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Sports Fandom: a Study of Basking in Reflected Glory, Spiral of Sports Fandom: a Study of Basking in Reflected Glory, Spiral of
Silence, and Language Use via Online Social Networks Silence, and Language Use via Online Social Networks
Shawna L L. Jackson Cleveland State University
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SPORTS FANDOM: A STUDY OF BASKING IN REFLECTED GLORY, SPIRAL OF
SILENCE, AND LANGUAGE USE VIA ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORKS
SHAWNA L. JACKSON
Bachelor of Arts in Communication
Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH
May, 2010
submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree
MASTER OF APPLIED COMMUNICATION THEORY AND METHODOLOGY
at the
CLEVELAND STATE UNIVERSITY
May, 2012
THESIS APPROVAL
SCHOOL OF COMMUNICATION
This thesis has been approved for the
School of Communication and the College of Graduate Studies by:
______________________________________________________________ Thesis Committee Chairman – print name
______________________________________________________________ Signature
School of Communication
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(Date)
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Committee Member – print name
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School of Communication
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
“Be sure you put your feet in the right place, then stand firm.” – Abraham Lincoln
I never thought I would make it through these 2 years in Graduate School. It was the
ultimate test of my patience, strength, health, and knowledge in the field of Communication. I
surely would not have made it through without the people around me, and for that, I would like
to say thank you.
Thank you to my committee: co-advisors, Dr. George Ray and Dr. Kim Neuendorf.
Without their assistance, patience, and understanding I would not have come out of this with
such a polished piece of work that I am truly proud of. My third committee member, Dr. Anup
Kumar, took on this thesis as a member of a committee for the very first time and I truly valued
his insight and excitement about my topic.
Thank you to the professors who have listened along the way and offered kind words or
advice: James Denny, Dr. Elizabeth Babin, Dr. Leo Jeffres, and Dr. Francis Dalisay. To Dr.
Patricia Burant, you are the reason why I became a Communication major. If it weren’t for your
enthusiasm, stories, and strong bond with your students, I would never have found an area that I
love this much.
A special shout-out to Cleveland Browns wide receiver, Joshua Cribbs, for assisting in
the circulation of my survey by sharing it on Twitter. It was a great help to my research.
Thank you to my fellow graduate students: Rachel Campbell, Brittani Wolanin, and Matt
Egizii. Rachel was my office mate and was there through all of the laughs, complaints, cookies,
and towards the end, tears. Brittani was always there to listen to my troubles or take my mind off
of them with conversations about our love for penguins. Matt was my go-to guy for
encouragement, SPSS, hugs, and chocolate-covered sweets. The three of you always made sure
that I knew I was never alone in this, and I appreciate that. To the rest of our class, I will never
forget going through this journey with any of you.
Thank you to my parents, John and Denise, for always listening and showing pride in my
successes. A special thank you goes out to my grandparents, Joseph and Athalia, who, even in
death, have continued to inspire me as an adult. I must give a very special thank you to the littlest
love of my life: my “nephew,” Clayton, who, although unaware of his impact, is the most special
person in my life.
Finally, thank you to my fiancé, Sal, for always telling me to keep pushing on and finding
a way to bring back my strength when I felt I had none. His most famous words to me had to
have been, “You’re almost done.”
…I DID IT!
v
SPORTS FANDOM: A STUDY OF BASKING IN REFLECTED GLORY, SPIRAL OF
SILENCE, AND LANGUAGE USE VIA ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORKS
SHAWNA L. JACKSON
ABSTRACT
Emerging technologies and the ever-changing climate of the Internet has helped
social networking sites to foster relationships between sports fans and professional sports
teams. This study focused on identification a Cleveland Browns fan feels with the team
as a predicting factor of emotions, actions, self and group identity, and pronominal usage.
An online survey was given to Cleveland Browns fans to determine their level of fandom,
Cleveland Browns knowledge, overall media habits, feelings toward the city of
Cleveland, personality traits, and demographic information. A content analysis was
conducted to determine the pronominal usage, used to indicate a specific distance from
the team based on its successes or failures, and whether the fan was more likely to
distance themselves when speaking of the team’s future. The survey found that Cleveland
Browns fans were proud of the city of Cleveland based on its sports teams, will wear
apparel regardless of a win or loss, and bigger fans with more knowledge and time spent
on the Internet were more likely to speak out when in the minority opinion in response to
topics related to the team. The content analysis found that bigger Cleveland Browns fans
were more likely to use pronouns when speaking about the team, expressed positive
feelings towards the future of the team, and reported negative feelings toward Art
Modell, former owner of the team.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT……….………………….….………………………………..…...……….....v
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………...viii
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………....xi
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW………………………....…..1
1.1 Cleveland Browns History…………..……………....…………….3
1.2 History of Sports and Fandom……..………….………….……….4
1.3 Basking in reflected glory………..…….…...…….……...…..……9
1.4 Social Media and Sports Fans………..…………………...……...14
1.5 Spiral of silence theory……………………….....……..………...17
1.6 Language Use and Social and Group Identity……...………..…..20
1.7 Rationale……………………......……………………..…………24
1.8 Pilot Study………………………...……….….….………………24
1.9 Hypothesis/Research Questions……...…………………….….…25
II. METHODS…………………………………………………...……..……..…..27
2.1 Sports Fan Motivation Scale.........……….....……….…….……..28
2.2 Willingness to Self-Censor Scale………………….....…..……...29
2.3 Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count…….……….....….….……...29
III. RESULTS……………………………………………………………………..32
3.1 Survey Sample Description…………....……………….…...……32
3.2 Scale Construction………………..………..…..……….….…….33
vii
3.3 Results Summary for H1………..…..…..…..…..………..………35
3.4 Results Summary for H2………..………...…….......……………37
3.5 Results Summary for H3………..…………………....…..………37
3.6 Results Summary for RQ1……………….…..…………....…..…40
3.7 Results Summary for RQ2…………..………………………...…43
3.8 Results Summary for RQ3…….…………………………...…….43
IV. DISCUSSION…………………………………...………………………………….48
4.1 Limitations……….…………..………..……………….……..….51
4.2 Suggestions for Future Research…...………………….......…….52
REFERENCES.………………………………………………….………………………54
APPENDICES……………………………………..…………………………………….77
A. SURVEY INSTRUMENT……………………………...………………..78
B. PILOT STUDY…………………………………………………..……....95
C. DEMOGRAPHICS…..…………………………...……………………...99
D. CLEVELAND BROWNS FANDOM………….…......………………..100
E. SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE….…………….……..….…………………..104
F. SPORTS FAN MOTIVATION SCALE…..………...………………….108
G. WILLINGNESS TO SELF-CENSOR SCALE...….…………..……….111
H. OPINION ITEMS…………………………....…………………...…….114
viii
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
I. Pronominal Representation in LIWC…………...………...…………...…...30
II. Affective and Cognitive Process Representation in LIWC….…...…….…31
III. Relativity of Time Representation in LIWC……………...…………..……31
IV. Analysis for H1………...……………………..………...….………………36
V. Analysis for H2………..………….…………………..……………………37
VI. Analysis for H3…………………..……………..……………….…………39
VII. Analysis for RQ1……………......……...………………………………….41
VIII. Analysis for RQ2…………..………………...…..………..…………….…43
IX. Analysis for RQ3……………………….…..….........……………...……...45
X. Analysis for RQ3 cont’d………………………………………….………..47
XI. Victory/Loss and Positive/Negative Emotions……………….……………96
XII. Victory, Pronominal Usage and Positive/Negative Emotions…………..…98
XIII. Biological Sex………………………………………………………….…..99
XIV. Age…………………………………………………………………………99
XV. Cleveland-area Residents……………………………………………..……99
XVI. Cleveland Browns Fandom – Years………………………………..…….100
XVII. Cleveland Browns Fan Rate…………………………….……..……….…100
XVIII. Browns Backers Fan Club Members…………………………..…………100
XIX. Cleveland Browns Games Attended during the 2011-12
Preseason and Regular Season…………………………...….….101
XX. Season Ticket Holders……………………………………..……...……..101
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XXI. Cleveland Browns Knowledge……………………………………….….102
XXII. 2011-12 Preseason and Regular Season – Wins………………...………102
XXIII. 2011-12 Preseason and Regular Season – Losses…...………..…………103
XXIV. Cleveland Browns Official Facebook Page Likes……………….………104
XXV. Cleveland Browns Twitter Followers…………………………...……….104
XXVI. How often do you use Facebook? ………………………………………104
XXVII. How often do you visit the Cleveland Browns Official Page
on Facebook?...............................................................................105
XXVIII. How often do you start a new Wall post on the Cleveland
Browns Official Page on Facebook?............................................105
XXIX. How often do you comment on a post made by the administrator
on the Cleveland Browns Official Page on Facebook?...............105
XXX. How often do you comment on a post made by another user
on the Cleveland Browns Official Page on Facebook?...............106
XXXI. Principle Component Analysis…………………………………….…….108
XXXII. Willingness to Self-Censor Scale Item 1………………………..……….111
XXXIII. Willingness to Self-Censor Scale Item 2……………….………………..111
XXXIV. Willingness to Self-Censor Scale Item 3…………………...……………112
XXXV. Willingness to Self-Censor Scale Item 4……………………...…………112
XXXVI. Willingness to Self-Censor Scale Item 5………………………...………112
XXXVII. Willingness to Self-Censor Scale Item 6………………………...………113
XXXVIII. Willingness to Self-Censor Scale Item 7………………………...………113
XXXIX. Willingness to Self-Censor Scale Item 8…………………………...……113
x
XL. Opinion Item 1…………………………………………………...………114
XLI. Opinion Item 2…………………………………………………...………114
XLII. Opinion Item 3…………………………………………...………………115
XLIII. Opinion Item 4………………………………………...…………………115
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
E1. Cleveland Browns Facebook Page – April 2012……………....……….…..106
E2. Cleveland Browns Twitter Page – April 2012.….…………...…....……..…106
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
Over the last four decades, the growth in research dedicated to understanding the
relationship between a sports fan and a professional sports team has been substantial.
