on Selected Educational Statistics (various years), MHRD, (BE: Bachelor ofEngineering; B.Ed.: Bachelor of Education)



Figure 20: Level-Wise Share of Girls in Total Enrolment in Higher Education

Source: Selected Educational Statistics, Various Years

1990-91 2000-01 2004-05

Per

cent

age

PG & Ph.D. Graduation BE B.Ed MBBS Total0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

5032

.2

36.7

44.2

34.7

37.4

41.2

10.9

22.3 23

.7

44.2

42.8 43

.8

34.3

40.6

34.7

33.2

36.8

39.4

Figure 21: Level-Wise Share of SCs in Total Enrolment in Higher Education

Source: Selected Educational Statistics, Various Years.

PG & Ph.D. Graduation BE B.Ed MBBS Total

1990-91 2000-01 2004-05

Per

cent

age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

8.7 10

.1

29.6

8.7 9.

6

30.9

5.7

8.7

35.9

8.4

12.3

29.4

8.6 12

.3

29.4

8.5 9.

7

27.2



Figure 22: Level-Wise Share of STs in Total Enrolment in Higher Education

Source: Selected Educational Statistics, Various Years.

PG & Ph.D. Graduation BE B.Ed MBBS Total

1990-91 2000-01 2004-05

Per

cent

age

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1.8 2.

6

2.2

9.0

3..0

10.6

1.1

3.3

13.0

2.3

5.3

13.4

0.7

3.6

10.7

2.1

3.0

9.4

hand, and increase their participation rates, onthe other.

Inclusion in Higher Education

The Government of India has launched fromtime to time a number of schemes andprogrammes for the purposes of enhancing theparticipation of deprived classes in highereducation. India has about 21,092 institutionsof higher learning including universities,institutes of national importance and colleges.The Government has made it mandatory for allthese institutions to provide 15% reservation toSCs, 7.5% reservation to STs. In addition, theCentral Government has now provided for 27%reservation to OBCs and students withdisabilities are also given 3% reservations inall centrally funded institutions of higher

learning. Apart from reservation, there is also arelaxation given in the minimum qualifyingmarks for admission for these students.Besides, seats are also reserved in hostels forthese students.

The SC/ST students who secure admission inthe notified institutions are given scholarship tomeet the requirements for full tuition fees, livingexpenses, books and stationery. Thescholarship once awarded continues till thecompletion of the course, subject to satisfactoryperformance. Under the ‘Book Bank Scheme’the SC and ST students pursuing Medical,Engineering, Agriculture, Veterinary,Polytechnic, Law, Chartered Accountancy, MBAand Bio-Sciences courses are also providedbooks. The Scheme provides for sharing of



textbooks by two students at undergraduatelevel and separate set of books at post-graduatelevel.

Students with disabilities amongst SCs and STsare also provided specified special allowanceslike readers allowance, transport allowance,escor t allowance etc. Not only that theGovernment of India provides 17 overseasscholarships each year to the meritorious SCand ST students who wish to pursue higherstudies abroad. These students pursuing highereducation are also provided free remedialcoaching to enable them to upgrade their merit.Besides, they are also provided free coachingfor entry into the services.

In order to provide relevant and good qualityhigher education in an equitable manner, theGovernment has proposed a number ofmeasures to remove regional, social and genderdisparities. The XI Plan envisages increase inGross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of the students

Box 5: Inclusive Education

The objective of inclusiveness in higher education will be achieved through the following:

� Reduction of regional imbalances;

� Support to institutions located in border, hilly, remote, small towns and educationally backwardareas;

� Support to institutions with larger student population of SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities, andphysically challenged;

� Support to the SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities, physically challenged, and girl students withspecial scholarships/ fellowships, hostel facilities, remedial coaching, and other measures;

� Setting up of an ‘Equal Opportunity Office’ in all universities to bring all schemes relating tothis group under one umbrella for effective implementation.

1.3.25 of XI Plan Document, p 26 Vol. II, GOI, 2008

in the age group of 18-24 years by 5% duringthe plan period. While the Central Governmenthas taken initiative to set up several newinstitutions, bulk of the enrolment has to beincreased through the state level institutions.

The Government proposes to establish 370 newcolleges in districts with GER less than nationalaverage, 14 world class universities and 16Central Universities in hitherto uncoveredstates. The government is also committed toprovide increased financial assistance toinstitutions located in border, hilly, remote andeducationally backward areas. The centralgovernment is also going to provide increasedsupport to institutions with large percentage ofSC, ST, OBC, girls and minority population.Besides, the government is also committed tobuild more hostels for the students belongingto underprivileged sections of the society. Focuswill be on access and affordability in SCs, STs,OBCs, and minority concentration districts and



implementation of the recommendations of theSachar Committee with respect to educationaldevelopment of the Muslim community.

The XI Plan document (1.3.32, p27, Vol. II, 2008)also points out that focus on the disadvantagedsections (SCs, STs, OBCs and minorities) holdsthe key to achieving the GER of 15% for thePlan. This cannot be achieved without initiativesfor Inclusive education by the states. Financialassistance will be provided to the States on thebasis of specific projects submitted for thesesocial groups. Girls’ hostels will be constructedin districts with low female GER and highconcentration of SCs STs, OBCs and minorities.

Role of Private Sector in HigherEducation

Private (un-aided) education has also grown ata rapid rate in the last several years. However,no firm estimates are available of the share ofprivate education in total enrolment. The onlysource of such information is the NSS 52nd

Round, which gives estimates for 1995-96.According to the estimates generated from thehousehold data of the NSS 52nd Round, 8% ofenrolment in the higher education sector wasin private un-aided institutions. Privateinstitutions, par ticularly in the areas ofmanagement, engineering, medicine,computers etc, have comeup in large numbers,raising issues of access, equity, quality andregulation. The share of private education washigher in technical and professional education(20 per cent in engineering, 10 per cent inmedicine). Enrolment in private un-aidedmanagements is projected to increase to 16%of the total enrolment by 2006- 07 and 20% by2011-12. The share of private education intechnical education is, however, projected totouch 40 per cent by 2006-07 and 60 per centby the end of the Eleventh Five Year Plan. Box-6 gives the gist of initiatives and dialogue withstates which also indicate the possibilities ofthe Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) mode.



Box 6: Initiatives to Expand Infrastructure inHigher Education during 2007-2012

With a view to increasing access and improving quality of higher education, the Government ofIndia has decided to take several initiatives. It is proposed to set up 8 new Indian Institute of Technology(IITs) in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Madhya Pradeshand Gujarat during the XI Plan period and start B. Tech Courses in three branches with a limitedbatch of about 120 first year students from the academic session of 2008-09. It is also proposed toconvert the Institute of Technology, Benaras Hindu University into an IIT. These new IITs will bementored by the existing IITs of Madras, Guwahati, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Delhi and Mumbairespectively.

One Indian Institute of Management (IIM) at Shillong has already been established and hascommenced its academic session from 2008-09 with an initial intake of 60 students based on CAT2007 score. It has been decided to locate the remaining six IIMs in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,Uttarakhand, Jammu & Kashmir, Tamil Nadu and Haryana. State Governments have been requestedto allot adequate land free of cost for setting up the new IIMs, having excellent road connectivity asalso physical and social infrastructure. Further, State Governments are expected to suggest two orthree options, from which the best suited location for IIMs could be chosen.

Three Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs) at Mohali, Pune and Kolkatahave already been functioning and two more at Bhopal and Thiruvanthapuram will start their classesin the ensuing academic session in August 2008. Twenty Indian Institutes of Information Technologies(IIITs) are proposed under the Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) mode. Two Schools of Planning &Architecture are to be set up at Bhopal and Vijayawada.

The Department of Higher Education, M/ HRD has prepared a scheme on Sub-Mission ofPolytechnics under National Skill Development Mission. Under Sub-Mission of Polytechnic, it isproposed to take up the following four components:

i) Setting up of 1000 polytechnics (300 in Government Sectors, 300 through PPP mode and400 private polytechnics;

ii) Strengthening of existing 500 polytechnics;

iii) Construction of women’s hostel in 500 polytechnics; and

iv) Revamping of the Community Polytechnics scheme and increasing their number from 669to 1000.

