SRAP3001 - Research Project

SRAP3001 – INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH PROJECTAlexandra Collins – z3419707

Introduction

Increasingly significant within criminological literature, the concept of ‘fear of crime’ is

emerging as an issue potentially greater than crime itself (see Scarborough, et al. 2010).

Caused by perceptions of victimisation and social disorganisation, fear of crime is an

important issue for research and policy. Firstly, it could highlight the focal issues for

individuals when perceiving risk in their environment and could aid policymakers in

analysing crime prevention through environmental design. Secondly, it could expose

demographic trends related to fear of crime so that policy and intervention could more

beneficially target groups of people.

While the causes of fear and its effects are largely beyond the scope of this research, it aims

to explore several issues. The rationale behind this research is to test previous studies on

demographic relationships with fear of crime, and the effect of the environment on

perceptions of victimisation. As such it will potentially build upon evidence that suggests

demographic sections of the community are more likely to fear crime than others, where

indicators of fear will be included in this study. It will add to extant literature by bridging the

gap between those that focus on singular demographic variables and those that do not take

into account the environment. In asking questions about the relationship between

demographic variables and fear of crime, previous victimisation and the neighbourhood, and

the relationship between perceptions of safety and crime, this research will explore the

following research question:

‘What demographic variables and environmental factors influence the perception of

victimisation, and subsequently the ‘fear of crime’ in Sydney?’

Literature Review

Among a plethora of literature, several key themes are prominent when examining the nexus

between demographic variables and the fear of crime. Research on fear of crime surrounds

three theoretical concepts: indirect victimisation; community disintegration and disorder; and

sub-cultural diversity, or the fear of the ‘other’ (see Covington & Taylor, 1991). In

constructing this research, the focus will be on the former two ideologies. This will examine

how the effect of others’ victimisation and neighbourhood context could act as predictors of

fear. Concurrently, scholars acknowledge the influence of prior victimisation as important in

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analysing levels of fear (see Gray, et al. 2011; Scarborough, et al. 2010). Statistically, there is

a positive relationship between those who perceive future victimisation and those who have

recently been victimised, studies showing that the greater number of times an individual has

been a victim, the greater they will fear crime (see Gray, et al. 2011). In order to be cognisant

of fear of crime, the interplay of demographic covariates and victimisation is crucial to this

study. Focusing on both physical and social vulnerability (see Rader, et al. 2012), literature

highlights disparity between rates of fear between age, sex, and race.

A breadth of literature emphasises the notion of physical vulnerability: that those who

fear crime the greatest are females and the elderly (see Rader, et al. 2012; Scarborough, et al.

2010; Schafer, et al. 2006; Sutton, et al. 2011). Schafer, et al (2006) suggests that gender

groups are heterogeneous, where the interplay of socialisation and health, for example, could

influence perceptions of victimisation (see also Rader, et al. 2012). While analysing this

variation is beyond the scope of this research, the results of this study will determine whether

there exists greater likelihood for fear to be presents among particular demographics. Despite

representing greater levels of fear, crime data presents a paradoxical issue where females and

the elderly are often the least victimised (see Scarborough, et al. 2010). Dissimilarly to the

assumptions surrounding age, Chadee & Ditton (2003) conclude that the relationship between

age and fear is non-linear, where the elderly are the least fearful. Dealing with the

sociodemographic characteristic of race, it is suggested that minorities feel the most

vulnerable and have subsequently higher levels of fear (see Rader, et al. 2012; Gibson, et al.

2002). Studies such as Rader, et al (2012) highlight that in analysing the race-fear

relationship, other demographic factors such as age and gender must be considered.

In concurrence with demographic characteristics, a seminal issue relating to the fear

of crime is the environment. The link between these two concerns is emphasises by social

disorganisation models, where a ‘disorder model’ highlights that those who negatively

perceive their residence will have greater fear levels (see Gibson, et al. 2002; Rader, et al.