Sports psychologists have given some insight regarding this relationship, but the intensity
of the identification one feels with a sports team and the likelihood to act out in various
ways based on the emotions related to it has still yet to be fully explained. Sports fans
show dedication to their respective teams; however, the strength of the relationship
between a fan and his or her favorite sports team can cause mixed results in the way a fan
chooses to act out following a team’s victory or loss. The motivation of a sports fan
increases with stronger emotions leading to a higher identification with the respective
team. These motivations can be used as an explanation for a fan’s ability to act in a way
in which he or she may not normally act.
As a fan of a sports team, an individual may feel an obligation to identify with the
team’s successes. Although the individual has nothing to do with the success of the team,
it is a mere connection to the team that the individual is striving for in order to feel
included (Cialdini et al., 1976). In relation to this connection, Cialdini et al. state that
people will capitalize on the successes of others, especially if areas in their own lives are
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lacking (1976). People will look for any means of contentment within themselves, even
if it means living vicariously through others (Cialdini et al., 1976). Cognitively,
somewhat of a fantasy world is created to feel as though one has an integral part in
another person’s or in this case, team’s, life. Daniel Wann and Nyla R. Branscombe
expanded the research by stating that the tendencies to act out in response to a team’s
successes or losses is only applicable when the individual makes the assessment that the
team is an integral part of his or her self-identity (1990). However, the individuals who
identify highly with the team as a part of his or her self-identity are less likely to indicate
a clear distance after a team’s failure (Wann & Branscombe, 1990).
In this study, the research aims to explain why and how fans try to live vicariously
through the successes of their favorite sports team via online social networks. Online
social networks are a form of computer-mediated communication (CMC). Computer-
mediated communication has become popular in academic research, specifically the way
in which individuals interact on online social networking websites such as Facebook.
Online social networking sites have become a major source of news for Internet users
(Yun & Park, 2011). The online social networking sites offer an outlet where sports fans
are invited to engage in discussion, express their ideas and opinions, and learn from
others (Yun & Park, 2011).
The research in CMC is confounded by the spiral of silence theory, in which the
individual chooses to speak out based on the opinion climate and where his or her
opinion stands in comparison to others (Noelle-Neumann, 1974). Adding online social
networks as a factor in the likelihood of an individual choosing to speak out on a
particular subject sparks a new twist in the literature. The evolution of human
3
communication has evolved greatly due to new technologies that allow us to
communicate without being face-to-face, thus eliminating any non-verbal cues which
would exist otherwise (Bjerregaard, 2010). In particular, these new technologies have
evolved to, “allow people to generate their true feelings on emotionally charged topics
and increase necessary participation in the expression of opinions” (Ho & McLeod,
2008). This research focuses on fandom in the professional sports realm and in particular,
the interaction between sports fans of the NFL team, the Cleveland Browns, via online
social networks and the factors which influence fans to bask in reflected glory in an
opinion climate existing online.
1.1 Cleveland Browns History
For the purpose of this research, fans of the professional U.S. football team, the
Cleveland Browns, will be the main focus. According to the Cleveland Browns Official
History Database, the franchise was founded in 1944 (their first season, however, began
in 1946) in Cleveland, Ohio, U.S. The city of Cleveland already had a football team at the
time, the Cleveland Rams, who eventually relocated to Los Angeles. Much to the dismay
of Cleveland, the Cleveland Browns relocated to Baltimore in 1995, led by then-owner,
Art Modell. Browns fans were appalled at the decision to move the team and the
relocation cast a negative light over the organization.
A newly-constructed Cleveland Browns returned to the National Football League
four years later, but has had only two winning seasons since. The team has gone through
six head coaches since 1999 but has only made the NFL Playoffs once since the
reconstruction of the team (Cleveland Browns History, 2010).
4
Cleveland Browns fans are known to be some of the most dedicated in the NFL.
In 2008, ESPN ranked Cleveland Browns fans at the #3 most dedicated fans in the league
(NFL’s best fans?, 2008) and have been consistently in the Top 10 most dedicated fans
lists of many websites since then (NFL power rankings, 2011). In 2011, The Bleacher
Report made a list of the 10 Worst Sports Cities with Cleveland ranking at #1 and in a
study conducted by Avvo, Cleveland ranked at #8 for Most Unhappy NFL City (Study:
Eagles fans most depressed, 2011).
Cleveland is a city heavily involved in professional sports and inevitably, the
Cleveland Browns are the heart of the city of Cleveland; however, consistent let downs
have warranted fans to go as far as staging boycotts (Browns’ fan plans MNF boycott,
2009) and creating comedy-driven hate videos (Polk, 2011). While the Cleveland Browns
continue to go through various coaches, players, and losing seasons, fans still stick
around for the action and maintain their devotion. Generally, the relationship between
sports teams and fans can be traced back to centuries ago.
1.2 History of Sports and Fandom
The history of spectator sports dates back to the ancient Greeks and the Olympic
games (Miller, 2006), Egyptians and wrestling (Poliakoff, 1995), and Romans and
“games in honour of the gods” (Gardiner, 2002, p. 118) when the public would gather to
witness competition. However, the history of modern team sports goes back to the 19th
century when the only sporting competitions were “field and stream sports, blood sports,
and contests of strength and skill” (Reiss, 1989, p. 13). Field and stream sports consist of
hunting, fishing, and outdoor activities and blood sports involve violence towards
animals, such as cockfights. However, at this time, sports amongst teams were
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nonexistent. When the population in cities began to grow during the urban revolution
(1820-1870), sports grew as well (Reiss, 1989). Team sports in the United States, such as
baseball, became popular during this period of time.
During this time, sporting fraternities were known as an “informal brotherhood of
pleasure seekers who sponsored, participated in, and attending traditional sporting
contests” (Reiss, 1989). The sporting fraternities were the beginning of sports fandom
today, as the population of the fraternities was made up of people from all economic and
political standpoints, professions, and nationalities. Women, children, and the elderly
were excluded from participating and attending sporting events due to the irresponsibility
of men during bloody, rage-filled sporting events (Gorn, 2004). Members of sporting
fraternities found a strong camaraderie and freedom in taking part in the fraternity (Reiss,
1989). Fraternities met in different places to attend events from illegal boxing matches to
cockfights. Membership in the sporting fraternities helped members to feel a sense of
identification with fellow members and the sporting teams or events, respectively.
Members also took part in easily accessible sports, such as billiards, for the pure
enjoyment of placing illegal bets on matches and being a part of this subculture of men
(Reiss, 1989).
Growth in participation in sports was accompanied by the development of ethnic
sports organizations by English immigrants. The English immigrants began playing the
sport of cricket in order to maintain their culture in a new country (Reiss, 1989). The
Scottish immigrants followed, developing over 100 clubs dedicated to sports, including
track and field games (Reiss, 1989). German immigrants developed gymnastics in the
U.S., which thrived in German communities (Reiss, 1989). In England, Dutch, Scotch-
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Irish, and African immigrants continued on the tradition of sports games their ancestors
passed down (Gorn, 2004).
Sports also assisted individuals in maintaining good health. During this time,
many white-collar workers did not exercise as often as necessary to maintain healthy
living. Sports fostered their “physical and mental well-being” (Reiss, 1989, p. 27) and it
also promoted social interaction between men with similar lives and occupations (Reiss,
1989). Prior to today’s rules and regulations regarding drafts, trades, and contracts, sports
players were chosen based on occupation, political affiliation, and communities (Reiss,
1989). Today, participating in sports often does not cost a substantial amount of money,
helps to create new interests for individuals, and anyone can participate regardless of skill
level, age, or health (Jacobson, 2003).
The individuals who would pay to see the larger sporting events during this period
of time were often wealthy individuals in search of amusement. However, blood sports
would draw in more lower class crowds (Reiss, 1989). It was not until the 1820s that
spectator sports such as racetracks began to draw in crowds in the thousands. These
sports were responsible for inciting more interest from investors and the opportunity to
expand or build larger venues (Reiss, 1989).
The first professional sports club was the Knickerbockers (1845), a club for the
upper-middle class who developed “bat and ball” games, which we now know as baseball
(Reiss, 1989). The first professional baseball team was the Cincinnati Red Stockings
(1869), who, subsequently, became the first paid professional sports team a few years
later (Reiss, 1989). Several professional sports organizations followed, including the
National Basketball Association (originally named the American Basketball League,
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1937), and the National Football League (originally named the American Professional
Football Association, 1920), just to name two (Pankey, n.d.).
While immigrants introduced new sports and sporting ideas to the country and
professional sports organizations have formed over the last century, two themes have
remained constant. Professional sports have helped to maintain a sense of community
(Jacobson, 2003) and the level of identification one feels with a sports team and its
players is incredible.
