STAGES-OF-DEVELOPMENT

General PsychologyGeneral Psychology

Development Through the Life SpanDevelopment Through the Life Span

Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development

Prenatal period – from conception to birth Germinal stage – zygote moves down

fallopian tube Embryonic stage – organ systems are

forming and embryo is very vulnerable to external influences

Fetal stage – organs continue to grow and increase in complexity

Prenatal period – from conception to birth Germinal stage – zygote moves down

fallopian tube Embryonic stage – organ systems are

forming and embryo is very vulnerable to external influences

Fetal stage – organs continue to grow and increase in complexity

Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development


Maternal nutrition Smoking Alcohol Drugs

Maternal nutrition Smoking Alcohol Drugs



Fetal alcohol syndrome – cluster of symptoms (e.g., low birth weight, poor muscle tone, and intellectual retardation) associated with a child born to a mother who was a heavy alcohol drinker during pregnancy

Heavy drinking = 3 or more drinks per day, or binge drinking during organogenesis

Fetal alcohol syndrome – cluster of symptoms (e.g., low birth weight, poor muscle tone, and intellectual retardation) associated with a child born to a mother who was a heavy alcohol drinker during pregnancy

Heavy drinking = 3 or more drinks per day, or binge drinking during organogenesis

What About Dad?What About Dad?

Main issues concern the quality of the father’s sperm at conception Sperm from fathers beyond the age of 35 or 40

may be partly the source of the genetic defect involved in Down’s Syndrome

Father’s possible role in transmission of STDs

Main issues concern the quality of the father’s sperm at conception Sperm from fathers beyond the age of 35 or 40

may be partly the source of the genetic defect involved in Down’s Syndrome

Father’s possible role in transmission of STDs

Sensory & Perceptual Development


Neonate (newborn) SIGHT Can focus on objects 1-2 ft. away Can discriminate among facial expressions of

emotions Within a few hours of birth can recognize a

picture of his or her own mother Prefer patterned over unpatterned stimuli Prefer patterns that look like human faces over

patterns that do not

Neonate (newborn) SIGHT Can focus on objects 1-2 ft. away Can discriminate among facial expressions of

emotions Within a few hours of birth can recognize a

picture of his or her own mother Prefer patterned over unpatterned stimuli Prefer patterns that look like human faces over

patterns that do not



Other senses Neonates can hear nearly as well as adults Neonates can detect touch and temperature

stimulation Neonates can feel pain

Other senses Neonates can hear nearly as well as adults Neonates can detect touch and temperature

stimulation Neonates can feel pain

Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

The age-related changes in learning, memory, perception, attention, thinking, and problem-solving

Information-processing approach Structural-functional approach

The age-related changes in learning, memory, perception, attention, thinking, and problem-solving

Information-processing approach Structural-functional approach

Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

Information-processing approach – Focuses on the quantitative changes in basic information processing systems like memory, attention, and learning

Structural-functional approach – says that structures (schemas) change with development, while functions remain fixed

Information-processing approach – Focuses on the quantitative changes in basic information processing systems like memory, attention, and learning

Structural-functional approach – says that structures (schemas) change with development, while functions remain fixed

Structural-Functional ApproachStructural-Functional Approach

Jean Piaget Structures (schemas) change with development,

while functions remain fixed Schema – organized mental representation of

the world that is adaptive and formed by experience

Cognitive development is seen as a series of qualitative changes in intelligence

Jean Piaget Structures (schemas) change with development,

while functions remain fixed Schema – organized mental representation of

the world that is adaptive and formed by experience

Cognitive development is seen as a series of qualitative changes in intelligence

Piaget’s TheoryPiaget’s Theory

1. Organization – predisposition to integrate individual schemas into organized units

2. Adaptation – adapting cognitive abilities to the demands of the environment. Comprises:

a. Assimilation – incorporating new information into an existing schema

b. Accommodation – modifying schema to account for new experiences

1. Organization – predisposition to integrate individual schemas into organized units

2. Adaptation – adapting cognitive abilities to the demands of the environment. Comprises:

a. Assimilation – incorporating new information into an existing schema

b. Accommodation – modifying schema to account for new experiences

Table 8.1: Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.Table 8.1: Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

Piaget’s Stages of DevelopmentPiaget’s Stages of Development

Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) – children discover by sensing (sensori-) and doing (motor) Children learn about causality Children learn about object permanence Imitation develops

Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) – children discover by sensing (sensori-) and doing (motor) Children learn about causality Children learn about object permanence Imitation develops

Object PermanenceObject Permanence

An appreciation that an object no longer in view can still exist and reappear later

An appreciation that an object no longer in view can still exist and reappear later


Preoperational Stage (2-6 years) – a child’s thinking is self-centered or egocentric

Preoperational Stage (2-6 years) – a child’s thinking is self-centered or egocentric