2012; Covington & Taylor, 1991). This individual level factor occurs “when residents

perceive they frequent high crime areas...that place them at greater risk of victimisation”

(Schafer, et al. 2006, p.287).

Although providing some salient insight, methodological challenges present in

literature must be considered. Largely the research was gathered from phone interviews and

self-reporting. As Sutton et al (2011) articulate, this could lead to errors in response reliability

as there may be disparity between respondent answers in a research and private context, or of 13


translation issues relating to both the wording of questions and answers. Further, results are

largely only generalisable to the context in which they are gathered. Researchers need to be

cognisant that their conclusions may not be representative of the population from which they

have drawn their sample. There are also terminological issues where the literature by both

Rader, et al (2012) and Schafer, et al. (2006), for example, use notions of ‘worry’ and

‘unsafeness’ as a proxy for ‘fear of crime’. It therefore needs to be stipulated in these studies

that these concepts and fear of crime may not be analogous and only potentially could

represent the same conclusions. Conclusively, literature often presents a polarised focus,

examining singular demographic characteristics and thus omitting a holistic account of fear of

crime. Notwithstanding these limitations, some of the hypotheses drawn in this body of

literature will serve as a foundation for this research to test whether they are applicable to this

sample, and bridge the gap between singularly-focused studies.

Aims and Objectives

Descriptive in nature, this research will aim to provide the foundation for future research by

analysing the nexus between demographic variables and the fear of crime. Concurrently, it

will explore neighbourhood to see if any parallels between fear of crime and residency exist.

This issue is pertinent to research and policy, allowing criminological and social policy

researchers to target sociodemographic perceptions of victimisation. By analysing age, race,

and sex against variables connected to the fear of crime and environment, this study proposes

to answer several research questions as follows.

Research Question 1: Is there a correlation between age and the fear of crime?

H0: There is no correlation between age and the fear of crime.

H1: There is correlation between age and the fear of crime.

Research question 2: Is there a correlation between race and the fear of crime?

H0: There is no correlation between race and the fear of crime.

H1: There is correlation between race and the fear of crime.

Research Question 3: Is there a correlation between sex and the fear of crime?

H0: There is no correlation between sex and the fear of crime.

H1: There is correlation between sex and the fear of crime.

Research Question 4: Does a negative environment affect perceptions of crime?

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H0: Negative environments do not affect perceptions of crime.

H1: Negative environments affect perceptions of crime.

Research Question 5: Is there a correlation between feelings of safety and negative perceptions of crime?

H0: There is no correlation between feelings of safety and negative perceptions of crime.

H1: There is correlation between negative perceptions and fear of crime.

Research Question 6: Is there a relationship between victimisation and fear within the neighbourhood?

H0: There is no relationship between victimisation and fear within the neighbourhood.

H1: There is a relationship between victimisation and fear within the neighbourhood.

Methodology

The sample used in this research is a randomly sampled survey of 347 homes in Sydney in

2010. The demographic characteristics of the sample, including age, sex, and race are set out

in Table 1 to establish the context of this research, where a one-tail t-test was conducted to

determine the mean age of respondents. Using the program SPSS Statistics Viewer v22

(SPSS), the data was analysed to determine construct validity to show that logical

relationships between the variables was present. Prior to investigating the research questions,

the categorical variable ‘age’ was re-coded in SPSS in order to create more concise

information. Using nominal and ordinal variables, research questions were then established in

order to identify patterns and relationships in the data.

Regarding research questions 1 through 6 (inclusive), a non-directional hypothesis

was established to show that a relationship exists between the variables being tested without

commenting on the direction of such relationship. In testing the research questions, crosstabs

were created within SPSS to establish the chi-square value and the degrees of freedom. Using

these two statistics, an alpha level or ‘p value’ was calculated in order to determine the

significance value. Using this value, a critical value was established in order to determine

whether the null hypothesis would be rejected or accepted. Where the significance value is >

the critical value (0.05) the null hypothesis was rejected. Where the significance value is <

the critical value (0.05) the null hypothesis could not be rejected. Through using data from a

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secondary source rather than conducting the survey personally, there was only one question

regarding fear of crime that is used in this research. As such the ordinal variables ‘How safe

is Australia?’ and ‘How big a problem is crime?’ have been used to represent concepts of fear

(see Tables 2.1-2.5, inclusive).