A few notable definitions of sports fandom exist. Hunt, Bristol, and Bashaw
(1999, p. 440) define a sports fan as “enthusiastic devotee of some particular sports
consumptive object.” Hirt, Zillman, Erickson, and Kennedy define it as “an affiliation in
which a great deal of emotional significance and value are derived from group
membership” (1992, p. 725). Spinrad defines a fan as “the person who thinks, talks about
and is oriented towards sports even when [the fan] is not actually observing, or reading,
or listening to an account of a specific sports event” (1981, p. 354). Sports fandom
includes an active involvement with the sports team through a psychological connection
(Dietz-Uhler & Lanter, n.d.; Wann, 1995) and greatly affects personal development
(Jacobson, 2003). Elliot J. Gorn notes, “…the entanglements of sports and life, and of
how confused the real accomplishments of players on the field become with American
culture’s giddy dreams” (2004, p. xii). Today, sports figures are more recognizable than
many higher status individuals in our country (Quinn, 2009).
Hunt et al. identify five different types of fans: Temporary, local, devoted,
fanatical, and dysfunctional (1999). Each type of fan possesses a different level of
attachment to a sports team. A temporary fan possesses less of an identification with a
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component of a sports team (such as a player or broadcaster) or the sports team as a
whole. Usually, this type of fan is around for a notable event, such as a Super Bowl win
or player who broke a new record. The most important aspect of this type of fan is that
his or her fandom is on a time constraint (Hunt et al., 1999). A local fan has a connection
to a sports team based on geographical location, whether it be where the fan was
originally born or currently resides; however, the fan’s level of identification is easily
changed by a relocation as he or she finds it difficult for the connection to remain
constant while far away (Hunt et al., 1999). A devoted fan does not feel the pressures of
certain instances (temporary fan) or geographical location (local fan) and his or her
devotion remains constant. The devoted fan feels that his or her self-concept depends on
the identification with a sports team and will exert more effort in to maintaining this
relationship. Hunt et al. state that during this level of fandom is when the fan will begin
to buy apparel attend the team’s sporting events or watch them on television (1999). A
fanatical fan has all of the characteristics of a devoted fan but he or she acts out more
strongly and continues to do so based on an acceptance from his or her family and
friends. This fan may go above and beyond when attending sporting events, such as using
body paint or custom costumes. For the Cleveland Browns, this is notably the most
famous group of fans, the Dawg Pound (Hunt et al., 1999). A dysfunctional fan bases his
or her entire self-identification on the sports team; this is how he or she defines him or
herself. He or she feels that his or her only existence is based upon the sports team. The
dysfunction causes the fan to be “anti-social, disruptive, or deviant” (Hunt et al., 1999, p.
447) and casts a negative light on the team. The dysfunctional fan may disregard his or
her family, friends, and job, and become physically violent (Hunt et al., 1999).
9
Researchers such as Wann, Shrader, and Wilson (1999) aimed to identify the
reasons why individuals like sports, and if there is a deeper connection between sports
enjoyment and what motivates individuals to watch sports. The link between the
motivations behind an individual’s sports fandom and sports viewing has been researched
as an indicator of various outcomes, such as sports consumption (Summers, 2010) and
basking in reflected glory, which is the reaction a fan has to the successes of his or her
favorite sports team (Cialdini et al., 1976; Wann and Branscombe, 1990).
Although different levels of fandom exist, there are a few constants which remain
throughout the duration of an individual's time as a fan or member of a sports team: a
feeling of kinship, competition, and amusement (Reiss, 1989), the opportunity to
participate, to some extent, regardless of skill level, age, or health (Jacobson, 2003), and
the feeling of being a part of a group (Hirt, Zillman, Erickson, and Kennedy, 1992).
These factors contribute to the identification with the sports team and, although each
sports fan interprets them differently, influences the reaction a sports fan has to his or her
team’s successes or failures (Cialdini et al., 1976).
1.3 Basking in Reflected Glory
The concept of basking in reflected glory (BIRG) was established by Robert
Cialdini et al. (1976). The concept states that it is commonplace for an individual to show
off the successes of others in which they are connected or are “moderately important to
their self-identities” (Wann & Branscombe, 1980, p. 106), through various methods such
as publicly announcing the connection (Cialdini et al., 1976). Individuals who have a
higher association with another individual (or team) are likely to feel as though they have
an opportunity to live vicariously through these successes (Cialdini et al., 1976).
10
According to Wann and Branscombe, the higher the identification, however, the less
likely the fans will be to distance themselves from the sports team after a failure (1990).
Cialdini et al. found that the fans of college sports teams were more likely to sport
apparel after a victory and use “we” verbiage when describing a victory (e.g., “we won”)
(1976). In terms of sports teams, Bernache-Assollant, Lacassagne, and Braddock (2007)
have identified the concept as accentuating one’s connection with a team. Additionally,
Hunt et al. stated that BIRG begins with the classification of a temporary fan, but stops at
the devoted fan. A devoted fan will support his or her team consistently, whereas a
temporary or local fan would have reason(s) to BIRG (1999).
BIRG leads to the enhancement of the self-esteem and self-identification of an
individual (Cialdini et al., 1976). The purpose of BIRG is to maintain a positive
relationship with the individuals with whom one associates and thereby enhances one’s
self esteem (Cialdini et al., 1976). The main result is that an individual feels superior to
another person when BIRG because it makes him or her feel as though he or she had an
exclusive part in the success of the person, or team, in question. The individual will work
to find any detail with which he or she can identify a common ground. In the case of a
sporting event, a fan would work to create explanations to establish a common ground:
their attendance at the game, if they are from the same hometown as a player, the player’s
gender (e.g., if a woman excels in a predominantly male sport, other women will bask in
this), and may even include a religious or ethnic affiliation and sexual identity (Cialdini
et al. , 1976).
The research in the area of BIRG relating to sports fans and their level of
identification with a sports team began with Robert Cialdini et al. in 1976, but few
11
attempts have been made to replicate it. Wann and Branscombe (1990) conducted a
similar study following Cialdini, which examined a fan’s enjoyment of a successful team.
The results were a significant follow-up to BIRG, showing that individuals with a low
identification with a team were less likely to BIRG and more likely to cut off reflected
failure (‘CORF’) because the attachment to the team was not as strong as more highly-
identified individuals who did the opposite. When a fan ‘CORFs’, he or she disassociates
his or herself with an unsuccessful team, fearing it will associate him or her with the
failure. It is important to note that ‘CORF’ is not permanent and depends mostly on the
level of identification an individual feels with the team (Wann & Branscombe, 1990).
Sigelman studied political campaigns and the likelihood that supporters of
politicians would either take down or leave up their yard signs following a win or loss as
inspired by BIRG (1976). Sigelman found no significant difference in a win or loss,
contradicting Cialdini et al.’s concept of BIRG. However, other researchers such as
Grove, Hanrahan, and McInman (1991) found that people tend to positively attribute a
victory in a verbal sense, but seek any explanation to make up for a loss.
While the concept of BIRG was developed nearly four decades ago, few
researchers have followed up with this idea in relation to fans and professional sports
teams. Cialdini et al. began the literature with a study regarding college students and
identification with sports teams at their own respective colleges. A three-part study was
conducted to assess the likelihood of college students wearing their respective college
team’s apparel the week after a victory and use the term “we” while describing a victory
(Cialdini et al., 1976). Cialdini et al.’s hypotheses were supported in each of the three
parts of the study. College students were more likely to show off their team’s apparel
12
following a victory, describe the victory using the pronoun, “we,” versus “they,” and
were more likely to recall a victory in greater detail over a defeat (1976). A defeat,
however, yielded a ‘CORF’ response (1976).
In addition to a high identification with the team, Madrigal uses a model to
explain this concept that includes expectancy disconfirmation and the quality of the
component which, if combined, would lead to BIRG (1995). However, Madrigal felt that
BIRG led to more satisfaction amongst sports fans. Specifically, Madrigal takes Cialdini
et al.’s research a step further by associating attendance at the sporting event with BIRG
(1995). Thus, Madrigal states that BIRG led to satisfaction, creating a higher likelihood
that the fans would bask in reflected glory because they physically attended the game
(1995).
Furthermore, Grove et al. (1991) expanded on the research by conducting a study
amongst players, coaches, and spectators alike. The researchers aimed to seek multiple
answers for the situational factors that influence the reaction an individual has to the
victory of defeat of a sports team. The researchers added to Cialdini et al.’s previous
research by studying internal factors, which could influence the reaction a fan has to a
game. For instance, the research showed that fans found themselves more in control of
their reactions when the game resulted in a victory; however, when the game resulted in a
defeat, the reactions were less controlled (Grove et al., 1991).
Bernache-Assollant, Lacassagne, and Braddock (2007) added that a high
identification with the team helps to make the decision of what reaction to display.
Bernache-Assollant et al. aimed to replicate Cialdini et al. by comparing two groups of
highly identified soccer fans who rooted for the same team were compared (2007). The
13
authors wanted to show that both groups would bask in reflected glory, but would blast,
or put down, fans with a low identification with the team. The findings were consistent
with Cialdini et al., indicating once again that fans were more likely to use the pronoun,
“we” following a victory (Bernache-Assollant et al., 2007). Also, the fans were impartial
on blasting, or putting down, the outsiders. One of the soccer fan groups tended to blast
more often than the other but the reason was unknown (Bernache-Assollant et al., 2007).