Polytechnics in Government sector are to be set up in such districts, which do not presently havepolytechnic.

Establishment of 16 Central Universities in the uncovered states and 14 Central Universities aimingat world class standards.

Creation of these new institutions would benefit States in many ways including new opportunitiesfor enrolment of students and employment in teaching as well as non-teaching careers, even thoughthese selections would be made on all India basis and on merit.

* Based on the Background Notes for the State Education Ministers Conference, Government of India, Ministry ofHuman Resource Development, Department of Higher Education (August 23-24 2008)


Inclusion in Education of Children and Persons with DisabilitiesSection 6

Section 6

Inclusion in Education of Children andPersons with Disabilities*

* Mainly based on Mukhopdhyay, S. and Renu Singh (2008) and Mukhopadhyay, S. (2007) and GOI, Eleventh Five Year Plan,2008.

The past few decades have seen many newinitiatives being launched by the

Government of India both in terms oflegislations, policies and schemes in order toaddress the educational needs of children withdisabilities. In 1974, Government of Indialaunched the Integrated Education for DisabledChildren Scheme (IEDC); in 1988 the ProjectIntegrated Education (PIED) for the disabled,in 1985 the District Primary Education Program(DPEP) with aims to move towards“Universalisation of Elementary Education” andSarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) in 2001 formeeting the EFA Goals.

The objectives of the Integrated Education forDisabled Children Scheme (IEDC Scheme) wasto (a) to provide educational opportunities fordisabled children in common schools to facilitatetheir retention in the school system; (b) tointegrate the disabled children with the generalcommunity at all levels as equal partners; and(c) to prepare them for normal growth and toface life with courage and confidence. Thecategories covered under the scheme are (i)Orthopaedically Handicapped, (ii) Blind andvisually impaired, (iii) Hearing impaired, (iv)Mentally retarded (Educable); and (v) CerebralPalsy.

Under the IEDC Scheme, the benefits extendedto the disabled children for Books and Stationeryallowance , Uniform allowance ,Transport,Escort allowance, Reader Allowance andActual cost of equipment subject to a maximumof Rs.2000/- per child for a period of five years.While reviewing the National Policy 1986, theAcharya Ramamurthy Committee had observedthat education of students with disabilities wasa “social welfare activity” and critiqued theimplementation of Integrated Education ofDisabled Children (IEDC) in terms of running“mini special schools within general schools”(MHRD, 1990). Since then the Government ofIndia has enacted three legislations for personswith disabilities as has been mentioned earlier.

Currently, the Government of India under SarvaShiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has proclaimed itsintent to provide ‘Education for All’ by the year2010.This also implies a commitment toproviding education to all children includingchildren with disabilities

“SSA will ensure that every child with specialneeds, irrespective of the kind, category anddegree of disability, is provided education in anappropriate environment. SSA will adopt ‘zero



rejection’ policy so that no child is left out of.The thrust of SSA will be on providing integratedand inclusive education to all children withspecial needs in general schools.”(Article 5.2)

The SSA framework, in line with the Personswith Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protectionof Rights & Full Participation) Act, 1995mentions that a child with special needs shouldbe taught in an environment, which is bestsuited to his /her learning needs. These mightinclude special schools, Education GuaranteeScheme or even home-based education. SSAalso offers each district flexibility to plan forInclusive Education (IE) activities, dependingon the number of children identified and theresources available to effectively implement theIE programme.

The National Curriculum Framework for SchoolEducation (NCERT, 2000) had recommendedinclusive schools for learners with specialeducational needs by making appropriate

Figure 23: Coverage of CWSN under Different Schemes/Programmes

Source: MHRD, 2006

modifications in the content, presentation andtransaction strategies, preparing teachers anddeveloping learning-fr iendly evaluationprocedures.

Inclusive Education of the Disabledat Secondary Stage (IEDSS)

The Integrated Education for Disabled Childrenscheme has now been replaced by a newscheme called inclusive Education of theDisabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) approvedin September 2008. The main features of thescheme are as under.

i) The scheme will cover all children of 14+age passing out of elementary schoolsand studying at secondary stage with oneor mores disabilities as defined under ‘Persons with Disabilities (EqualOpportunities, protection of Rights andFull Participation) Act, 1995’ and nationalTrust Act 1999, namely:

1800000

1600000

1400000

1200000

1000000

800000

600000

400000

200000

0PIED IEDC DPEP SSA

5800

203146

621760

1665729



a) blindness, b) low vision, c) Leprosy cured,d) hearing impaired, e) Locomotivedisabilities, f) Mental retardation, g)mental illness, h) autism, i) cerebral palsy.

ii) 100% assistance would be provided toStates and U.Ts and other Organizationsfor following two components:

a) Rs. 3000/- per child per annum forstudents oriented components such asmaterial and educational assessments,books and stationary, uniform allowances,reader allowance, stipend for gir ls,assistive devices, boarding and lodgingfacilities etc, In addition to the abovecentral assistance State Govt. would alsoprovide Rs. 600/- per child per annum asscholarship.

b) Other components such as appointmentof special education teachers, specialallowance for normal teachers, teachertraining, orientation of schooladministrators and community members,provision for barrier free environment,provision of resource room etc.

Achievements in Education ofChildren with Special Needs

Thus, in India, the past three decades havewitnessed a spurt of legislative and policyinitiatives aimed at addressing the educationalneeds of a very large “forgotten” and “invisible”population of children with disability. To capturethe achievement towards providing access,equity and quality education as far as childrenwith disabilities are concerned, it is vital to placeit against the backdrop of achievements in theeducational field for all children.

Official estimates on the population of peoplewith disabilities exist in the form of Census and

National Sample Survey statistics- though boththese estimates differ mainly due to differencesin definitions of disability adopted. The Census2001 results reveal total population of personswith disabilities in India as 21,906,769(Male:12,605,635 Female:9,301,134) estimatedat 2.13% of the total population, whereas theNational Sample Survey 58th Round, 2002estimates the total population of disabled peoplein thecountry, to be 18.49 million disabledpeople, i.e., 1.8% (Males 10.89 million andFemales 7.59 million ).

Persons with Disability Act 1995 is the legalreference point for this definition but it left outvarious disabilities, some of which wereaddressed consequently through the NationalTrust Act of 1999. Today we talk about tendisabilities as compared to the four, which wereinitially mentioned by the Kothari Commission.These are: blindness, low vision, leprosy cured,hearing impairments, locomotive disabilities,mental retardation, mental illness, autism,cerebral palsy and multi-disability.

Over 3 lakh disabled children studying in 64000schools have been covered. 5500 SpecialEducation Teachers have been engaged forthese children.

Access to Early Childhood Care andEducation (ECCE)

While ECCE is important for all children, earlyintervention is very critical for children withdisabilities both for diagnosis, early identificationand interventions as well as readiness forinclusion in mainstream programmes. This isparticularly important to note, since manydisabilities e.g. intellectual, physical, multipleand speech impairments have the highest onsetduring childhood and early childhood careparticularly health services are critical for



Box 7: Inclusion in ECCE –An Exemplar

The National Resource Centre of India (NRCI,Mumbai) carried out a project in Early ChildhoodIntervention in the slums of Dharavi, by focusingon inclusion of most disadvantaged children likechildren with disabilities, girls and poor children.The project worked towards capacity building ofthe Anganwadi workers and communitymembers including parents, health officials andMunicipal corporation members. The projectdemonstrated learning and developmentalprogress for all children, including children withdisabilities.

children with disabilities and their long-termprognosis. The immunization programme inIndia affects morbidity, mortality as well asdisability. The role of pre-school education inthe age group three to six then takes ontremendous importance, particularly becauseof the criticality of intervention in the early yearsfor children with disabilities.

