State, Faith, and Nation in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Lands...State, Faith, and Nation in Ottoman and...

19
State, Faith, and Nation in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Lands Current standard narratives of Ottoman, Balkan, and Middle East history overemphasize the role of nationalism in the transformation of the region. Challenging these accounts, this book argues that religious affiliation was in fact the most influential shaper of communal identity in the Ottoman era, that religion molded the relationship between state and society, and that it continues to do so today in lands once occu- pied by the Ottomans. The book examines the major transformations of the past 250 years to illustrate this argument, traversing the nine- teenth century, the early decades of post-Ottoman independence, and the recent past. In this way, the book affords unusual insights not only into the historical patterns of political development but also into the forces shaping contemporary crises, from the dissolution of Yugoslavia to the rise of political Islam. Frederick F. Anscombe is a senior lecturer in contemporary history at Birkbeck, University of London. His publications include The Ottoman Gulf: The Creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar (1997); The Ottoman Balkans, 1750–1830 (ed., 2006); and articles in Past & Present, Journal of Modern History, and International History Review. www.cambridge.org © in this web service Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-04216-2 - State, Faith, and Nation in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Lands Frederick F. Anscombe Frontmatter More information

Transcript of State, Faith, and Nation in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Lands...State, Faith, and Nation in Ottoman and...

Page 1: State, Faith, and Nation in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Lands...State, Faith, and Nation in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Lands Current standard narratives of Ottoman, Balkan, and Middle East

State, Faith, and Nation in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Lands

Current standard narratives of Ottoman, Balkan, and Middle East history overemphasize the role of nationalism in the transformation of the region. Challenging these accounts, this book argues that religious affi liation was in fact the most infl uential shaper of communal identity in the Ottoman era, that religion molded the relationship between state and society, and that it continues to do so today in lands once occu-pied by the Ottomans. The book examines the major transformations of the past 250 years to illustrate this argument, traversing the nine-teenth century, the early decades of post-Ottoman independence, and the recent past. In this way, the book affords unusual insights not only into the historical patterns of political development but also into the forces shaping contemporary crises, from the dissolution of Yugoslavia to the rise of political Islam.

Frederick F. Anscombe is a senior lecturer in contemporary history at Birkbeck, University of London. His publications include The Ottoman Gulf: The Creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar (1997); The Ottoman Balkans, 1750–1830 (ed., 2006); and articles in Past & Present , Journal of Modern History , and International History Review .

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State, Faith, and Nation in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Lands

FREDERICK F. ANSCOMBE

University of London

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32 Avenue of the Americas, New York ny 10013-2473, USA

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107615236

© Frederick F. Anscombe 2014

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written

permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2014

Printed in the United States of America

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data Anscombe, Frederick F.

State, faith, and nation in Ottoman and post-Ottoman lands / Frederick F. Anscombe. pages cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-1-107-04216-2 (hardback) – isbn 978-1-107-61523-6 (paperback)

1. Islam and state – Turkey – History. 2. Islam and state – Balkan Peninsula – History. 3. Islam and state – Middle East – History. 4. Nationalism – Turkey –

Religious aspects – History. 5. Nationalism – Balkan Peninsula – Religious aspects – History. 6. Nationalism – Middle East – Religious aspects –

History. 7. Turkey – History – Ottoman Empire, 1288–1918. I. Title. bp173.6.a575 2014

322'.10956–dc23 2013038166

ISBN 978-1-107-04216-2 Hardback ISBN 978-1-107-61523-6 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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For M á rta, Lotti, Kl á ra, and Frida

with love and thanks

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vii

List of Maps and Images page ix

Acknowledgments xi

Transliteration and Abbreviations xiii

Introduction 1 Eastern Questions 4 The Replacement Narrative 11 Bal ı k Ba sÇ tan Kokar 14

Part I The Ottoman Empire 19

1 State, Faith, Nation, and the Ottoman Empire 21

2 The Premodern Islamic State and Military Modernization 33 The Eighteenth-Century Ottoman State: Politics, Money,

and the Military 34 The Military Crisis of the Late Eighteenth Century 43 Selim III and the New Order 46 The Deed of Agreement 57