When added to Cialdini et al.’s research, the studies by Wann and Branscombe
(1990) and Bernache-Assollant (2007) could evoke the explanation that a sports fan
would be less likely to wear apparel or use the pronoun, “we,” after a defeat because the
emotions would be disconnected. On the contrary, when the game resulted in a victory,
the emotions are controllable through wearing team apparel (Cialdini et al., 1976). When
combining both findings, the fan would feel satisfied through showing off the apparel and
it would be constituted as BIRG, but in a more controlled setting.
Winegard and Deaner offered an explanation for levels of emotion involved in
BIRG through factors such as gender, harm, purity, fairness or loyalty, which is in
relation to identification with the team (2010). Specifically, the authors felt that the
identification in the team positively correlated with loyalty and the results supported their
hypothesis (Winegard & Deaner, 2010). Also, men were more likely to feel authoritative
and pure over other fans which correlated with a high level of fandom and loyalty. The
authors stated that this result traces back to sports warfare (tackling, running, etc.) and the
natural ability of men to feel more connected to competition. The authors felt that the
reasons for the natural connection men have to the warfare in sports are evolutionary in
14
human history (Winegard & Deaner, 2010). The results in this study offer a more
intricate explanation to the previous literature, as it is the most updated research.
While BIRG has not been as widely researched as other aspects of sports fandom,
it has come full circle due in part to its most dedicated researchers. The relationship
between the identification a fan demonstrates with a sports team and the reactions based
on this have been the focus of research by Cialdini (1976), Wann and Branscombe
(1990), and Madrigal (1995). Further, the pronominal usage based on the distance
between the fan and sports team, factoring in success or failure, has been the focus of
research by Bernache-Assollant et al. (2007). Finally, Winegard and Deaner (2010) focus
on the levels of emotion associated with sports fandom based on factors at a more
intricate level, such as gender. There are many factors that attribute to BIRG; however,
the updated research has not focused solely on individuals engaging in interaction via
online social networks.
1.4 Social Media and Sports Fans
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) has shown that “the passage of
information from one person to another is becoming obsolete” (Riva and Galimberti,
1998, p. 435) and is often the predictor of interpersonal relationships (Walther, 2011).
The most important aspect of CMC in relation to sports fandom research is that the
individuals interacting via computer-mediated communication share a common goal or
characteristic (Clark & Schaefer, 1989; Riva and Galimberti, 1998). However, nonverbal
interaction is removed from CMC and a “lack of nonverbal cues led [them] to become
self-focused” (Walther, 2010, p. 446), and users are more apt to become “resistant to
influence, disinhibited, belligerent, and affectively negative” (Walther, 2010, p. 446).
15
Social media, a form of computer-mediated communication, has been a growing
phenomenon since its discovery in the mid-1990s with networking websites such as
Classmates.com (1995), SixDegrees.com (1997), and TheGlobe.com (1998). The 21st
century brought about the more widely known and researched social networking websites
such as MySpace (2003), Facebook (2004), and Twitter (2006) (Edwards, 2011). The
evolution of websites such as these has amplified the research in the area of computer-
mediated communication because of the increase in the amount of ways users are able to
communicate on social networking sites.
The definition of social media has evolved just as much as the websites that make
up the world of Social Networking Sites (SNS). Blog entries and web articles are
dedicated to dissecting the definition of this term. Based on the 30 definitions of social
media formulated by popular websites and collected by blogger Heidi Cohen, the most
common theme amongst the definitions is communication between users: the purpose of
SNS is to encourage users to communicate freely. Users are able to communicate in real-
time through various online tools. The content being shared on SNS via online tools are
limitless, from photographs to videos, statements to essays, and experiences to opinions
(30 social media definitions, 2011).
SNS, as defined by Boyd and Ellison (2008), are “web-based services that allow
individuals to (1) construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2)
articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, (3) view and traverse
their list of connections and those made by others within the system. (p. 2)’’ Facebook,
the most popular SNS in history with over 500 million users or 1 out of every 13 people
16
in the world utilizing it (One in 13 people on the planet…, 2011), has been the most
researched SNS in academia but still holds many gaps.
Facebook is also a popular outlet for sports fans and offers a new, simpler way for
them to communicate. Research by GMR Marketing has shown that 41% of people turn
to Facebook or Twitter for sports news versus other forms of mass media such as sports
radio (4%) or television (13%). Of this number, 86% of sports fans log on to retrieve
sports news while at their desk at work. While sitting inside of a sports stadium
witnessing a live game, 63% of spectators will turn to social media for sports updates
(How much do sports fans love social media?, 2011).
As of 2011, the most popular NFL team on Facebook is the Dallas Cowboys with
over 2,300,000 Likes on their official Facebook Fan Page. The Cleveland Browns were
the 23rd most popular team on Facebook with over 500,000 Likes on their official
Facebook Fan Page (The most popular NFL teams according to Facebook, 2011). As of
2011, the Cleveland Browns were the 16th Most Popular NFL Team on Twitter (Cowboys
lead all NFL teams…, 2011).
The research bridging the gap between sports fans and online SNS has continued
to evolve, considering the ever-changing technologies and new interactive features
becoming available on online SNS. The Internet allows individuals to communicate in an
incredible way through various means, and dissecting the behaviors exhibited on the SNS
is an integral part of understanding why users of these websites act out accordingly in
situations, such as ones involving their favorite sports team (Faloutsous, Karagiannis, and
Moon, 2010).
17
1.5 Spiral of Silence
Spiral of silence theory was developed by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann (1974).
Noelle-Neumann developed the spiral of silence theory in relation to public opinion and
its dependency on an individual’s observation of a mass media environment before
expressing his or her opinions (Pan & McLeod, 1991). The basic principles of the spiral
of silence theory include an individual’s perception of the opinions of the majority based
on the media and personal experience, and the willingness of individuals to express their
opinions openly when it is included in the majority (Jeffres, Neuendorf, & Atkin, 1999;
Jeffres, Neuendorf, Bracken, & Atkin, 2009). If he or she is in the majority, the
individual feels higher self-esteem and finds it easier to speak out while shutting out the
opposing opinion (Noelle-Neumann, 1974). If the individual is in the minority, he or she
feels less certain, which introduces the possibility of a dangerous situation (Noelle-
Neumann, 1974), induces a fear of isolation from the majority (Jeffres, Neuendorf, &
Atkin, 1999) and feels less power (Noelle-Neumann, 1974).
Wheeless (1975) offers a possible explanation to the fear of putting one’s self in a
dangerous situation with the concept of receiver apprehension. The possibility of
disagreeing with the majority opinion causes anxiety for the sender, thus creating a fear
that the individual may not be correctly processing the information he or she is reading,
misinterpreting current information, or may not be at the same psychological level as the
sender(s).
Jeffres, Neuendorf, and Atkin state that the “heart of the spiral of silence” is
conformity and the pressure to be in the majority before speaking out (1999, p. 116).
However, isolation is not the only factor in the decision made by the minority to refrain
18
from speaking out; the opinion climate has been shown to be the largest motivating factor
(Noelle-Newmann, 1974).
Noelle-Neumann identified a relationship between individuals with a strong
opinion and their willingness to speak out regardless of whether they are in the minority.
The key to the spiral of silence theory is the focus on individuals who do not exhibit
strong-willed opinions and their willingness to speak out (1974), which depends largely
on the strength of one’s opinion and the opinion climate. An individual with strong, or
hardcore, opinions will not be dependent on the climate, as he or she will express this
opinion regardless. For the individual feeling less certain about his or her opinion, the
climate and attitude certainty are deciding factors (Matthes, Rios Morrison, & Schemer,
2010). The individual will seek out information on what is considered the majority
opinion to determine if his or her opinion aligns with the majority (Jeffres, Neuendorf &
Atkin, 1999). However, other factors can easily influence a person’s willingness to speak
out: level of knowledge on the topic, interest in the topic, importance of the topic to the
individual, and confidence (Hayes, 2007). It is also important to note that cultural factors,
such as race or ethnicity, play a large role in the willingness to speak out (Jeffres,
Neuendorf & Atkin, 1999).
The spiral of silence theory is becoming increasingly popular in relation to online
discussions and research regarding the individuals engaging in discussion through online
social networks is on the rise. One of the first studies of computer-mediated discussions
was by McDevitt, Kiousis, and Wahl-Jorgensen, conducted in 2003. McDevitt et al.
hypothesized that individuals in the minority would be less likely to express their
opinions in both face-to-face communication and computer-mediated discussion and
19
individuals, regardless of opinion, are perceived as more moderate in a computer-
mediated setting over face-to-face communication (2003). The results showed limited
support for the spiral of silence theory, as individuals in the minority were more moderate
than the majority, but the findings were not significant (McDevitt, Kiousis & Wahl-
Jorgensen, 2003).
Additionally, computer-mediated communication was found to take a longer
amount of time, produce longer and more thought-out ideas, and allow for an equal
amount of participation between the individuals in discussion (Bordia, 1997). In a more
recent study, Yun and Park found that selective posting played a rule in online
discussions through computer-mediated communication, which showed that individuals
strengthened their original opinion and did not take the opposing opinion into account
(2011).