School Education for Children withDisabilities

Learning from DPEP, SSA has adopted a morepragmatic approach to implementing theprogramme of inclusive education. SSAframework clearly states, “the thrust of SSA willbe on providing integrated and inclusiveeducation to all children with special needs ingeneral schools. It will also support a wide rangeof approaches, options and strategies foreducation of children with special needs. Thisincludes education through open learningsystem and open schools, non formal andalternative schooling, distance education andlearning, special schools, wherever necessary,home based education, itinerant teacher model,remedial teaching, par t time classes,community based rehabilitations (CBR) andvocational education and cooperativeprogrammes.”

These practices and innovations in SSA areleading to a gradual increased identification ofChildren With Special Needs (CWSN). Ascompared to 14.59 lakh CWSN identified in2003-04, 30.38 lakh CWSN were identified in2006-07. Similarly, the enrollment of childrenwith disabilies/ CWSN in 2006-07 has gone upto 19.97 lakh, as compared to 11.71 lakh in2003-04(SSA,2007).The current coverage ofchildren with disabilities is 21.86 lakh(71.99%),thus leaving approximately 30% of the

identified children with disabilities out of theeducation ambit.

DISE Report 2006 estimated that in 2005-06about 1.40 million disabled children wereenrolled in elementary schools across thecountry, of which 1.02 million were in lowerprimary and 0.38 million were in upper primaryclasses. This is estimated to account for oneper cent of the total enrollment in elementaryschools. Not surprisingly, the enrolment ratiowas the highest amongst children withlocomotor disability and the lowest among thosewith mental retardation, and also, higher amongthe boys than amongst the girls.

The share of girls with disability to total suchenrolment in primary and upper primary classesin 2005 was 40.52 and 40.69 per centrespectively compared to 41.49 and 39.21 percent in 2004. The Gender Parity Indexcalculated irrespective of the level in case ofdisabled children works out to be much lowerthan the same in case of overall enrolment. TheGPI was as low as 0.68 in primary, 0.71 in upper



Box 8: Inclusion under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

Under the SSA, different service delivery options have been developed apart from mainstreamingin regular schools e.g. Non-formal schools as well as home-based programmes for children withsevere to profound disabilities. So far in SSA, 1.70 million children with disabilities have beenenrolled in regular schools (MHRD, 2007). States like A.P., Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab,Rajasthan and U.P. have conducted residential bridge courses for children with disabilities withthe main objective of preparing them for formal schools, thereby endeavouring better qualityinclusion for them. Whereas Rajasthan is conducting these bridge courses entirely through NGOs,U.P is conducting them through the resource teachers especially recruited by the District SSASocieties for this purpose. Andhra Pradesh has adopted a mixed model, with some districtsconducting these courses through NGOs and others through the District SSA Societies. Besidesthis AIE model, 11 States are also covering children with disabilities through the EducationGuarantee Scheme. So far in SSA, 112033 children with disabilities are being covered throughAIE/EGS in 17 States. Another practice adopted by SSA States (21 States so far) is that of thehome-based education for children with severe-profound disabilities with the objective of eitherpreparing CWSN for schools or for life by imparting to them basic living skills. Again States haveadopted different ways to provide home-based support to CWSN. States like Himachal Pradeshand Uttarakhand are using NGOs for this purpose, whereas States like Haryana and Kerala haveappointed resource teachers who visit the homes of CWSN to provide them basic functional skills.Still other States like Tamil- Nadu are using special schools as resource centres to provide short-time or part-time help to individual children with special needs and their parents. Through home-based education, SSA has been able to cover 77140 children with disabilities. A notable feature ofthis programme has been an increased and a sustainable school-community linkage by activelyinvolving parents in the educational process of their wards.

Source: Based on the Report of the National Workshop on Inclusive Education in SSA, Confluence,Pp21-34,Vol.4, January 2008

Table 9: Enrolment by Type of Disability (%)

Disability in Grades

I-V VI-VIII I-VIII

Seeing 15.39 24.78 17.95

Hearing 9.11 12.14 9.94

Speech 13.82 11.71 13.24

Moving 34.85 38.08 35.73

Mentally Retarded 18.44 6.25 15.12

Others 8.39 7.04 8.02

% to Total Enrolment 0.86 1.01 0.90

Source: DISE, 2006Enrolment by Type of Disability (%)



Table 10: Educational Achievement of Children with Disabilities by Severity

Indicator Severe Disability Moderate Disability Mild Disability

Attend School 25.7% 56.3% 67.9%

Illiterate 72.2% 42.6% 34.9%

Primary or less 26.4% 52.0% 58.2%

Middle School 1.5% 5.3% 6.8%

Secondary 0.0% 0.1% 0.0%

Higher 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Source: NSS 58th Round, 2002

primary and 0.69 at the elementary level in2005-06. This has definitely improved over theyears; but the trend is more favourable in urbanareas.

Educational Achievement and Transition

The National Sample Survey 2002 revealed thateven amongst those with mild disabilities, 6.8%of the sample completed middle school, 0.1%in the moderate category had completedsecondary schooling and none accessed highereducation. In short, very few children withdisabilities, in spite of the mild disability are ableto go beyond primary school.

Overcoming Inequities for Childrenwith Disabilities

It is evident that inability to ensure that childrenwith disabilities receive effective educationalservices results in their exclusion from thelabour market and other forms ofmarginalization and dependency. The net resultis that individuals with disabilities and theirfamilies live in poverty, and in many cases, themost profound levels of poverty. Since there

exist so many inter-state and intra-statedisparities it is important to plan keeping in minddisparities in the availability of services andquality of education as one move from richer topoorer districts, from urban to rural areas andfrom well resourced to remote distantgeographic locations of the country.

As a first step, the inequitable service provisionbetween urban and rural areas needs to beaddressed. More than 70% of the populationwith disabilities lives in rural areas; however, theconcentration of resource support continues tobe concentrated in metropolitan cities. Todayspecial schools have a very important role toplay in terms of providing technical resourcesupport to mainstream schools – however, the3,000 special schools are in cities andfurthermore are dealing with a single disability,with the result that all children even within theselocations may not get adequate resourcesupport. The resulting access to servicesprovided for the privileged and urban few failsall moral and equity tests. Instead the focus mustshift to the provision of educational services toall children with disabilities – urban and rural,



Figure 24: Disabled Persons Education Status

Source: NSS Rounds 47th and 58th in 1991 and 2002

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

Not Reported

Graduation & above

Higher-Secondary

Secondary

Middle

Primary

Non-literate

Rural Urban Rural Urban

2002 1991

year

Figure 25: Disabled Persons Social Composition (Percentage)

Source: NSS Rounds 47th and 58th in 1991 and 2002

100

80

60

40

20

0Rural Urban Rural Urban

2002 1991

Others

Castes

Scheduled

Scheduled Tribes



for the underprivileged as well as the privileged,the girl child and the child with disabilitybelonging to a socially disadvantaged socialgroup (SC &ST).

Even within the disability population, inequitypersists since children with mild disabilities farebest and those with physical impairments areperceived as ‘least difficult’ to include. Thehierarchical model of merit deeply entrenchedwithin the education system, slowly pushes outchildren with intellectual impairments and asseen earlier those with multiple disabilities findit difficult to even get admission in schools.

The lucky few children with disabilities who getaccess to schooling face exclusion withinschools. Increasing equity for all childrenrequires pedagogies that respond to the socialconstruction of difference in the school system,and also in society at large (issues of race,class, gender, sexual orientation, age, andability). It is vital that we help overcomeattitudinal barriers and any misconceptions ofpeers, parents, school personnel and teachersvis-a-vis children with disabilities. As morechildren with disabilities will access earlychildhood education services, many of theseprejudices may be overcome by peers sincechildren at a younger age are more acceptingof differences. However, it is the adults who willneed to be sensitized to respecting each childwith disability and seeking his/her strengths andbuilding on them.