3 The Breaking of the Premodern Islamic State 61 Mahmud II and the Military 62 Faith and Nation: The Greek Revolt and Ottoman Reform 66 Reform, Religion, and Rebellion: Ottoman Europe 76 Reform, Religion, and Rebellion: Ottoman Asia 83 The G ü lhane Reform Decree 87

4 The Reconstructed Muslim State 90 Westernization or Modernization? 91 Measures to Create Order 96

Contents

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Contentsviii

Law and Islam 98 Ottoman and Foreign Christians 107 Abd ü lhamid II and Islamism 113 Macedonia and the Young Turks 117

5 End of Empire 121 Positivism and Military Rule 122 The CUP and Imperial Disintegration 129 The First World War and Imperial Collapse 133

Part II From Ottoman to Post-Ottoman States 141

6 The Post-Ottoman Balkans 149 Greece 154 Serbia 163 Bulgaria 170 Albania 176

7 Post-Ottoman Turkey 181

8 The Post-Ottoman Arab Lands 197 The European Imperial Period 198 Arab Nationalism and Islam 206

Part III Contemporary Post-Ottoman States 219

9 The Contemporary Balkans 224 Yugoslavia 228 Bosnia 234 Macedonia 237 Greece 239 Bulgaria 245 Albania 250

10 Contemporary Turkey 254 The Restoration of Religion in Politics 256 Politics, the Military, and Islam after 1980 262 The Politics of “Islamic Revival” since 2002 267

11 Contemporary Arab Countries 270 Politics, Arab Nationalism, and Military Autocracy 271 The Endurance of Islam in Society and Politics 280 Conclusion 289

Conclusion: State, Faith, and Nation 292

Bibliography 297

Index 315

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Maps

1 Lands within the Ottoman Empire page xv

2 Lands Claimed for the Greek Nation (Early Twentieth Century) xvi

3 Lands Claimed for the Serbian Nation (Early Twentieth Century) xvii

4 Lands Claimed for the Bulgarian Nation (Early Twentieth Century) xviii

5 Geographic Syria under British and French Mandates xix

Images

1 King Ferdinand I of Bulgaria, preceded by scripture and Orthodox clergy, enters Mustafa Pasha (now Svilengrad, Bulgaria) following seizure of the town in the First Balkan War (1912). 146

2 Dormition of the Theotokos Orthodox Cathedral, Avram Iancu Square, Cluj, Romania. 221

Maps and Images

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Various people and institutions have helped me on this and earlier, related projects. For funding the archival research that marked the starting point of the book, I thank the National Endowment for the Humanities, Washington, DC. Birkbeck, University of London, provided additional support, including travel funds for a conference in Montreal that clari-fi ed points in my views on the Selim III–Mahmud II era. For assistance enabling me to participate in two other conferences that proved similarly helpful, I thank Tolga Esmer of Central European University and Hakan Yavuz and Peter Sluglett of the University of Utah. Tolga and Joshua Landis kindly provided copies of their dissertations. For their help I am indebted also to the staffs of the Ba sÇ bakanl ı k Archive in Istanbul, the National Archive in Kew, and Birkbeck Library.

I particularly wish to thank colleagues whose comments on some of my earlier work and whose perspectives on eighteenth- and nineteenth- century history have benefi ted me to an extent that they have proba-bly never realized: Engin Akarl ı , Virginia Aksan, Tolga Esmer, Benjamin Fortna, Colin Heywood, Michael Hickok, Mark Mazower, William Ochsenwald, Ay sÇ e Ozil, Lucy Riall, Julian Swann, and Feroze Yasamee. Ay sÇ e also provided helpful comments on much of the book manuscript, for which I am very grateful. Part of Chapter 3 fi rst appeared in “Islam and the Age of Ottoman Reform,” Past & Present 208 (Aug. 2010), 159–89, and parts of Chapters 2 and 3 fi rst appeared in “The Balkan Revolutionary Age,” Journal of Modern History 84 (2012), 572–606, and I thank the editors of both journals for permitting further use of the material. I wish that I could thank by name the anonymous reviewers of

Acknowledgments

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Acknowledgmentsxii

the articles and those commissioned by Cambridge to critique the book manuscript; I am very grateful for their suggestions for improvement.