Research in computer-mediated communication has been most frequently
conducted on political discussion most frequently. However, in the 2011 Catalyst Fan
Engagement Study, 2,000 sports fans were surveyed regarding their online engagement
with their favorite sports team. The results showed that 80% of sports fans were
connected to their favorite sports team through Facebook. Additionally, 55% of fans
found themselves motivated to purchase brands supported by the athletes they follow on
Facebook (Catalyst Public Relations, 2011). Facebook is a prime example of the power
computer-mediated communication has over sports fans.
Although the Internet and SNS serve as a method of communication between
sports fans and a connection with their favorite sports team, it has also been used as
surveillance for the police to detect violence prior to sporting events in the United
20
Kingdom, specifically for dysfunctional fans, or ‘hooligans,’ as they are referred in the
U.K. Most importantly, SNS have offered a new way for fans to connect, communicate,
organize meet ups, and stay up-to-date on sports news and scores to satisfy a personal
interest or for fantasy football leagues (Hunt et al., 1999; McLean & Wainwright, n.d.).
Overall, it has aided in the process of sports fans’ overall interaction with their favorite
sports team(s).
1.6 Language Use and Social or Group Identity
At the forefront of BIRG is the language used when discussing topics related to an
individual’s sports team. Language, in this instance, will be defined as a “mapping
between form and meaning” (Asudeh, 2011, p. 2). Cialdini et al. focuses on pronominal
usage and the ways sports fans express emotion through language use (1976).
As defined by the Merriam-Webster, a pronoun is “any of a small set of words in
a language that are used as substitutes for nouns or noun phrases and whose referents are
named or understood in the context” (Merriam-Webster dictionary, 2012). For the
purpose of this research, personal pronouns will be the main focus of language usage. A
personal pronoun “expresses a distinction of person” (Merriam-Webster dictionary,
2012). Based on the usage of personal pronouns, the degree of involvement an individual
has with the subject and level of attempted rapport he or she is attempting to make with
the subject can be estimated (Fortanet, 2004).
Previous research by Brown and Levinson focused on pronominal usage and its
connection to politeness. Including the pronoun “we” indicated politeness between the
individual speaking and the person(s) to which he or she was speaking of or to,
respectively (2004). Pronominal usage is intended to indicate a degree of distance
21
between the speaker and subject (Brown & Levinson, 2004), in which the distance
showcases a level of closeness (Kamio, 2001) and group membership (Scheibman, 2004).
Kamio states the highest level of closeness is the use of the pronoun, “we,” whereas third
person pronouns such as “they,” refer to a “psychologically very distant” level of
closeness (2001). It is important to note that the relationship between the speaker, subject,
and pronominal usage is not always fixed and can sometimes only be determined by the
context used and remainder of information given (Kamio, 2001).
In a study of teaching assistants in higher education, academic lectures were
analyzed for pronominal usage. The lectures that used the pronoun, “we,” more often
were considered to be more successful (Rounds, 1987), as they referred to the class and
teaching assistant collectively. However, this expression of inclusive versus exclusive
language has social and interpersonal consequences (Duszak, 2002). Research on
inclusive and exclusive language usage is believed to have originated in the mid-1800s
and varied by cultural language, but the ideas surrounding inclusion and exclusion date
back to the 1600s (Haas, 1969). There has been some controversy with the use of
pronouns, one in particular dealing with the reference of a group of people as “we.”
Research has shown that the first person plural pronoun, “we” often denotes an
authoritative claim by the individual and thus, he or she is speaking on behalf of a group
of people (Pennycook, 1994). However, the usage of first person plural pronouns such as
“we” or “us” denoting a relationship between groups of people promotes group
cohesiveness, belonging, and shows an overall positive evaluation of the ingroup being
referred to (Ruscher, 2001). The characteristics of a cohesive group include “intragroup
conformity, intergroup differentiation, stereotypic perception, ethnocentrism, and positive
22
intermember attitude” (Hogg & Hains, 2001, p. 110). In other words, there is a specific
perceived prototype (Hogg & Hains, 2001) for groups such as fans of a particular sports
team which explains why, from an outsider’s perspective, they are referred to
collectively.
Cohn, Mehl, and Pennebaker (2004) found that in relation to events and tragedies
that range from a small to large scale, such as September 11th, these events lead to more
first person plural pronominal usage in order to feel group cohesiveness. On the contrary,
third person pronouns such as “they” or “them” show a distance between the ingroup and
outgroup, in which the outgroup receives a negative evaluation (Ruscher, 2001). Thus,
individuals belonging to the same group tend to mimic each other through language
(Gonzales, Hancock & Pennebaker, 2010) in order to achieve consistent group
cohesiveness and belonging.
The feeling of being a part of a group’s identity raises an individual’s self-esteem
(Cialdini, 1976) and causes the individual to make an “effort to increase or decrease
association with a group” (Ruscher, 2001, p. 36). Inclusion in a group plays a role in
constructing an individual’s self-identity (Hogg & Hains, 2001). Research has also shown
that members of outgroups are more likely to elicit negative behaviors than ingroups
(Howard & Rothbart, 1980), as the outgroup’s self-esteem is lowered and, therefore, must
make up for the negative evaluation in other ways. Although a negative evaluation is
made of an outgroup, others tend to justify the factors which formed the outgroup in
order to be less judgmental (Ruscher, 2001), such as an explanation of why a sports team
lost a game. However, the blame is still placed on the team because the game resulted in
a loss regardless of the circumstances surrounding it. According to Haridakis (2010),
23
members of ingroups form strategies in order to keep a consistent social identity. For
example, members of the ingroup display similar behaviors, feel biased towards others,
and treat outgroup members negatively.
Sports fans, like many other groups, have needs in order to maintain their social
identities (Haridakis, 2010) which are filled by sports teams and the feeling of holding a
unique group membership. The group membership can also be traced back to a specific
community such as a “university, city, or other geographic locale represented by a team”
or a national identity, such as the Olympic Games (Haridakis, 2010, p. 250).
Being a part of a sports team is an aspect of one’s life that has the ability to shape
the way he or she lives his or her life. From an early age, individuals begin to form their
own self-identities, most often fueled by others. For reasons that some research has
already answered, sports fans act out toward instances related to their favorite teams in a
way much different from those of an ordinary person would to an event in their everyday
life. It is a powerful phenomenon and further explains why sports fan behavior is so
widely studied and will continue to be as competition becomes more intense between
sports teams and players. Usage of personal pronouns, particularly “us” and “we,”
indicates the highest level of closeness and this closeness is often felt the most when the
individual is a part of an ingroup (Brown & Levinson, 2004; Kamio, 2011; Rounds,
1987; Scheibman, 2004). Thus, members SNS can identify as a member of an ingroup
and pronominal usage via SNS can help to form the social identity of a sports fan (Hunt
et al., 1999; McLean & Wainwright, n.d.).
24
1.7 Rationale
This study aims to build on previous research by Cialdini et al. (1976) in relation
to a professional sports team and its fan base. In a city where sports are highly valued
such as in Cleveland, it is interesting to note the continuous disappointment of the team in
terms of the inability to reach the playoffs, let alone the Super Bowl. The disappointment
fans feel could have the ability to affect their emotions associated with a victory or
defeat. In continuous seasons without a winning record, the results aim to show that the
identification with the team will still remain high.
Cialdini et al. (1976) aimed to study face-to-face communication between college
sports fans and their motivations to bask in reflected glory. The purpose of the study is to
examine whether Cialdini et al.’s concept of BIRG would apply to computer-mediated
communication involving professional sports fans and Noelle-Neumann’s spiral of
silence theory via online social networks.
1.8 Pilot Study
A pilot study was conducted as a part of COM 633, Content Analysis Research
Methods (Dr. K. Neuendorf, instructor) at Cleveland State University during fall term,
2011. This pilot study informed the subsequent research conducted for this thesis. The
purpose of the pilot study was to determine whether fans of the Official Cleveland
Browns Facebook Page were more likely to speak out in a positive or negative way
following a victory or defeat. One status update made by the Administrator immediately
following a victory and one immediately following a defeat were analyzed. Further,
whether the fans made references to the future of the team was analyzed. All analysis was
conducted in Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count.
25
The results showed that positive emotions were correlated with a victory. Anger
was also correlated with a victory. Self words were negatively correlated with a victory
and sadness. Finally, fans were more likely to refer to the Cleveland Browns using third
person pronouns, categorized as Other, such as “them” and “they” and were more likely
to use words referencing the future when doing so. Refer to Appendix B for additional
details on the Pilot Study.
1.9 Hypotheses/Research Questions
So far, the literature has shown that the concept of BIRG includes the usage of pronouns
indicating an implied distance from the sports team and the likelihood that the fan will
wear apparel after the team’s victory. The following hypotheses and research question
were guided by Cialdini et al.’s concept of BIRG:
H1: Fans who score lower on the Sports Fan Motivation Scale are more likely to
indicate less pride in the city of Cleveland than fans that score higher on the
Sports Fan Motivation Scale.
H2: The higher a fan rates his or her level of fandom, the more likely he or she is
to use first personal singular and plural pronouns when describing the Cleveland
Browns.
RQ1: Is there a significant correlation between referencing the future and the type
of emotional language used when speaking about the Cleveland Browns?
RQ2: Is there a significant correlation between how high a fan rates his or herself
and the negative emotions toward Art Modell?
The spiral of silence theory predicts the likelihood that a fan will speak out when in the
majority or minority opinion, depending on the opinion climate. The following
26
hypotheses and research question were guided by Noelle-Neumann’s spiral of silence
theory:
H3: Fans who are more likely to speak out when they are in the minority opinion
are more likely to wear Cleveland Browns apparel after a loss than fans who are
more likely to speak out when they are in the majority opinion.