It is important to ensure accessibility not onlyto the physical infrastructure, but moreimportantly to the curriculum through requiredaids, adaptations and accommodations in theteaching learning process. Schools across thecountry still have much to be desired to makethem physically accessible. Buildings must bemade accessible for those in wheelchairs, and

it must be recognized that building ramps,accessible washrooms, wide doorways, tactilesignage and so on is just the beginning. Theprovision of personal support from an assistantalso needs to be available if the school is to beable to accommodate students with multiple andsevere disabilities. The choice of subjects isoften limited due to non-availability of accessiblelaboratories etc. Most schools are not equippedor staffed to meet these needs and achievingthe goals of EFA, and thus of inclusion ofchildren with disabilities will be difficult until theyare met. Only 18 per cent of SSA schoolsnationally were considered accessible in 2005,and the share is as low as 2 and 6 per cent inJammu & Kashmir and Bihar respectively. Nordoes the accessible share follow predictablepatterns, with generally good performers likeKarnataka and well-off states like Punjab withless than 8 percent of schools accessible. Atthe same time, recent efforts have resulted inthe figure for 2007 rising to around 47 per centaccessible schools (MHRD, 2007).

The key question is whether accessible schoolstake into account the principles of UniversalDesign or whether it is limited to constructionof ramps on the entrance of the school, with nothought given to access to classes on the firstfloor or the design of the laboratories,playground etc. An example of universal designis doors with sensors that make themautomatically open for individuals walking withpackages, those using wheelchairs, the elderlywho experience weakness, teachers carryingbooks and workers using carts to deliverproducts. Universal design puts high value bothon diversity and inclusiveness.

In addition, as mentioned earlier, in order toprovide an equitable education for students withdisabilities, it is imperative not only to make



schools barrier-free, but also to provide thenecessary suppor ts to students withineducational settings. In terms of learning,universal design means the design ofinstructional materials and activities that makelearning goals achievable by individuals withwide differences in their abilities to see, hear,speak, move, read, write, understand, attend,organize, engage and remember. Universaldesign for learning is achieved by means offlexible curricular materials and activities thatprovide alternatives for students with differingabilities. These alternatives are built into theinstructional design and operating systems ofeducational material—they are not added onafterwards as an after thought. Just as after-the-fact architectural accommodations are oftenawkward and expensive, after-the-factcurriculum adaptations can be time consumingto design and difficult to implement inclassrooms of diverse learners. A more efficientway to provide student access is to considerthe range of user abilities at the design stageof the curriculum and incorporateaccommodations at that point. This “built-in”access for a wide range of users, those withand without disabilities, is the underlyingprinciple in universal design. This has wideimplications for NCERT, NCTE and otherteacher training institutes in the country.

Teachers

Today, the key to the implementation of inclusiveeducation is the underlying philosophy thatstudents remain in the regular education settingavailing support in and out of that setting asdictated by the needs of the student. Veryimportant to provide along with aids andappliances are interventions in the form ofassistive technology which ensures that thestudent with disabilities can benefit frommeaningful participation in activities. Students

can utilize computers to do assignments, touchscreens to complete worksheets, andcommunication devices to share their thoughtsand feelings.

This not only necessitates that teachers inregular schools must be trained to deal withlearning needs of students with disabilities, butalso highlights the importance of hiring resourceteachers in schools. According to MHRD (2007),the number of resource teachers in SSA is about6,678 which is rather small and majority of theseteachers have been trained through distanceteaching courses in special education, whichmay not equip them sufficiently.

The Rehabilitation Council of India currentlyruns 56 long term and short-term courses for16 categories of professionals run by variousUniversities/ Institutions. 1176 professionals and1791 personnel have been registered in theCentral Rehabilitation Register taking the totalnumber of registered professionals andpersonnel to 30,935 (MSJE, 2007). Theseefforts need to be further supported.

The general education teachers fear thediversity amongst learners in their classrooms.They feel that they do not have the expertisenecessary to adapt to a range of learning stylesand rates. The attitudes and fears of regulareducation teachers are partly a result of theirtraining. Universities need to be pursued forinstilling the values of inclusionary education infuture preparation programmes. There are lotsof expectations from the strategies currentlybeing worked out towards this end.

Management of Provisions forPersons with Disabilities

Issues in education are closely related to otherempowering processes for children and persons



with disabilities. Ever since the last ten yearsthere has been a gradual shift from a welfare-based approach for the disabled to a rights-based approach. The enabling legislations suchas Persons with Disabilities (EqualOpportunities, Protection of Rights & FullParticipation) Act, 1995 (PWD Act 1995) covera wide range of activities, which includeissuance of disability certificates and preventionand early detection of disabilities; promoting theintegration of disabled students in mainstreamschools and removal of architectural barriersfrom schools, colleges and universities;providing incentives to private sector employersto ensure that persons with disabilities constituteat least 5% of their workforce; and framing ascheme for payment of an unemploymentallowance to those disabled people who havebeen registered with a Special EmploymentExchange for over two years but could not beplaced in any gainful employment (6.174 of TheEleventh Plan, p130, Vol. I, 2008).

It was, however, recognized during Tenth Planitself that that the Ministry of Social Justice andEmpowerment, being the nodal Ministry, shouldplay a lead role in ensuring the objectives ofthe PWD Act,1995. The concerned Ministries/Departments were expected to formulatedetailed rules and guidelines for 852government-run and 105 privately run IndustrialTraining Institutes (ITIs) to provide 3%reservation in seats for persons with disabilities.The SGSY, Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY), NationalRural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)and Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana(SGRY) provide for 3% reservation/benefits todisabled people. The National Handicapped andFinance Development Corporation provideloans on concessional terms to self-employedpersons with disabilities.

Aids and appliances are provided to thedisabled under the Scheme of Assistance toDisabled Persons for Purchase/Fitting of Aids/Appliances (ADIP). To enhance the economicpotential of disabled people, by the end of theTenth Plan, 128 District Disability Centres havebeen made operational. The National Trust forWelfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy,Mental Retardation and Multiple Disability has,so far, registered 731 NGOs. Under the schemeto promote voluntary action for persons withdisabilities during 2005–2006, 1533 voluntaryorganizations were supported financially forproviding services to 1.8 lakh disabled persons.The government has been encouragingeducation among persons with disabilities. Fivehundred scholarships were provided every yearduring the Tenth Plan for higher and professionalcourses. The Ministry of Health and FamilyWelfare has initiated a number of programmesfor the prevention and reduction of the incidenceof various disabilities.

In the Eleventh Plan, a firm four-prongedapproach has been indicated to: (i) delineateclear-cut responsibilities between theconcerned ministr ies/depar tments; (ii)concerned ministries/departments to formulatedetailed rules and guidelines within six monthsof approval of the Eleventh Plan; (iii) ensure thateach concerned ministry/department shallreserve not less than 3% of their annual outlayfor the benefit of disabled persons as enjoinedin the Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995; (iv)set up monitoring mechanisms at various levelsand develop a review system so that its progresscan be monitored on a regular and continuingbasis.

Recognizing that some women suffer greaterdeprivation and discrimination than others, theEleventh Plan plans to refine the norms of



Box 9: India’s Commitment under UNCRPD

India being a signatory of United NationsCharter for Persons with Disabilities(UNCRPD), it is now obligatory to incorporatethe essence of the convention in planning,implementation, monitoring and reviewprocesses. The eight basic principles of theConvention are: (i) respect for inherentdignity, individual autonomy including thefreedom to make one’s own choices, andindependence of persons with disabilities; (ii)non-discrimination; (iii) full and effectiveparticipation and inclusion in society; (iv)respect for difference and acceptance ofdisabled people as part of human diversityand humanity; (v) equality of opportunity; (vi)accessibility; (vii) equality between men andwomen; and (viii) respect for the evolvingcapacities of children with disabilities andrespect for their right to preserve theiridentities. There is an urgent need to reviewall the four disability legislations and to amendthem suitably to bring them in consonancewith UNCRPD.

women and child programmes to prioritize themost vulnerable as beneficiaries, particularlySC, ST women, Muslim women, single women,differently abled, and HIV-positive women,among others (P200, Vol. II, GOI, 2008). Thespecific concerns of women with disabilitieshave to be adequately reflected in the planningprocess. The Eleventh Plan sensitizationprogrammes of government departments,police, and health care personnel will includesensitization to the needs of women withdisabilities. Laws will be strictly enforced incases of discrimination (P197 Vol. II, GOI, 2008).