Toward the end of my years in graduate school, I once marveled at the stack of correspondence in the hands of one of the scholars whose classes I had most enjoyed taking, the late Charles Issawi; with his usual good humor he complained that they were all letters demanding that he do something, and that he wished there were one saying simply that he was wonderful. I am still sorry that I never sent him such a note. This book presents my interpretation of Ottoman and post-Ottoman history, and I want to acknowledge with deepest thanks the debt I owe to those scholars who taught me (and thereby prepared me to think construc-tively) about the Ottoman empire and its effects upon successor coun-tries: Carl Brown, SÇü kr ü Hanio g lu, Halil I- nalc ı k, Norman Itzkowitz, Cemal Kafadar, Heath Lowry, ‘Abd al-Karim Rafi q – and yes, Charles Issawi. The experience of teaching, in turn, has had an enormous impact upon both my research interests and the views expressed in the book; I cannot acknowledge by name all of the students who have made teach-ing rewarding over the years, but I thank them for their interest, insights, and skepticism. By thanking scholars, students, and funders, I make no suggestion that any of them shares the views I present in the book; they have helped me, but all faults or errors are mine alone.

I wish to thank those at Cambridge University Press who have sup-ported this project through the stages to publication: Marigold Acland, William Hammell, Sarika Narula, and Alison Daltroy. Their care has made the process enjoyable. I also thank Abidha Sulaiman and her team at Newgen Knowledge Works for their help with production of the book.

That Cambridge has published the book delights my mother, who is sure that my father would have been happy to see me somehow linked to the university at which he studied. To give such satisfaction is a slight token of thanks for all that they did to get me to this point. They, and the rest of my family in the United States, have my love and gratitude for all that they have done for me over the decades.

And the fi rst shall be last: A gy ö ny ö ru s é geim M á rta, Lotti é s Kl á ra j ó l b í rt á k a hangulatomat é s a t á voll é temet, amig í rtam ezt a k ö nyvet. Rem é lem, hogy a k ö nyv meg é ri ezt az á rat. To them I dedicate it.

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Transliteration of non-Latin-script terms follows Library of Congress con-ventions, subject to modest amendments, including use of English spell-ings that are widely recognized (“shaikh” rather than “shaykh”/“ sÇ eyh”). Diacriticals have been omitted from Arabic terms. Terms common to Arabic and Ottoman are problematic: for consistency they are given in Arabic form (“shari‘a” rather than “ sÇ eriat,” “milla” rather than “millet”).

Abbreviations

BOA Ba sÇ bakanl ı k Osmanl ı Ar sÇ ivi, Istanbul BriJMES British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Cev.Dah Cevdet Dahiliye CHT3 Cambridge History of Turkey, volume 3: The Later Ottoman

Empire, 1603–1839 , ed. Suraiya Faroqhi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)

CHT4 Cambridge History of Turkey, volume 4: Turkey in the Modern World , ed. Re sÇ at Kasaba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008)

EEQ East European Quarterly FO Foreign Offi ce HH Hatt-i H ü mayun IHR International History Review IJMES International Journal of Middle East Studies ILS Islamic Law and Society

Transliteration and Abbreviations

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Transliteration and Abbreviationsxiv

JMGS Journal of Modern Greek Studies JMH Journal of Modern History MES Middle Eastern Studies NA National Archives, London P&P Past & Present SH Scripta Hierolosymitana

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Map 1. Lands within the Ottoman Empire

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Map 2. Lands Claimed for the Greek Nation (Early Twentieth Century)

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Map 3. Lands Claimed for the Serbian Nation (Early Twentieth Century)

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MO

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VA

Kishinev

Map 4. Lands Claimed for the Bulgarian Nation (Early Twentieth Century)

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Map 5. Geographic Syria under British and French Mandates

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