RQ3: What factors predict willingness to speak out when in the minority opinion
with regard to the Cleveland Browns?
27
CHAPTER II
METHODS
The participants (n=499) were collected via Facebook, Twitter, Reddit, and
various Cleveland Browns and professional football blogs. Purposive sampling was used.
The sample was limited such only those Cleveland Browns fans that rated their personal
fandom as a six or above on a scale of 0 to 10 (hereby known as Fan Rate) were included
in the final data set. Of the 499 completed surveys, 69.94% (n=349) of the participants fit
in to this set.
A cross-sectional survey was administered to participants on Survey Monkey, a
web-based survey company. The survey was made up of several open-ended questions
regarding the 2011-2012 Cleveland Browns football season. As shown in Appendix A,
the survey included two scales: the Sports Fan Motivation Scale (Appendix F) and the
Willingness to Self-Censor Scale (Appendix G). As shown in the survey, located in
Appendix A, various Cleveland Browns fandom-related questions were asked, ranging
from how long the participant has been a fan to who they watch Cleveland Browns games
with and where. The participant was asked about his or her media habits, including how
many hours he or she spends watching television, on the Internet, and reading the
newspaper. Personality traits, such as how willing the participant is to speak out when he
28
or she has an opinion, were asked next. The uses and gratifications of being a Cleveland
Browns fan, which detailed the reasons why the participant is a fan, followed personality
traits. Next, a social media use section asked if the participant connected with the
Cleveland Browns via social networking websites. Then, the participants’ feelings and
pride toward various elements pertaining to the city of Cleveland were measured. Finally,
demographic information was collected. At the conclusion of the survey, participants
were given the opportunity to opt-in to a drawing for a $25 Cleveland Browns Team
Shop Gift Card.
2.1 Sports Fan Motivation Scale
The Sports Fan Motivation scale was developed in 1995 by Daniel L. Wann.
Wann developed the scale to measure the motivations of sports fans based on eight
factors: Eustress, self-esteem, escape, entertainment, economic, aesthetic, group
affiliation, and family, and included 23 total measures in the scale. Eustress encompasses
the stimulation one feels from watching sports, including physiological arousal. Self-
esteem encompasses all of the good feelings one experiences while watching sports.
Escape allows the individual to feel that his or her problems are non-existent while
watching sports. Entertainment serves as a form of recreation for individuals. The
economic value in sports maintains that individuals are able to bet on sporting events.
Sports can be a form of beauty for individuals, which is measured by aesthetic.
Individuals who enjoy watching sports with other people feel a sense of group affiliation
from spectating. Finally, watching sports allows and individual to bond with his or her
spouse or family, and is measured by the family factor.
29
2.2 Willingness to Self-Censor Scale
Hayes et al. (1997) developed the Willingness to Self-Censor scale, using eight
items to measure how willing an individual is to censor his or herself in response to
another individual’s opinion. For the purpose of this research, the scale was edited to
reflect the Cleveland Browns. The scale measured the likelihood that the individual
would express his or her opinion based on what others think. Furthermore, it addresses
what the individual would do when a disagreement arises. The way an individual feels
when he or she disagrees with another individual’s opinion, by way of this scale, is
determined by two things: whether the individual agrees or disagrees with the other
individual, and the way he or she feels when the other individual does not have consistent
feelings with his or her opinion toward the Cleveland Browns. Please refer to Appendix
G.
2.3 Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count
Additionally, three open-ended questions were included, with a plan to content
analyze the responses using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count. These questions asked
participants to (1) explain how and when the Cleveland Browns will make it to the Super
Bowl, (2) to recall a specific professional football game from the Cleveland Browns
2011-2012 season and explain any details the participant can recall, and (3) to describe
who Art Modell is and their feelings toward him.
Computerized Text Analysis is a way to study the language an individual uses for
instances such as ‘BIRG’ via computer-mediated communication. The history of text
analysis dates back to the beginning of the 20th century when psychologists discovered
that the way an individual speaks can provide clues to their intentions. Computerized text
30
analysis began in the 1960s. Researchers later discovered that content analysis of text
could highlight patterns in an individual’s thoughts to aid in psychiatric diagnosis
(Tausczik & Pennebaker, 2010).
Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count was developed by James W. Pennebaker,
Roger J. Booth, and Martha E. Francis (LIWC: Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count,
2007). LIWC harbors its own dictionaries and processes text for analysis. Dictionaries
are the “collection of words that define a particular category” (Pennebaker, Francis, &
Booth, 2001). There are 80 categories included in LIWC, with the option to add custom
dictionaries for analysis. LIWC can analyze any amount of text, from a short email to a
speech, in seconds. More specifically, LIWC can recognize the pronominal usage in the
computer-mediated messages being analyzed in this research study and give more insight
to a sports fan’s emotions and motivations, respectively. The pronominal output variables
are known as function words, and are categorized in Table I:
Table I Pronominal Representation in LIWC
Examples Words in Category Total Pronouns I, Them, Itself 116
Personal Pronouns I, Them, Her 70
1st Person Singular I, Me, Mine 12
1st Person Plural We, Us, Our 12
2nd Person You, Your, Thou 20
3rd Person Singular She, Her, Him 17
3rd Person Plural They, Their, They’d 10
Impersonal Pronouns It, It’s, Those 46 Source: Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count
The research also focused on the emotions felt by participants, whether positive or
negative. The emotion output variables are categorized in Table II:
31
Table II Affective and Cognitive Processes in LIWC
Examples Words in Category Affective Processes Happy, ugly, bitter 915
Positive Emotions Happy, pretty, good 405
Negative Emotions Hate, worthless, enemy 499
Anxiety Nervous, afraid, intense 91
Anger Hate, kill, pissed 184
Sadness Grief, cry, sad 101
Cognitive Processes Cause, know, outright 730
Insight Think, know, consider 195
Causation Because, effect, hence 108
Discrepancy Should, would, could 76
Tentative Maybe, perhaps, guess 155
Certainty Certain, always, never 83
Inhibition Block, constrain 111
Inclusive With, and, include 18
Exclusive But, except, without 17 Source: Provalis Research
Finally, the research focused on indications of relativity of time. In specific, references to
the future. The relativity of time output variables are categorized in Table III:
Table III Relativity of Time Representation in LIWC
Examples Words in Category Relativity
Time Past, present, future 239 Source: Provalis Research
32
CHAPTER III
RESULTS
3.1 Survey Sample Description
As shown in Appendix C, the sample was made up of 89.3% males (n=308) and
10.7% females (n=37). The average age of the participants was 33.03 years old and the
participants ranged in age from 18 to 74 years old. The average amount of time a
participant has lived in Cleveland was 17.51 years and 29% (n=101) indicated that they
were not Cleveland-area residents, and participants were located as far away as the
United Kingdom.
As shown in Appendix C, the participants indicated an average time of 24.24
years as a fan of the Cleveland Browns. On a scale of 0 to 10, 60.5% (n=211) of the
participants indicated that they were diehard fans of the Cleveland Browns, with a mean
of 9.04. Season ticket holders made up 8.3% (n=29) of the sample and indicated that they
have held season tickets for one to 44 years, with an average of 11.07 years. Members of
the Browns Backers Fan Club made up 35.4% (n=122) of the participants. Participants
indicated they have been to an average of 18.15 games in their lifetime, with a range of
zero to 200 games.
33
On a scale of 0 to 10 regarding how knowledgeable a participant considers
himself or herself on the Cleveland Browns, 22.9% (n=80) considered himself or herself
a Cleveland Browns expert and the mean was 8.79. When asked what the Cleveland
Browns 2011-2012 season record (four wins, 12 losses) was, 91.1% (n=316) answered
with the correct amount of wins, while 89.6% (n=311) answered with the correct amount
of losses. An average of 1.29 games were attended by participants during the 2011-2012
preseason and regular season.
As shown in Appendix E, as of April 2012, the Cleveland Browns Official
Facebook Page had 552,008 “Likes” (Figure E1) and the Official Twitter Page had
85,767 followers (Figure E2). A total of 50.4% (n=176) of the participants surveyed
indicated they “Like” the Cleveland Browns Official Facebook Page and 43.8% (n=153)
indicated they follow the Official Twitter Page. On a scale of one to six (1=Never and
6=Very Frequently), 1.4% (n=5) indicated they visit the Official Cleveland Browns
Facebook Fan Page every day, while 50.4% (n=176) never visit the page. Participants
indicated the following interactions with the Official Facebook Page: 81.5% (n=297)
never start new Wall posts, 74.8% (n=261) never post a comment in response to the
Administrator (the Cleveland Browns), and 76.5% (n=267) never comment in response to
another user’s post. On the contrary, 1.4% (n=5) very frequently start a new Wall post,
.9% (n=3) very frequently comment in response to the Administrator, and .3% (n=1) very
frequently comment in response to another user’s post.