Chapter XII of the Persons with Disabilities Act,1995 mandates the appointment of a ChiefCommissioner for Persons with Disabilities(CCPD) at the Central level and Commissionersat the State level to look into complaints ofdeprivation of rights of persons with disabilitiesand non-implementation of laws, rules,regulations and executive orders. The CCPD isalso expected to coordinate the work of theCommissioners and monitor the utilization offunds.

To ensure adequate financial support to effortsto suppor t the disabled, the Tenth Planadvocated the introduction of a ‘ComponentPlan for the Disabled’ in the budget of variousMinistries/Departments.

The Eleventh Plan endeavours to createawareness about ADIP and other suchschemes. This is one scheme which must beuniversalized. Any disabled person should beable to approach the district magistrate andderive benefit from her/him. The income ceilingfor availing assistance is to be raised to Rs10000 per month. Moreover, the income ceilingfor purchase/ fitting of aids and appliancesshould also be enhanced to Rs 25000 per

month. For manufacturing these aids andappliances, there is need to enhance theproduction capacity and ALIMCO should not bea monopoly supplier. The approach should beto provide the best possible assistive devicesby encouraging multiple manufacturers, andeven through imports. The Eleventh Plan shallallocate adequate funds for strengthening ADIP.

The Eleventh Plan shall support vigorousimplementation of the Comprehensive ActionPlan for the Inclusive Education of Children andYouth with Disabilities, as announced by theHRD Minister in 2005. A commitment has beengiven in Parliament that education would be



made disabled fr iendly by 2020. If thiscommitment is to be fulfilled, certain urgentsteps are necessary, including the setting up ofdisability units in the University GrantsCommission (UGC), All India Council forTechnical Education (AICTE), National Councilof Educational Research and Training (NCERT),Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS), and allother apex education bodies. The scholarshipsprovided by the Central Government andstipends for pre-matric education, mostlyprovided by the States, should be madeequivalent to similar scholarships and stipendsgiven to students belonging to SCs and STs(GOI, Vol. I, Pp132-133, 2008).

It is important to recognize that education of

children with disabilities was initiated andundertaken primarily by NGO’s in India, wholargely catered to a specific disability group. Atotal of 687 NGOs are involved in the IEprogramme in 28 States. The service provisionwas largely provided in segregated settingswithin special schools – in isolation from thelarger education system. With the educationsystem increasingly taking charge of the child,the role of the NGOs is changing. Undoubtedly,there are a number of NGOs who are doingcommendable work at providing service deliveryto meet the varied needs of children withdisabilities, but in light of the fact that majorityof children with disabilities are attending regularschools, it is vital to plan innovatively.

��


Major Challenges and Way ForwardSection 7

Today, the education system in India as awhole has achieved much but there are also

many issues of concern. These pertain toaccess, equity, quality and relevance,resources, and planning and management ofeducational programmes. All of these are onthe agenda of the government and civil societyis also getting more conscious about its pro-active role.

Expenditure on education has shown acontinuous upward trend since independence.This trend registered a sharp increase aftereducation was brought in the Concurrent list ofthe Constitution of India, and more particularlyafter the adoption of the National Policy onEducation (1986) when a number of newinitiatives were taken by the CentralGovernment through a number of centrallysponsored schemes. The expenditure oneducation by the Centre and States, as apercentage of Gross National Product,increased steadily from 0.64% in 1951-52 to anall-time high of 4.3% in 2000-01. However, thesame level of allocation could not be maintainedduring 2004-05, which depicted a decline to3.68%. It is far short of the 6% target mentionedin the National Policy on Education. The trendof the public expenditure on higher educationindicates that during 1990-91 and 2005-06, thepublic expenditure in elementary education hasgone up by six times. The public expenditureon secondary, higher and technical educationhas increased by five times. The size of the total

Section 7

Major Challenges and Way Forward

public expenditure on education in India in 2005-06 (Budgeted) is Rs. 9623100 millions (Rs.962.31 billion) (GOI, 2007).

The sectoral allocation of public expenditure oneducation for all these years on elementary,secondary, higher (general) and technicaleducation remained at around 50, 30, 12 and 4percentage points respectively (Figure-26).

Universalisation of elementary education hasalready set the stage for an exponential growthof demand for secondary education. The fullimpact of SSA is likely to be reflected duringthe terminal years of the Eleventh Five YearPlan. If the goal of universal retention at theelementary level is achieved by 2010, steps willhave to be taken to expand facilities forsecondary education in a big way. At thesecondary level, though there has beensubstantial progress in the growth of institutions,infrastructure facilities, participation and numberof teachers, it still suffers from lack of access,low participation and equity on account ofinadequate availability of secondary schools inmany backward states/locations and insufficientfacilities of open and distance learning. To meetthe above challenges, the Government of Indiais in the process of launching a comprehensivecentrally-assisted programme called “Schemefor Universal Access and Quality at theSecondary Stage (SUCCESS)” which aims atmaking good quality secondary educationavailable, accessible and affordable to all young



Table 11: Sector-wise Plan and Non-Plan Budgeted Expenditure for EducationDepartments of States and Centre (Revenue Account)

Figure Rs. in 10 million

Year Elementary Secondary Higher Technical Total

1990-91 9119 6111 2165 613 19028

1995-96 15218 10344 3871 1290 31517

1996-97 17850 11736 4288 1450 36372

1997-98 20392 13262 4859 1623 41109

1998-99 25150 16782 6117 2073 51225

1999-00 27905 20845 8248 2459 61281

2000-01 29758 19743 9195 2528 62498

2001-02 32493 20431 8087 2560 64847

2002-03 33474 22049 8859 2820 68561

2003-04 36366 23350 9060 2833 73045

2004-05(R) 44083 25818 9998 3275 85687

2005-06(B) 50952 27709 10689 3720 96231

Source: Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education, various yearsin GOI, 2007

persons, irrespective of gender, socio-economic, disability and other barriers (Box-8).

Governance issues are important and move istowards decentralization. India is a vast country,with multiple cultures, languages and religions,and a wide variety of inter- and intra-statedisparities. These diversities and regionaldisparities pose different sets of challenges foreducational planning and management. Takingcognizance of these features, India has steadilyshifted from a centralized planning mode ofeducation to decentralized education planningand management. The Panchayati RajInstitutions (Local Sub-Statal bodies) are beingstrengthened to involve them at the grassroots

level in the process of decision-making andimplementation of various schemes. The DistrictLiteracy Societies (Zila Saksharata Samitis)would continue to oversee and run literacyprogrammes with freedom to synergise theirstrengths with those of local youth clubs, mahilamandals, voluntary agencies, Panchayati RajInstitutions, small scale industries, cooperativesocieties etc. The movement towards planningat block, cluster and village levels, in partnershipwith NGOs, is encouraged and supported.Representation of all the marginalized groupsin decision making and implementingprogrammes is promoted through variousinstruments such as steps taken for constitution



Figure 26: Sectoral Allocation of Public Expenditure on Education byLevels of Education in India

Source: Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education, various years.

Per

cent

age

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1990

-91

1995

-96

1996

-97

1998

-99

1997

-98

1999

-00

2000

-01

2001

-02

2002

-03

2003

-04

2004

-05

(R)

2005

-06

(D)

47.9

232

.11

11.3

83.

22

48.2

9

32.8

212

.24.

09

49.0

832

.27

11.7

03.

99

49.6

0

32.2

611

.02

3.95

49.1

0

32.7

611

.94

4.05

45.5

4

34.0

213

.46

4.01

47.6

131

.59

14.7

14.

04

50.1

1

31.5

112

.47

3.95

48.8

232

.16

12.9

24.

11

49.7

931

.97

12.4

03.

88

51.4

5

30.1

011

.67

3.82

52.9

528

.79

11.1

13.

87

Elementary Secondary Higher Technical

Box 10: Objectives of Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)for the 11th Five Year Plan

� To achieve a GER of 75% for classes IX-X by the end of 11th Plan by providing a secondaryschool within a reasonable distance of every habitation

� To improve quality of education imparted at secondary level through making all secondaryschools conform to prescribed norms

� To remove gender, socio-economic and disability barriers

� Universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i.e., by the end of 12th Five YearPlan.