Concrete Operations Stage – Children (7-11) begin to develop many concepts and show that they can manipulate those concepts Rule-governed behavior begins in this stage Conservation is evident in this stage

Concrete Operations Stage – Children (7-11) begin to develop many concepts and show that they can manipulate those concepts Rule-governed behavior begins in this stage Conservation is evident in this stage

ConservationConservation

Awareness that changing the form or the appearance of something does not change what it really is

Awareness that changing the form or the appearance of something does not change what it really is


Formal Operations Stage – Children (12 and up) are beginning to be able to logically manipulate abstract, symbolic concepts

Formal Operations Stage – Children (12 and up) are beginning to be able to logically manipulate abstract, symbolic concepts

Reactions to PiagetReactions to Piaget

The borderlines between his proposed stages are much less clear-cut than his theory suggests

Piaget underestimated the cognitive talents of preschool children Object permanence appears earlier than age 2 Little attention to the impact of language

development and the gradual increase in memory capacity

The borderlines between his proposed stages are much less clear-cut than his theory suggests

Piaget underestimated the cognitive talents of preschool children Object permanence appears earlier than age 2 Little attention to the impact of language

development and the gradual increase in memory capacity

Information-Processing Information-Processing

Development of Learning Classical and operant conditioning shown in

neonates Imitation evident as young as 1 week!

Development of Memory Memory demonstrated in very young infants Children as young as 3 can understand the

temporal nature of events and form scripts of those events in memory

Development of Learning Classical and operant conditioning shown in

neonates Imitation evident as young as 1 week!

Development of Memory Memory demonstrated in very young infants Children as young as 3 can understand the

temporal nature of events and form scripts of those events in memory

Moral DevelopmentMoral Development

Piaget believed that children could not make moral judgments until they were at least 3-4 years old

Piaget believed that children could not make moral judgments until they were at least 3-4 years old


Lawrence Kohlberg – 3 levels: Preconventional morality – prime interest of

child is with the punishment that comes from breaking a rule

Conventional morality – acceptance of social convention where approval matters as much or more than anything else

Postconventional morality – moral reasoning reflects complex, internalized standards

Lawrence Kohlberg – 3 levels: Preconventional morality – prime interest of

child is with the punishment that comes from breaking a rule

Conventional morality – acceptance of social convention where approval matters as much or more than anything else

Postconventional morality – moral reasoning reflects complex, internalized standards

Table 8.2: Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.Table 8.2: Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.


Carol Gilligan – believes that the moral reasoning for women is different than that of men Women are more likely to focus on caring,

personal responsibility and relationships Men focus on rules, justice, and individual

rights

Carol Gilligan – believes that the moral reasoning for women is different than that of men Women are more likely to focus on caring,

personal responsibility and relationships Men focus on rules, justice, and individual

rights

Erikson’s Psychosocial ViewErikson’s Psychosocial View

Eight-stage theory of life-span development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

2. Autonomy vs. Self-Doubt

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

4. Competence vs. Inferiority

Eight-stage theory of life-span development

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

2. Autonomy vs. Self-Doubt

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

4. Competence vs. Inferiority

Table 8.3: Erikson’s eight stages of development.Table 8.3: Erikson’s eight stages of development.

Developing Gender IdentityDeveloping Gender Identity

Once children can discriminate between the sexes, they develop schemas for gender-related information Encouraged by parents, children at an early age

(1 year), have defined preferences for choices of toys

By age 3 or 4, children tend to gravitate toward same-sex play groups

Once children can discriminate between the sexes, they develop schemas for gender-related information Encouraged by parents, children at an early age

(1 year), have defined preferences for choices of toys

By age 3 or 4, children tend to gravitate toward same-sex play groups

Developing Gender IdentityDeveloping Gender Identity

Gender identity – sense or self-awareness of one’s own maleness or femaleness Most children develop this by the age of 2 or 3 Once gender identity is established, it is very

resistant to change By late childhood and early adolescence, peer

pressure intensifies gender differences

Gender identity – sense or self-awareness of one’s own maleness or femaleness Most children develop this by the age of 2 or 3 Once gender identity is established, it is very

resistant to change By late childhood and early adolescence, peer

pressure intensifies gender differences

Developing Social AttachmentsDeveloping Social Attachments

Attachment – strong emotional relationship between a child and his or her mother or primary caregiver

Attachment – strong emotional relationship between a child and his or her mother or primary caregiver

Attachment TheoryAttachment Theory

Strong attachments are most likely to be formed if the parent is optimally sensitive and responsive to the needs of the child Two-way process More than just spending time with child Not just mother May have life-long ramifications

Strong attachments are most likely to be formed if the parent is optimally sensitive and responsive to the needs of the child Two-way process More than just spending time with child Not just mother May have life-long ramifications