3.2 Scale Construction
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to conduct a principal
components factor analysis on the Sports Fan Motivation Scale. An attempt was made to
34
confirm Wann’s (1995) SFMS scale by using an Oblimin oblique rotation. The original
scale by Wann (1995) was found to result in eight factors: Group affiliation, economic,
escape, aesthetic, self-esteem, eustress, entertainment, and family. The first, group
affiliation, included the enjoyment of sports when one is watching with a group of people
and feeling as though he or she is a member of the ingroup. The second factor, economic,
included watching sports for the sake of betting on the games. The third factor, escape,
included the enjoyment of sports as a means of escaping personal problems. The fourth
factor, aesthetic, included the artistic value, or beauty, in sports. The fifth factor, self-
esteem, included heightened self-esteem when his or her team is successful. The sixth
factor, eustress, included a physiological stimulation felt by sports viewing. The seventh
factor, entertainment, included positive feelings felt during sports viewing. The final
factor, family, included the benefits of bonding over sports with family and/or one’s
spouse.
However, this study’s attempt resulted in only seven factors when the default
latent root criterion was used for factor extraction. When a second analysis, forcing an
eight-factor solution was conducted, the factor structure resembled but did not precisely
confirm the Wann (1995) structure. The eight-factor solution is displayed in Appendix F.
When the default latent root criterion was used and resulted in seven factors, eustress and
self-esteem had overlapping items, as did group affiliation and self-esteem; therefore, the
self-esteem factor was completely eliminated from the first analysis. Thus, the factor
analysis was not used in this research to construct the eight Sports Fan Motivation Scale
subscales. Each participant’s score was computed for each of the eight subscales as
defined by Wann (1995) via a simple summation.
35
The Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency reliabilities for the eight Sports Fan
Motivation Scale subscales for this study were: Escape (.873), economic (.722), eustress
(.575), aesthetic (.807), self-esteem (.515), group affiliation (.622), entertainment (.522),
and family (.674). The overall Cronbach’s alpha for the 23-item SFMS was .777.
3.3 Results Summary for H1
H1 predicted that fans who scored lower on the Sports Fan Motivation Scale were
more likely to indicate less pride in the city of Cleveland than fans that score higher on
the Sports Fan Motivation Scale. Again, only participants who rated themselves as a 5 or
higher on a scale of 1 to 10 regarding their level of Cleveland Browns fandom (known as
Fan Rate) were used in this analysis. The participants were asked to complete the Sports
Fan Motivation Scale, which included 23 items. The scale was a 5-point Likert scale,
with 1=Strongly Disagree and 5=Strongly Agree. The participants were also asked to
indicate the level of pride in the city of Cleveland based on its sports teams, economy,
tourism value, health care, and overall. The response scale ranged from 0 to 10 with
0=Not at all Proud and 10=Very Proud. The SFMS scores were correlated with the five
questions referencing pride in the city of Cleveland and the hypothesis was supported.
Participants who scored higher on the Sports Fan Motivation scale showed a significant
correlation with each measurement of pride, including overall pride in the city of
Cleveland, thus supporting H1. The correlations were all significant at p < .01. The
results are shown in Table IV:
36
Table IV Sports Fan Motivation Scale, Fan Rate, and Pride in the city of Cleveland
SFMS_Total Fan Rate Sports Teams Economy Tourism Value Health Care Overall SFMS_Total Pearson Correlation 1 .155(**) .242(**) .148(**) .165(**) .221(**) .195(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .004 <.001 .006 .002 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Fan Rate Pearson Correlation .155(**) 1 .312(**) .121(**) .164(**) .206(**) .352(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .004 <.001 .024 .002 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Sports Teams Pearson Correlation .242(**) .312(**) 1 .536(**) .513(**) .369(**) .657(**)
Sig. (2-talked) <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Economy Pearson Correlation .148(**) .121(**) .536(**) 1 .640(**) .369(**) .499(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .006 .024 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Tourism Value Pearson Correlation .165(**) .164(**) .513(**) .640(**) 1 .403(**) .562(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .002 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Health Care Pearson Correlation .221(**) .206(**) .369(**) .369(**) .403(**) 1 .519(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Overall Pearson Correlation .195(**) .352(**) .657(**) .499(**) .562(**) .519(**) 1
Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
37
3.4 Results Summary for H2
H2 predicted that the higher a fan rates his or her level of fandom, the more likely
he or she would use first personal singular and plural pronouns when describing the
Cleveland Browns. An open-ended question asked participants to predict when and how
the Cleveland Browns will make it to, and win, the Super Bowl. A content analysis was
conducted using LIWC and accounted for the first person singular and plural pronouns
used by participants. The correlation between how high of a fan he or she rates his or
herself (as mentioned previously, participants that rated their personal fandom higher
than a 5 on a scale of 0 to 10 were included in this analysis). Pronouns referencing We
and Self were significantly correlated with Fan Rate at p < .01, thus partially supporting
H2. The results are shown in Table V below:
Table V Fan Rate and Pronominal Usage
Fan Rate I We Self
Fan Rate Pearson Correlation 1 .091 .132(**) .159(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .091 .014 .003
N 349 349 349 349
I Pearson Correlation .091 1 -.024 .699(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .091 .651 <.001
N 349 349 349 349
We Pearson Correlation .132(**) -.024 1 .698(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .014 .651 <.001
N 349 349 349 349
Self Pearson Correlation .159(**) .699(**) .698(**) 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .003 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
3.5 Results Summary for H3
H3 predicted that fans who were more likely to speak out about the Browns when
they are in the minority opinion were more likely to wear Cleveland Browns apparel after
a loss than fans who are more likely to speak out when they are in the majority opinion.
38
As mentioned previously, measures were included to determine whether the fan would
speak out if he or she is in the minority opinion and had positive things to say, the
minority opinion and had negative things to say, the majority opinion and had positive
things to say, or in the majority opinion and had negative things to say. Additionally,
participants were asked to indicate how often they wear Cleveland Browns apparel
(1=Never and 5=Very Often), and how likely they were to wear Cleveland Browns
apparel after a win and after a loss (1=Not Likely at all and 5=Very Likely). The
findings for fans in the minority opinion regardless of their feelings and fans in the
majority opinion regardless of their feelings were nearly identical and, therefore, the
hypothesis was unsupported. All of the correlations were significant at p < .01 when fans
were in the minority opinion had positive things to say and wore apparel after a loss.
However, there were significant correlations between how likely a fan was to wear
apparel regardless of a win or loss, and regardless of whether the fan was in the majority
or minority, and also regardless of whether the fan had positive or negative things to say..
The results are shown in Table VI:
39
Table VI Likelihood to Wear Apparel and Opinion Response
Apparel – Wear
Apparel – Win Apparel – Loss Majority/Positive
Majority/Negative
Minority/Positive
Minority/Negative
Apparel – Wear Pearson Correlation 1 .705(**) .729(**) .186(**) .111(*) .242(**) .157(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 <.001 <.001 .038 <.001 .003
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Apparel – Win Pearson Correlation .705(**) 1 .706(**) .259(**) .172(**) .275(**) .147(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 <.001 <.001 .001 .001 .006
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Apparel - Loss Pearson Correlation .729(**) .259(**) 1 .198(**) .078 .254(**) .129(*)
Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 <.001 <.001 .148 <.001 .016
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Majority/Positive Pearson Correlation .186(**) .259(**) .198(**) 1 .467(**) .476(**) .361(**)
Sig. (2-talked) <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Majority/Negative Pearson Correlation .111(*) .172(**) .078 .467(**) 1 .298(**) .568(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .038 .001 .148 <.001 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Minority/Positive Pearson Correlation .242(**) .275(**) .254(**) .476(**) .298(**) 1 .510(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Minority/Negative Pearson Correlation .157(**) .147(**) .129(*) .361(**) .568(**) .510(**) 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .003 .006 .016 .003 <.001 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
40
3.6 Results Summary for RQ1
RQ1 asked if there was a significant correlation present between referencing the
future and the type of language used when expressing positive or negative emotions
about the Browns. A content analysis was conducted in LIWC on the open-ended
question which asked participants to predict when and how the Cleveland Browns will
make it to, and win, the Super Bowl. Specifically, a correlation was run between
references to the future and positive and negative emotions, such as sadness, anger,
positive emotions, and negative emotions. There were significant correlations at p < .01
between the future and positive emotions, positive feelings, and optimism. The results are
shown in Table VII:
41
Table VII Relativity of Time and Affective and Cognitive Processes
Future Anxiety Anger Sadness Cognitive Mechanis
m
Pos. Emotions
Pos. Feelings
Optimism Neg.
Emotions
Future Pearson
Correlation 1 -.065 -.080 .053 -.075 .116(*) .253(**) .117(*) -.019
Sig. (2-tailed) .227 .138 .322 .163 .031 <.001 .030 .726
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Anxiety Pearson
Correlation -.065 1 -.023 .181(**) .017 -.030 .004 -.012 .139(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .227 .670 .001 .756 .576 .942 .818 .009
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Anger Pearson Correlation
-.080 -.023 1 -.016 .128(*) -.038 .003 -.091 .541(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .138` .670 .764 .017 .480 .956 .089 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Sadness Pearson
Correlation .053 .181(**) -.016 1 -.015 -.036 .055 -.019 .645(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .322 .001 .764 .777 .508 .306 .725 <.001
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Cognitive Mechanism
Pearson Correlation
-.075 .017 .128(*) -.015 1 .253(**) -.013 .198(**) .065
Sig. (2-tailed) .163 .756 .017 .777 <.001 .803 <.001 .225
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Positive Emotions
Pearson Correlation
.116(*) -.030 -.038 -.036 .253(**) 1 .112(*) .839(**) -.056
Sig. (2-tailed) .031 .576 .480 .508 <.001 .037 <.001 .296
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Positive Feelings Pearson
Correlation .253(**) .004 .003 .055 -.013 .112(*) 1 -.060 .031
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .942 .956 .306 .803 .037 .263 .565
42
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Optimism Pearson
Correlation .117(*) -.012 -.091 -.019 .198(**) .839(**) -.060 1 -.088
Sig. (2-tailed) .030 .818 .089 .725 <.001 <.001 .263 .102
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
Negative Emotions
Pearson Correlation
-.019 .139(**) .541(**) .645(**) .065 -.056 .031 -.088 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .726 .009 <.001 <.001 .225 .296 .565 .102
N 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349 349
43
3.7 Results Summary for RQ2
RQ2 asked if there was a significant correlation between how high a fan rates his
or her fandom and the negative emotions toward Art Modell. A content analysis was
conducted in LIWC on the open-ended question which asked participants who Art
Modell is and to indicate their feelings towards him. No significant findings were made.