� Universal retention by 2020.

Source: Annual Report, 2006-07, MHRD, Government of India



Box 11: Renewal of Curriculum,Syllabus and Textbooks

”The National Curriculum Framework (NCF),2005 has been developed by NCERT throughextensive dialogues. NCF-2005 addresses theissues relating to curriculum load and qualityof education. The Guiding Principles of NCF-2005 are:

� Connecting knowledge to life outsidethe school.

� Ensuring the learning shifts away fromrote methods.

� Enriching the curriculum to provide foroverall development of children ratherthat remain textbook centric.

� Making Examination more flexible andintegrated into classroom life.

The syllabi and textbooks for Classes I to XIIhave also been revised by NCERT andintroduced in phased manner. In the light ofNCF-2005, technical and financial support isbeing provided to States to facilitate renewalof their curriculum and textbooks. NCERT alsoconstituted 21 National Focus Groups in the21 significant areas of national concerns toproduce research based position papers,providing a comprehensive review of existingknowledge, representing an awareness of thefield reality, specially in rural schools. Reportsof Focus Groups were used in preparation ofNCF-2005 and syllabi and textbooks.”

Source: Annual Report, 2006-07, MHRD,Government of India

of Village Education Committees and powersnow shifted to PRIS for education.

Quality of schooling and achievement isrecognized as a significant influence not onlyon the enrolment and retention of children inthe school but also on the possibilities of furthereducation for increased productivity, as also inthe exercise of citizenship r ights andresponsibilities. The tasks of qualityimprovement is to be pursued throughqualitative improvement in the content andprocess of education, reorientation andstrengthening of teachers, provision ofappropriate infrastructural facilities, focusing onstrengthening the institutional managementprocesses, and establishing a reliable systemof learner assessment. Efforts will be made tostrengthen the internal management of schoolsand to improve the quality of the teaching-learning process.

Quality improvement is one of the mostimportant components under SSA. To ensureuseful, relevant, and quality education, SSAprovides support for teacher recruitment andtraining, curriculum/ textbook renewal,development and distribution of teaching-learning materials, annual school grants, pupilassessment systems, remedial teaching,computer-aided learning, establishment ofdecentralized academic resource supportcentres, distance education, monitoring andresearch activities related to quality issues (Box-11).

A continuous and comprehensive monitoringand supervision system under SSA has beendeveloped by the NCERT in collaboration withacademic bodies across the country, in the formof Quality Monitoring Tools. The monitoring toolsinclude analytical formats for the cluster, blockand district levels, monitoring the primary role

of BRC/CRC as academic resource support andquality improvement institutions under SSA. Allthe States and 2 UTs have already trained theirpersonnel for operationalsing the toolseffectively. The tools cover monitoring feedback



on children’s attendance, community supportand supervision of schools, teacher availabilityand teacher preparation availability and use ofteaching- learning mater ials, classroompractices and processes used, learnerachievements, monitoring and supervision byBRCs/CRCs.

Implementation of this monitoring exercise hashelped the States extensively in identifying theissues which they need to focus upon in orderto improve quality in elementary educationunder SSA (Box-12). The States have been ableto recognize their own bottlenecks, problems inplanning and implementation. There are manyStates, which could relate poor learnerachievement in select subjects with problemsin classroom transaction. This is helping the

Box 12: Educational Development Index

The National University of Educational Planning & Administration (NUEPA) has developed anEducational Development Index (EDI) to track progress of the States towards Universal ElementaryEducation (UEE), for primary and upper primary levels as well as for a composite look at elementaryeducation. The EDI ranking will encourage the States to improve their performance and have acloser look at both the inputs and the outputs of the parameters that effect elementary education. Itis expected that the EDI will also enable more effective targeting of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)to the most backward districts.

The EDI has been developed keeping in mind four broad parameters of access, infrastructure,teacher-related indicators and outcomes. The index takes into account 22 variables for calculatingEDI. These variables are: for Access- Percentage of Habitation not served, Availability of Schoolsper 1000 Population; Infrastructure- Average Student-Classroom Ratio, School with Student-Classroom Ratio Greater>60, School without Drinking Water Facilities, School with Boys Toilet,School with Girls Toilet; Teachers- Percentage of Female Teachers, Pupil-Teacher Ratio, Schoolwith Pupil-Teacher Ratio>60, Single-Teacher Schools, Schools with 3 or Less Teachers, Teacherswithout Professional Qualification; Outcomes- Gross Enrolment Ratio– Overall, Scheduled Castes,Scheduled Tribes, Gender Parity Index in Enrolment, Repetition Rate, Dropout Rate, Ratio of ExitClass over Class 1 Enrolment (Primary stage only), Percentage of Passed Children to TotalEnrolment, Percentage of Appeared Children Passing with 60 percent and above Marks.


States to plan in a focussed manner andimprove their training and teacher functioning.This exercise has empowered the States tofocus on quality dimension as per their specificneeds and requirements. NCERT is noworganizing Level II workshops to help the Statesin analysis and to draw better learning from thecollected information and data.

At the secondary level, the major factorsaffecting quality are inadequate teachers andphysical facilities in existing schools, largevariations in terms of avoidable facilities indifferent kinds of schools; inadequate relevanceof curriculum, out-dated instructional methodsand poor quality of teaching-learning, resultingin low attainment levels of students etc. Thegovernment recognizes the need to make



available secondary education of good qualityand accessible and affordable to all youngpersons. It is working towards achieving thisobjective with the proposed scheme ofSUCCESS.

The process of review and renewal of the newNational Curriculum Framework for SchoolEducation 2006 (NCFSE) has been initiatedfollowing the approval of National CurriculumFramework (NCF-2005). The government iscommitted to match the curricula with the ideaof India, as enshrined in its Constitution. It wouldprovide an indication of the national consensusabout the directions and objectives in which theIndian Educational System needs to move inthe next decade. Considering the prevailingdiversity and the federal character of our nation,serious involvement of all the States and UTsin translating NCF-2005 ideas into realitybecomes imperative. In addition to the academicand technical support, financial support of Rs.1 million to each State & UT will be provided sothat they undertake systematic review of syllabiand textbooks keeping in view States’/UTs’specific needs.

At the higher education level, issues of qualityand excellence of higher education should begiven more importance. Quality and excellenceare the watch-words in today’s liberalizedenvironment. Making higher education globallycompetitive, therefore, needs higher priority. Thefocus is now on enhancing the quality ofeducational institutions in general with a focuson Faculty Development; InfrastructureDevelopment; Curriculum Development; Use ofTechnologies; Data-Base Management;Development of Intra-Lingual Facilities; andSpecial Scheme for Person with DifferentAbilities. With a view to ensuring quality in highereducation, the assessment and accreditation by

the National Assessment and AccreditationCouncil (NAAC), an autonomous organizationunder the University Grants Commission(UGC), has been made obligatory for alluniversities and colleges.

Disparity in enrolment and retention of girls insecondary schools is a matter of concern.Whereas attempts have already been madeunder Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan to improve thegender parity ratio at the elementary level, thereis a need to bridge the gender gap at thesecondary stage also. Realizing the need foran incentive scheme to overcome the obstaclesinhibiting girls’ access to, and retention in,secondary school, the Finance Minister in hisbudget speech for the year 2006-07 states,” Ipropose to provide a further incentive to the girlchild who passes the VIII Standard Examinationand enrolls in a secondary school. A sum ofRs. 3000 will be deposited in her name, andshe would be entitled to withdraw it on reaching18 years of age” (para 38). Later, it was alsoproposed by the Finance Minister to commencea merit-cum-means scholarship scheme atsecondary level w.e.f. 2007-08.

At the higher education level, the Eleventh FiveYear Plan proposes to have more women asEngineers, Lawyers, Professors and Architectsby following the strategies of:

� Provision of more fellowships for womenstudents, hostel facilities and creation ofmore infrastructure by the universities, tobring more women students in the realmof higher education; and

� Imparting of good training in fields likespecial education by the institutions,which may not be conventional academicin nature, may be looked at with differentperspective.