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample.

Frequency Percentage* Total X̄! Age**

0-20 years old 21-40 years old 41-60 years old 61-80 years old

81-100 years old

7 2.0107 30.8124 35.767 19.321 6.1

326 (93.9% of total sample)

50.02 years

Race*** Non-white

White Other

143 41.2186 53.64 1.2


Sex**** Male

Female 99 28.5241 69.5


Note:

* Percentage is in terms of the total sample population (347), not in terms of those who

responded.

** 6.1% of the sample did not provide their age, accounting for missing statistics.

*** 4.0% of the sample did not provide their race, accounting for missing statistics.

****2.0% of the sample did not provide their sex, accounting for missing statistics.

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Results (N.B. All percentages are rounded to one decimal place).

Research Question 1: Is there a correlation between age and the fear of crime?

Table 2.1. Respondent Age and the Fear of Crime.

Respondent Age0-20

years old21-40

years old41-60

years old61-80

years old81-100

years old

How Safe is Australia?**Total Sample

(n=319)

Becoming Safer 17 0 7 (2.2%) 5 (1.6%) 5 (1.6%) 0

Not Changing 31 1 (0.3%)16

(5.0%)9 (2.8%) 4 (1.3%) 1 (0.3%)

Becoming Less Safe 271 6 (1.9%)81

(25.4%)107

(33.5%)58

(18.2%)19

(5.9%)

How Big a Problem is Crime?**Total Sample

(n=305)

No Problem 204 5 (1.6%)69

(22.6%)81

(26.6%)40

(13.1%)9 (2.9%)

Small Problem 85 2 (0.7%)31

(10.2%)33

(10.8%)14

(4.6%)5 (1.6%)

Big Problem 16 0 7 (2.3%) 6 (2.0%) 2 (0.7%) 1 (0.3%)How Much Has Fear of Crime Affected Your Social Activities in the Neighbourhood?*

Total Sample(n=288)

Great Effect 109 3 (1.0%)27

(9.4%)52

(18.1%)22

(7.6%)5 (1.7%)

Small Effect 86 1 (0.3%)40

(13.9%)31

(10.8%)11

(3.8%)3 (1.0%)

No Effect 93 3 (1.0%)39

(13.6%)31

(10.8%)16

(5.6%)4 (1.4%)

Is Crime a Serious Enough Problem That You Have Considered Moving in the Past 12 Months?*

Total Sample(n=319)

Yes 156 3 (0.9%)58

(18.2%)61

(19.1%)30

(9.4%)4 (1.3%)

No 163 4 (1.3%)46

(14.4%)62

(19.4%)35

(11.0%)16

(5.0%)

Note: Chi-square and degrees of freedom were used to obtain a P value:* P > 0.05 ** P < 0.05

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Research question 2: Is there a correlation between race and the fear of crime?

Table 2.2. Race of Respondent and the Fear of Crime.

Race of Respondent

Non-White White Other

How safe is Australia?**

Total Sample(n=325)

Becoming Safer 18 13 (4.0%) 4 (1.2%) 1 (0.3%)

Not Changing 32 18 (5.6%) 13 (4.0%) 1 (0.3%)

Becoming Less Safe 275 109 (33.6%) 164 (50.4%) 2 (0.6%)

How Big a Problem is Crime?*Total Sample

(n=309)

No Problem 208 88 (28.5%) 117 (37.9%) 3 (1.0%)

Small Problem 85 35 (11.3%) 49 (15.9%) 1 (0.3%)

Big Problem 16 10 (3.2%) 6 (1.9%) 0

How Much Has Fear of Crime Affected Your Social Activities in the Neighbourhood?*