Spotlight: Parenting StylesSpotlight: Parenting Styles

Classic model – Diana Baumrind Indulgent Authoritarian Authoritative

Classic model – Diana Baumrind Indulgent Authoritarian Authoritative

AdolescenceAdolescence

Period between childhood and adulthood, often begun at puberty and ending with full physical growth Biological perspective – puberty Psychological perspective Social perspective

Period between childhood and adulthood, often begun at puberty and ending with full physical growth Biological perspective – puberty Psychological perspective Social perspective

Challenges of PubertyChallenges of Puberty

Growth spurt – dramatic increase in height and weight Usually occurs earlier in girls than boys

Puberty = capability of sexual reproduction Menarche in girls Boys seldom know when it begins exactly

Growth spurt – dramatic increase in height and weight Usually occurs earlier in girls than boys

Puberty = capability of sexual reproduction Menarche in girls Boys seldom know when it begins exactly

Challenge of Identity FormationChallenge of Identity Formation

Identity crisis – a struggle to define a sense of self, what to do in life, and what one’s attitudes, beliefs, and values should be

Marcia – 4 ways identity issues can be resolved:1. Identity Achievement2. Foreclosure3. Identity Diffusion4. Moratorium

Identity crisis – a struggle to define a sense of self, what to do in life, and what one’s attitudes, beliefs, and values should be

Marcia – 4 ways identity issues can be resolved:1. Identity Achievement2. Foreclosure3. Identity Diffusion4. Moratorium

Marriage and FamilyMarriage and Family

Erikson – Early adulthood revolves around the choice of intimacy or isolation

Mate selection – involves availability, eligibility, and attractiveness (physical and psychological)

Approx. 50% of marriages end in divorce!

Erikson – Early adulthood revolves around the choice of intimacy or isolation

Mate selection – involves availability, eligibility, and attractiveness (physical and psychological)

Approx. 50% of marriages end in divorce!

Table 8.4: Characteristics sought in mates.Table 8.4: Characteristics sought in mates.

Transition to ParenthoodTransition to Parenthood

Generativity – concern for family and for one’s impact on future generations

Marital satisfaction tends to drop during the child-rearing years of marriage

Marital satisfaction increases again once the children leave the nest

Generativity – concern for family and for one’s impact on future generations

Marital satisfaction tends to drop during the child-rearing years of marriage

Marital satisfaction increases again once the children leave the nest

Career ChoiceCareer Choice

One’s choice and satisfaction of occupation affects self-esteem and identity

Career selection is driven by family influence and the potential for earning money

One’s choice and satisfaction of occupation affects self-esteem and identity

Career selection is driven by family influence and the potential for earning money

Challenges of Drug UseChallenges of Drug Use

Many adolescents experiment with drugs Smoking (79%) and drinking alcohol (81%) lead

the list of drug-related activities teens have tried at least once by ninth grade!

Correlational study – 18year-olds in experimenter category were more psychologically healthy than frequent users or abstainers

Many adolescents experiment with drugs Smoking (79%) and drinking alcohol (81%) lead

the list of drug-related activities teens have tried at least once by ninth grade!

Correlational study – 18year-olds in experimenter category were more psychologically healthy than frequent users or abstainers

Challenges of SexualityChallenges of Sexuality

49.9% of high-school teens have engaged in sexual behavior

Teen pregnancy is a significant social problem

49.9% of high-school teens have engaged in sexual behavior

Teen pregnancy is a significant social problem

Development During Middle Adulthood

Development During Middle Adulthood

One must adjust to the physiological changes of middle age

Dealing with teens and elderly parents places some middle-aged adults in what has been called the “sandwich generation”

Another task of this age is determining how to leave a mark on future generations

One must adjust to the physiological changes of middle age

Dealing with teens and elderly parents places some middle-aged adults in what has been called the “sandwich generation”

Another task of this age is determining how to leave a mark on future generations

What it Means to be Old…What it Means to be Old…

Ageism – discrimination and prejudice against a group on the basis of age

Adults over age 65 can be divided into young-old and old-old groups

Fewer than 15% of Americans over the age of 65 live in nursing homes, but it increases to 25% by age 85

With increased age often comes increased physical problems, but only 28% of the elderly report their health as fair to poor

Ageism – discrimination and prejudice against a group on the basis of age

Adults over age 65 can be divided into young-old and old-old groups

Fewer than 15% of Americans over the age of 65 live in nursing homes, but it increases to 25% by age 85

With increased age often comes increased physical problems, but only 28% of the elderly report their health as fair to poor

Death and DyingDeath and Dying

5 stages of facing death:

1. Denial

2. Anger

3. Bargaining

4. Depression

5. Acceptance

5 stages of facing death:

1. Denial

2. Anger

3. Bargaining

4. Depression

5. Acceptance

STAGES-OF-DEVELOPMENT

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