Inclusive Education is the underlying approachunder Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. The Focus is toensure that every child with special needs,irrespective of the kind, category and degreeof disability, is provided education in anappropriate environment. The interventions forinclusive education include early detection andidentification, functional and formal assessment,appropriate educational placement, preparationof individualised educational plan, provision ofaids and appliances, teacher training, resourcesupport, removal of architectural barriers,monitoring and evaluation, and a special focuson girls. A zero rejection policy has beenadopted under SSA, which ensures that everyChild with Special Needs (CWSN), irrespectiveof the kind, category and degree of disability, isprovided meaningful and quality education. AComprehensive Action Plan for InclusiveEducation for Children and Youth with SpecialNeeds has been formulated translating thisstatement into specific points of activity in eachof the identified sectors of pre-school,elementary, secondary and higher education.The Action Plan has been circulated to

Ministr ies/ Depar tments/ Organisationsconcerned with implementation and necessaryfeedback. The Government of India has initiatedsteps to launch a new scheme called ‘InclusiveEducation for the Disabled at Secondary Stage(IEDSS).

Enhanced participation of NGOs is beingpromoted by the government at all levels in thesocial sector with a view to achievingparticipatory development and complimentingthe government efforts to eliminate child labourand contain the number of out of school children.This approach is being followed by enhancingthe role of NGOs in the educationaldevelopment programme as well. Their role andcontribution in promoting self-help groups,creating awareness, raising red-alerts is vitalfor good governance at the grassroot level.Slowly, civil society is emerging as a critical asalso a complimentary force ( Box-13).

Partnership between Public and Private Sectorhas the potential for complementing the effortsof the government in achieving the goals ofeducation in the country. Policies are being

Box 13: Bhonga Shala…..Bringing the Schools to the Children

Bhonga Shala is an innovation to provide education to children from brick kilns in Thane district ofMaharashtra. In Marathi ‘Bhonga’ means temporary hut and ‘Shala’ is school. So Bhonga Shala isa ‘school run in a temporary hut.’ Vidhyayak Sansad, a local NGO started five Bhonga Shalas in1995 in two blocks of the district. Today, with support from SSA, Maharashtra, there are as many as250 such centres in 7 blocks of Thane district. These are catering to the educational needs of morethan 5000 children from the brick kilns. Bhonga Shalas ensure that education of the childrencontinues, and is not hampered due to migration. For the entire brick kiln season (December toMay), primary level (Standard I-IV) education is provided at the brick kiln site through these centres.The syllabus covered is the same as the mainstream schools, but taught in a non-formal, openatmosphere, using songs, dance and playway activities.




framed and strategies being developed so thatthe public and private sector can mutuallybenefit and play a complementary role ratherthan a competitive one. The private sector cancontribute not only in monetary terms but alsoin terms of expertise for quality improvementthrough effective management of systems anddevelopment of locally relevant teaching-learning material.

Promotion of Alternative Delivery Systemsbeyond the rigid formal framework in a flexibleand adaptive fashion is vital to serve all as perneed, aspirations and contexts. Part-timeformal, or non-formal education, seasonallearning centers for children of migrant labour,voluntary schools by NGOs, post-primary open-

learning, camp approach for adolescent girls,etc, will all have to be systematically promoted.The governments have already revised the non-formal education programme. The newprogrammes called Education GuaranteeScheme (EGS) and Alternative and InnovativeEducation (AIE) are being implemented withmore vigour (Box-14).

In higher education sector, efforts are beingmade to make Open Universities more attractiveand relevant, to ensure quality of study material,timely dispatch, dedicated teachers at the studycentre, provision of necessary infrastructure,use of ICT, etc. There are already 12 openschools and 13 universities offering distanceeducation. EDUSAT launched on 20 September

Box 14: AIE Interventions – Some Examples

� Hard to reach children centres (Assam)

� Residential Bridge Course for Domestic Child Workers and Boat Schools for fishermencommunity (Andhra Pradesh)

� Learning Centres and Residential Bridge Courses for street and working children (Delhi)

� Residential Camps for Older Children (Gujarat)vSpecial Schools for Migrating Community(Jammu & Kashmir)

� Flexi-schools, Tent Schools, Mobile Schools & Sandhya Kalika (Karnataka)

� Mobile Schools & Shiksha Ghar for Migrating Children & Human Development Centre forUrban Deprived Children (Madhya Pradesh)

� Seasonal Schools and Residential Camps for Migrating Children (Maharashtra)

� Seasonal Hostels for Migrating Children (Orissa)

� Drop in Centres and Special Residential Camps for older children (Tamil Nadu)

� Residential Bridge Courses (Uttar Pradesh)

� Multigrade Learning Centres for children in forest areas (Kerala)




Box 15: Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh (PSK)

� A two per cent Education Cess was levied on all major central taxes through the Finance(No.2) Act, 2004, to help finance the Government’s commitment to “quality basic education’.Education Cess is being increased to 3 per cent since 2007-08 to cover secondary andhigher education.

� In order to receive the proceeds of this Education Cess, this Ministry has created a dedicated,non-lapsable fund called Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh (PSK) and would be spent exclusivelyon SSA and Mid-Day-Meal Scheme.

� A provision of Rs 8746 crores for the initial transfer to the newly created PSK has beenmade in the Union Budget 2006-07 against estimated receipts of Education Cess. Duringthe year 2006-07, the Schemes of SSA is to be financed from PSK for about Rs 58310millions and MDM for about Rs 29150 millions.

2004 has opened new avenues with 72Channels now available for education. Theadvances in information and communicationtechnology, especially satellite-basedteleconferencing, have made it possible to usedistance education for training in vir tualclassrooms. It is expected that technology, withappropriately designed software and qualityinputs, will at the same time bring down thecosts and increase the efficiency of theeducational system.

Raising Resources is essential to meet thedaunting task of expansion, consolidation,equity and quality. The fast expanding enrolmentat all stages of education has necessitatedharnessing of community resources foreducational development. This is more sobecause there has been substantial decline inthe contribution from private sources, includingcost recoveries from the students. Thegovernment has recently announced that thepublic spending in education would be raisedto at least 6% of GDP with at least half of this

amount being spent on primary and secondarysectors. This will be done in a phased manner.The Government of India has introduced a cesson all central taxes to finance the commitmentto universalise access to quality basiceducation. A two percent Education Cess waslevied on all major central taxes to help financethe government’s commitment to basiceducation.

The proceeds of this Education Cess isearmarked for the non-lapsable fund calledPrarambhik Shiksha Kosh (PSK) and would bespent exclusively on SSA and Mid-Day MealScheme (Box-15).

India looks upon the future with realisticoptimism despite the challenges andcontemporary problems of globalization, ofenvironment, and emerging public healthissues, such as HIV/AIDS. It recognizes thecritical role of education in meeting thesechallenges. Accordingly, as part of the NationalCommon Minimum Programme, the country is



making concerted efforts not only to meet theEFA goals but also to improve both access andquality at all levels. Besides, the government isalso committed to improving the efficiency ofthe delivery system, a key change required totransform the youth into meaningful citizensimbibed with the principles of liberty, equality,justice, and fraternity.

It hardly needs any mention that any vibrant civilsociety would undoubtedly require that allhumans are treated equal and with dignity andthat all must be supported to the fullest possibledevelopment. Such a conviction would obviouslywarrant a wise affirmative action policy on thegrounds of social justice and equity. Here, oneneeds to know that while access could beensured in a variety of ways, it is the equality ofopportunity which is much more important than

Box 16: Accounting for Inclusion

Today, ‘inclusion’ is high on the agenda against exclusionary practices, need of the hour is to reflecton what type of monitoring do we expect in the years to come!

Inclusion as an approach

If inclusion is seen as an approach to minimize or abolish exclusion from the education programmes,then any assessment for the purpose will pervade all indicators of monitoring EFA such as ECCE,GER, NET, Attendance, Achievement etc. This would also mean that children with special needswill also be covered for planning and monitoring at par with other children of that age group. However,the very absence of information on these children not being generated either periodically or onregular basis indicates that this practice is not being followed today.