Total Sample(n=290)

Great Effect 109 48 (16.6%) 58 (20.0%) 3 (1.0%)

Small Effect 88 36 (12.4%) 52 (17.9%) 0

No Effect 93 40 (13.8%) 53 (18.3%) 0

Is Crime a Serious Enough Problem That You Have Considered Moving in the Past 12 Months?**

Total Sample(n=325)

Yes 155 57 (17.5%) 95 (29.3%) 3 (0.9%)

No 170 84 (25.8%) 85 (26.2%) 1 (0.3%)


Research Question 3: Is there a correlation between sex and the fear of crime?

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Sex of Respondent

Male Female

How safe is Australia?*

Total Sample(n=331)

Becoming Safer 18 2 (0.6%) 16 (4.8%)

Not Changing 33 7 (2.1%) 26 (7.9%)

Becoming Less Safe 280 87 (26.3%) 193 (58.3%)

How Big a Problem is Crime?*

Total Sample(n=316)

No Problem 213 65 (20.6%) 148 (46.8%)

Small Problem 86 26 (8.2%) 60 (19.0%)

Big Problem 17 5 (1.6%) 12 (3.8%)

How Much Has Fear of Crime Affected Your Social Activities in the Neighbourhood?**

Total Sample(n=297)

Great Effect 113 25 (8.4%) 88 (29.6%)

Small Effect 89 35 (11.8%) 54 (18.2%)

No Effect 95 33 (11.1%) 62 (20.9%)

Is Crime a Serious Enough Problem That You Have Considered Moving in the Past 12 Months?*

Total Sample(n=332)

Yes 160 46 (13.9%) 114 (34.3%)

No 172 50 (15.1%) 122 (36.7%)

Table 2.3. Sex of Respondent and the Fear of Crime.


Research Question 4: Does a negative environment affect perceptions of crime?

Table 2.4. Crime and the Environment.

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How Big a Problem is Crime?No Problem Small Problem Big Problem

How Big a Problem is the Environment?*

Total Sample(n=296)

No Problem 92 78 (26.4%) 10 (3.4%) 4 (1.4%)Small Problem 141 88 (29.7%) 51 (17.2%) 2 (0.7%)

Big Problem 63 25 (8.4%) 27 (9.1%) 11 (3.7%)Note: Chi-square and degrees of freedom were used to obtain a P value:* P = < 0.0001

Research Question 5: Is there a correlation between feelings of safety and negative perceptions of crime?

Table 2.5. Crime and Safety of Australia.

How Big a Problem is Crime?No Problem Small Problem Big Problem

How Safe is Australia?*Total Sample

(n=313)Becoming Safer 16 6 (1.9%) 7 (2.2%) 3 (1.0%)

Not Changing 32 19 (6.1%) 10 (3.2%) 3 (1.0%)Becoming Less Safe 265 185 (59.1%) 71 (22.7%) 9 (2.8%)

Note: Chi-square and degrees of freedom were used to obtain a P value:* P = < 0.05

Research Question 6: Is there a relationship between victimisation and fear within the neighbourhood?

Table 2.6. Victimisation and Fear of Social Activity in the Neighbourhood.

How Much Has Fear of Crime Affected Your Social Activities in the Neighbourhood?Great Effect Small Effect No Effect

Have You Ever Been a Victim of Crime?

Total Sample (n=173)

Yes Did the Crime Take Place in Your Neighbourhood?*

Yes 90 36 (20.8%) 26 (15.0%) 28 (16.2%) No 4 1 (0.6%) 1 (0.6%) 2 (1.2%)

No Did the Crime Take Place in Your Neighbourhood?*

Yes 63 29 (16.8%) 19 (11.0%) 15 (8.7%)

No 16 8 (4.6%) 3 (1.7%) 5 (2.9%)

Note: Chi-square and degrees of freedom were used to obtain a P value:* P > 0.05

Discussion

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Conclusively, this research demonstrates that age, sex and race affect various aspects related

to fear of crime. These demographic variables are not homogenous, however, as variation

exists with each dependent variable that was tested. Regarding the neighbourhood, it was

found that negative perceptions of crime and greater levels of fear were found among those

who had experienced prior victimisation.