Inclusion as a goal

If inclusion is seen as a time targeted mission or goal evolving from the country’s specific agendafor EFA, then there would be a need to define the mission in observable terms within the specifictime targets. This would also generate indicators which can be monitored and assessed, initially atspecified time intervals and later on regular basis as part of inclusive approach.

Mukhopadhyay, S., p154, 2001

anything else as it requires the support of wholerange of antecedental variables commencingfrom curriculum to pedagogy, differential inputs,assessment, remediation, feedback, attitude,institutional care, etc.

Another important challenge is to look at Impactof Globalization on services especially for theDisabled. Traditionally international trade hasbeen in the goods and services. But goods andmerchandise formed the major part of bi-lateraland multi-lateral negotiations. Since theestablishment of GATT (General Agreement onTariffs and Trade) under the rounds ofnegotiations during 1986-93 Uruguay Round ofInternational Trade Negotiations led toagreement for establishment of World TradeOrganization (WTO). Trade Ministers inMarrakech, Morocco, approved its creation in



April 1994. Finally it was launched in January1995. This replaced the General Agreement onTariffs and Trade (GATT), which acted since1948 as a negotiating forum.

It is to be noted that WTO and GATS may haveimplications for persons and children withDisabilities especially as these also covereducation and health sectors. While both thesesectors in poor countries have suffered in termsof outreach and quality, the issues thrown upby turning theses into ‘trade’ would furthercomplicate the matter. Commercialization withinbuilt spirit of ‘Profit’, ‘Purchase Power’, etc. mayaffect the future of challenged person. Theservices for disabled as presently classified aremainly for facilitating development of humanresource. This would mean identifying thenature and impact of a disabling conditions(continuum of core providers e.g. parent,teachers to technical support providers such asrehabilitation workers and professionals),minimizing the impact of a disability (such asalternative to print media for VI) etc. Many ofthese are today seen as social service/publicsupport or government support activities. But itneeds to be examined that with WTO and GATScovering education and health as a broaderspectrum, what would be the impact on thesesectors.

Another significant challenge is that ofovercoming multiple discriminations. TheInformation Technology can further increasethis. Will the Trade Related Intellectual PropertyRights (TRIPS) Treaty of 1995 and WorldIntellectual Property Organization (WIPO), whobenefit the Blind persons through negotiationswith World Blind Union and IFLA Sector ofLibraries for the Blind get affected by these newrules and regulations? This is where thecountries need to analyse and see the strengths

and limitations of Globalization instruments forthe people likely to be significantly affected bysuch decisions. “We must have courage to thinkglobally, to break away from traditionalparadigms and plunge boldly into the unknown.We must so mobilize our inner resources andouter resources that we begin consciously tobuild a new world based on mutually assuredwelfare rather than mutually assureddestruction”( Karan Singh in Learning theTreasure Within, UNESCO,1996, p226)”.

The Way of the Future

India is very conscious that all its dreams fornational development will remain incompleteuntil weaker sections of the society also benefitfrom these developments. There have beenarguments in favour and against the role ofeconomic growth in poverty elevation. Forexample as early as 1997 some of themessages from the World Bank were that it isthrough rapid growth that India will be able toreduce poverty and generate resources to investin the health and education of its people – whowill in turn sustain this growth (Gaiha andKulkarni 1998). As in 2008, the Government ofIndia is committed to mainstreaming themarginalized in the process of economic growth.Education is one of the most important sectorsin the Eleventh Five Year Plan to actualize thisvision. For example, while SSA is to ensureuniversal coverage for the children ofeducationally backward sections as well as allother focus groups, “At the same time, all stateplans to access SSA funds will be reviewed toensure that minority children have equal spaceto participate in the state’s school system. AsSSA only covers children up to elementary(class VIII) level, measures will be undertakento ensure that minority children have equal



access to education up to the senior secondarylevel (Class XII). The Eleventh Plan will also lookat issues like recruitment of female teachers,provision of amenities and transport to reachschools and setting up of girls’ hostel and girls’schools (GOI, p.127, Volume I, 2008).

In this connection it is important to look at thepoverty alleviation interventions as linked witheducation. The guidelines issued under thePrime Minister’s new 15-Point Programmeacquire a very important place as part of theimplementation strategies of the Eleventh FiveYear Plan.

To quote once more from the Foreword to theEleventh Five Year Plan by the Prime Ministerof India “The higher rate of growth that we haveset out for ourselves, coupled with our thruston the growth process being inclusive, shouldensure that the struggle for the removal ofchronic poverty, ignorance, and disease willregister major gains in the Eleventh Plan, I amconfidant that the Eleventh Plan will achieve itstargets and objectives despite the challengeswe face. This would be a major step in realizingour vision of a prosperous, inclusive, happy, andcaring India where all citizens reap the benefitsof economic development and feel empowered.”

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Box 17: Prime Minister’s New 15-Point Programme for the Welfare of Minorities

(A) Enhancing Opportunities for Education

� Equitable availability of ICDS services: A certain percentage of ICDS projects andAnganwadi Centres to be located in blocks/villages with a substantial population of minoritycommunities; equitable availability of benefits to be ensured.

� Improving access to school education: A certain percentage of all schools under theSarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme, and other similargovernment schemes will be located in villages/localities having a substantial minoritypopulation.

� Greater resources for teaching Urdu: Recruitment and posting of Urdu language teachersin primary and upper primary schools.

� Modernizing Madarsa Education: Strengthening the Central Plan Scheme of Area-Intensiveand Madarsa Modernization Programme to provide basic educational infrastructure in areasof concentration of educationally backward minorities.

� Scholarships for meritorious students from minority communities: Formulation ofschemes for pre-matric and postmatric scholarships for students from minority communities.

� Improving educational infrastructure through the Maulana Azad Education Foundation(MAEF): To expand the activities of MAEF more effectively.

(B) Equitable Share in Economic Activities and Employment

� Self-employment and wage employment for the poor: A certain percentage of the physicaland financial targets under some schemes, for example, the SGSY, SJSRY, SampurnaGrameen Rozgar Yojana SGRY), will be earmarked for beneficiaries belonging to the minoritycommunities and living below the poverty line in rural areas. Simultaneously, a certainpercentage of the allocation will be earmarked for the creation of infrastructure in suchvillages which have substantial population of minorities.

� Upgradation of skills through technical training: A certain proportion of all new ITIs willbe located in areas predominantly inhabited by minority communities and a proportion ofexisting ITIs for upgradation to ‘Centres of Excellence’ will be selected on the same basis.

� Enhanced credit support for economic activities: To strengthen the National MinoritiesDevelopment and Finance Corporation (NMDFC) by providing it greater equity support toenable it to fully achieve its objectives. An appropriate percentage of the priority sectorlending in all categories to be targeted for the minority communities.

� Recruitment to State and Central services: In the recruitment of police personnel, Centraland State Governments will be advised to give special consideration to minorities. Thecomposition of selection should have Minorities’ representation. Employment opportunities



to be provided in the Railways, nationalized banks and PSEs. An exclusive scheme is to belaunched to provide coaching to minority candidates.

(C) Improving the Conditions of Living of Minorities

� Equitable share in rural housing scheme: This is sought to be achieved through theIndira Awaas Yojana (IAY) for poor beneficiaries from minority communities in rural areas.

� Improvement in condition of slums inhabited by minority communities: Ensuringprovision of physical amenities and basic services to be equitably extended under the schemesof the Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme and JNNURM to the minoritycommunities and to cities/slums with minority concentrations.

(D) Prevention and Control of Communal Riots

� Prevention of communal incidents

� Prosecution for communal offences

� Rehabilitation of victims of communal riots

GOI, Eleventh Five Year Plan ,p 125,Vol.I 2008


� Delors, J. (1996) Learning the TreasureWithin, UNESCO, Paris

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� Gaiha, R. and Kulkarni, V. (1998) IsGrowth Central to Poverty Alleviation inIndia? Journal of International Affairs,Vol.52.

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