The answers to the research questions are as follows:

Research Question 1: In determining whether there is correlation between age and fear of

crime, two of the variables showed significance and two of the variables did not show

significance. As the two variables specifically related to a fear of crime showed significance,

I reject the null hypothesis. In doing so, I accept the alternative hypothesis that there exists a

relationship between age and fear of crime. Unlike prior research, the results demonstrate that

the age groups who fear crime most greatly appear to be in the range 21-61, dismissing

former conclusions that the elderly most greatly fear crime.

Research Question 2: In determining whether there is correlation between race and fear of

crime, two of the variables showed significance and two variables did not show significance.

Despite this, the two variables concerning crime showed significance. Therefore, I reject the

null hypothesis and support the alternative hypothesis that states there is correlation between

race and fear of crime. Dissimilar to previous research, this study shows that the greatest

percentages regarding a fear of crime were those in the category of ‘white’. Research

suggests that minorities more greatly fear crime as they perceive they are more likely to

experience victimisation. These results refute this conclusion and are thus inconclusive of

previous research.

Research Question 3: In determining whether correlation exists between sex and fear of

crime, significance levels showed only one variable as not significant, being that fear of

crime had not affected social activities in the neighbourhood. Despite this, there was a

significant relationship between concepts of safety, crime, and wanting to move house, and

the demographic of gender. Due to this, reject the null hypothesis, and accept the alternate

hypothesis that there is correlation between sex and fear of crime. The results highlight a

greater percentage of females than males feel that Australia is unsafe, that crime is an issue,

are affected by fear of crime, and have felt compelled to move house due to crime. This is

conclusive of previous research that shows females are more greatly fearful of crime.

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Research Question 4: In exploring the question of whether a negative environment affects

perceptions of crime, the research indicates an extremely significant relationship and

therefore the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. This research indicates that there is no

correlation between neighbourhood and perceptions of crime. This significantly contrasts

former literature which suggests a link between social disorganisation theory and negative

environments to a greater level of criminal issues and subsequent fear of crime. As this study

selects a sample from Sydney and varies to the samples in prior studies, this conclusion can

only be applied to this study and is not generalisable to a wider population. While it refutes

the hypothesis that environment affects fear of crime, it is not indicative that this theory is

incorrect; merely that it is not applicable in this instance.

Research Question 5: In determining a correlation between feelings of safety and negative

perceptions of crime, the results show a significant relationship. I therefore will accept the

null hypothesis, stating that there is no correlation between safety and whether crime is

perceived as a problem.

Research Question 6: In determining a relationship between victimisation and fear of crime in

the neighbourhood, results show a greater proportion of people who had been prior victimised

felt fear within the neighbourhood. Correlation is therefore noted among the two variables,

leading to a rejection of the null hypothesis and an acceptance of the alternative hypothesis

which states that a relationship between victimisation and fear within the neighbourhood

exists. This particularly emphasises the conclusions drawn in Gray, et al (2011) that

victimisation impacts the perception of victimisation.

This research, while minor, makes significant commentary about the issues surrounding fear

of crime within Australia. It dismisses the idea of the elderly and minority vulnerable, where

percentages show that the majority of persons who exhibited levels of fear were of the

majority race and were in the adult age range prior to 81 years old. It therefore highlights the

great disparity that exists in literature. As sample data is usually only generalisable to

population from which it is derived, these distinct differences could be attributed to the

contextual differences existing in other studies. An interesting issue found in this study is that

those who stated that the safety within Australia was declining, more greatly answered that

crime was not a problem. This questions whether issues of fear and safety may exist beyond

the concept of crime, and may be an avenue to explore in future studies.

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Conclusion

Conclusively, while disparity between demographic characteristics and fear of crime was

present in this research, there exists a relationship to a degree. Age, race, and sex each

showed that demographic variables have an impact on fear levels as explored in the

discussion section of this report. While disparity between results on neighbourhood was

apparent, the dichotomy between victimisation and neighbourhood showed that fear levels

would increase upon prior victimisation, and highlights the need for policy to address

reintegration into the community not only for offenders, but for victims. This is necessary as

fear can manifest itself in issues that transcend the time of criminal incidence and impede

individuals from being able to positively interact with their community.

Notwithstanding these conclusions, there are limitations to this research. Through using a

survey provided by a previously completed dataset, I had no control over the questions.

Therefore, while some questions did not specifically address the ‘fear of crime’, variables

such as the issue of safety and of crime were used to mean fear. This could encompass

translation issues from the original researcher to my interpretation. Further, through survey

format, there is the potential for the questions to not be interpreted by the respondent as

intended by the researcher, or the tendency for the respondent to not answer correctly as they

would in a non-research context. Furthermore, the survey was conducted at one stage. By not

having a longitudinal study, this study is weakened. This could be an issue taken up by future

research. Longitudinal data, for example, would better investigate the relationship between

age and fear of crime, potentially showing that as a person ages, their level of fear also

changes. While this study indicates fear of crime and age, it is unsure as to whether

someone’s level of fear is increased because of their age or because they simply are a fearful

person. Further, future theoretical studies should research the causes of fear, particularly as

levels of fear and the perception of crime did not correlate. Future studies should investigate

this also for policy reasons. As highlighted by Scarborough et al (2010), a level of fear is

important to a degree as it informs personal safety and preventative behaviours. Therefore,

the degree to which fear of crime negatively impacts individuals should be evaluated.

In conducting this research, several ethical considerations must be taken into account.

Coming from a secondary source, this research raises the contentious issue of whether data

from secondary sources is ethical as it not approved by the individuals who the information

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pertains to. Despite this, anonymity and confidentiality are maintained throughout, as well as

the study not producing harm or deceit for any individual.

References

Chadee, D & Ditton, J 2003, ‘Are Older People Most Afraid of Crime? Revisiting Ferraro and LaGrange in Trinidad’, British Journal of Criminology, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 417-433.

Covington, J & Taylor, R.B 1991, ‘Fear of Crime in Urban Residential Neighbourhoods: Implications of Between- and Within- Neighbourhood Sources for Current Models’, The Sociological Quarterly, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 231-249.

Gibson, C.L, Zhao, J, Lovrich, N.P & Gaffney, M.J 2002, ‘Social Integration, Individual Perceptions of Collective Efficacy, and Fear of Crime in Three Cities’, Justice Quarterly, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 537-564.

Gray, E, Jackson, J & Farrall, S 2011, ‘Feelings and Functions in the Fear of Crime: Applying a New Approach to Victimisation Insecurity’, British Journal of Criminology, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 75-94.

Rader, N.E, Cossman, J.S & Porter, J.R 2012, ‘Fear of Crime and Vulnerability: Using a National Sample of Americans to Examine Two Competing Paradigms’, Journal of Criminal Justice, vol. 40, no 2, pp. 134-141.

Scarborough, B.K, Like-Haislip, T.Z, Novak, K.J, Lucas, W.L & Alarid, L.F 2010, ‘Assessing the Relationship between Individual Characteristics, Neighbourhood Context, and Fear of Crime’, Journal of Criminal Justice, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 819-826.

Schafer, J.A, Huebner, B.M & Bynum, T.S 2006, ‘Fear of Crime and Criminal Victimisation: Gender-Based Contrasts’, Journal of Criminal Justice, vol. 34, no.3, pp. 285-301.

Sutton, R.M, Robinson, B & Farrall, S.D 2011, ‘Gender, Fear of Crime, and Self-Presentation: An Experimental Investigation’, Psychology, Crime & Law, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 421-433.

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