The results are shown in Table VIII below:
Table VIII Fan Rate and Negative Emotions
Negative Emotion
s
Anxiety
Anger Sadnes
s Death
Fan Rate Pearson
Correlation .096 .035 .103 .057 .077
Sig. (2-tailed)
.072 .520 .054 .291 .149
N 349 349 349 349 349
3.8 Results Summary for RQ3
RQ3 asked what factors predict willingness to speak out when in the minority
opinion with regard to the Cleveland Browns. A multiple regression was conducted,
using the items that were constructed to measure opinions to determine what type of
individuals are more likely to speak out about the Cleveland Browns. There were two
dependent variables being tested: a willingness to speak out when in the minority opinion
with positive things to say about the Browns, and in the minority opinion with negative
things to say about the Browns.
The first dependent variable was participants’ willingness to speak out while in
the minority opinion, with positive things to say. Four blocks of predictors were included:
(1) Demographics – Age, political affiliation, length of time living in Cleveland, and
biological sex (male = 1, female = 0), (2) Web use – hours spent on the web, hours spent
44
on the web devoted to sports, and how often the participants use Facebook, (3) The
Willingness to Self-Censor scale, and (4) Fandom Metrics – Fan Rate, years as a fan,
Cleveland Browns knowledge, and how often participants start a new Wall post,
comment on a post made by the Administrator, and comment on a post made by another
user on the Official Cleveland Browns Facebook Page.
First, in examining the bivariate relationships between these potential predictors
and willingness to speak out with positive things while in the minority, the largest
correlation was with the Willingness to Self-Censor scale, with a negative relationship at
r = -.412 (p < .001). None of the demographic variables were significantly correlated
with the dependent variable, and only one web use variable—hours spent per day devoted
to sports online—was significantly correlated (r = .146, p < .01). All of the fandom
measures were significantly correlated: How big of a fan the participant rated himself or
herself, also known as Fan Rate (r = .321), which was significant at p < .001. The length
of time the participant has been a fan (r = .124) was significant at p < .05, and the amount
of Cleveland Browns knowledge the participant indicated (r = .294) was significant at p <
.001. Regarding the social media-related questions, how often the participant starts a new
wall post on the Official Cleveland Browns Facebook Page (r = .124) was correlated and
was significant at p < .05, how often the participant comments on a post made by the
administrator (r = .168) was correlated and was significant at p < .05, and the amount of
time a participant comments on another user’s post on the Official Cleveland Browns
Facebook Page (r = .167) was correlated and was significant at p < .01. Finally, “liking”
the official Cleveland Browns Facebook page was also significantly correlated (r = .188,
p < .001. The results of the multiple regression indicate that the first block did not
45
contribute a significant amount of variance (0.1%, n.s.). The second block did contribute
a significant amount of variance (3.4%, p < .05). The third block also contributed a
significant amount of variance (19.3%, p < .001). The fourth block contributed a
significant amount of variance as well (10.0%, p < .001).
There were four unique predictors in the regression, although one of these,
Political Affiliation, was in a non-significant block and should therefore not be
interpreted. The other significant beta values were for the Willingness to Self-Censor
scale (final beta = -.388, p < .001), self-reported Cleveland Browns knowledge (final beta
= .149, p < .05), and if the participant ‘Likes’ the Official Cleveland Browns Facebook
Page (final beta = -.152, p < .05). The total equation for this regression was significant,
with a total R² of .328 and F (15, 283) of 9.211 (p < .001).
The results are shown in Table IX below:
Table IX Multiple Regression Predicting Willingness to Speak Out – Minority/Positive
Block Name and Number Variables r Final Beta
R ² Change
1. Demographics Age .000 .000 .001 Political Affiliation -.010 .106* Male .005 -.003 Live in Cleveland -.007 -.100 2. Web Use Hours per day -.001 .023 .034*
Hours per day – sports .146** .065 Facebook – General Usage .030 .012 3. Willingness to Self-Censor Willingness to Self-Censor scale -.412*** -.388*** .193*** 4. Cleveland Browns Fandom and Related Facebook Usage
Fan Rate .321*** .139 .100***
Years as a fan .124* .043 Cleveland Browns knowledge .294*** .149*
Cleveland Browns Facebook Page – Start new posts
.124* -.016
Cleveland Browns Facebook Page – Comment to Administrator
.168** .016
Cleveland Browns Facebook Page – Comment to other users
.167** -.030
Cleveland Browns Facebook Page – Like
.188*** .152*
46
(Table IX cont’d.) Total equation: R ² = .328, F = 9.211, df = (15, 283), p < .001 * p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001 The second dependent variable was participants’ willingness to speak out while in
the minority opinion, but with negative things to say about the Browns. None of the
demographic or web use variables were significantly correlated with the dependent
variable. The Willingness to Self-Censor scale was correlated at r = -.268 (p < .001) and
Fan Rate was also correlated (r = .272) and was significant at p < .001. Self-declared
Cleveland Browns knowledge was also correlated at r = .223 (p < .001).
The results of the multiple regression indicate that the first block did not
contribute a significant amount of variance (1.6%, n.s.). The second block did not
contribute a significant amount of variance (1.4%, n.s.). The third block contributed a
significant amount of variance (6.6%, at p < .001). The fourth block contributed a
significant amount of variance (9.2% at p < .001).
There were three predictors that were significant unique contributors to the
regression. The beta value of political affiliation (liberalism) was a positive predictor
(final beta = .115) and was significant at p < .05. The beta for Willingness to Self-Censor
was negative and significant (final beta = -.253, p < .001). And, the beta value for Fan
Rate was positive (final beta = .278) and was significant at p < .001. The total equation
for this regression was significant at p < .001, with a total R² of .187 and F (15, 283) =
4.346. The results are shown in Table X:
47
Table X Multiple Regression Predicting Willingness to Speak Out – Minority/Negative
Block Name and Number Variables r Final Beta
R ² Change
1. Demographics Age -.014 .064 .016 Political Affiliation .043 .115* Male .025 .109 Live in Cleveland .085 -.050 2. Web Use Hours per day .021 .024 .014 Hours per day – sports .091 .060 Facebook – General Usage -.002 .044 3. Willingness to Self-Censor Willingness to Self-Censor scale -.268*** -.253*** .066*** 4. Cleveland Browns Fandom and Related Facebook Usage
Fan Rate .272*** .278** .092***
Years as a fan .053 -.129 Cleveland Browns knowledge .223*** .039
Cleveland Browns Facebook Page – Start new posts
-.038 -.129
Cleveland Browns Facebook Page – Comment to Administrator
.048 .088
Cleveland Browns Facebook Page – Comment to other users
.013 -.155
Cleveland Browns Facebook Page – Like
.077 -.004
Total equation: R ² = .187, F = 4.346, df = (15, 283), p < .001 * p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001
48
CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION
This research aimed to test that Cialidini et al.’s (1976) idea of ‘BIRG’ still holds
predictive value when applied to fans of a professional sports team. Some of the results
stood consistent with Cialdini et al.’s (1976) findings, showing that the bigger of a fan an
individual is of the Cleveland Browns, the more likely to use first person singular and
plural pronouns. The results showed that in relation to I, We, or Self words, the fan was
more likely to refer to his or herself and the Cleveland Browns as a collective “we,”
indicating a feeling of closeness with the team. It is important to reiterate that the average
participant, who rated his or herself as a five or higher on a fandom scale, was a fan of
the Cleveland Browns for 24.24 years. In addition, 60.5% of the participants indicated
that they were diehard fans of the Cleveland Browns, with a mean of 8.04 on a scale of 0
to 10. By showing these two figures side-by-side, it is a clear connection between these
factors: A diehard fan for an average of 24.24 years simply feels a stronger connection
with the team and it is inevitably a part of his or her social or group identity. In
comparison to Cialdini et al.’s (1976) study which included only college students, the
average college student spends four years completing a degree, which is much less
invested time in the college’s team than a lifetime professional sports fan and conflicted
49
with the findings in this study. Professional sports fandom does not go away with a
diploma; the research proves that it is a lifetime commitment.
While a fan for a longer amount of time tends to have a stronger identification
with the Cleveland Browns, references to the future of this relationship is essential to take
a look at when researching pronominal usage. Analyzing the future can serve as a clear
indication of how much a part of a sports team a fan feels he or she is, and the average
Cleveland Browns fan showed a pattern of feeling nothing but positive feelings,
emotions, and optimism towards the future. This finding can also relate back to the
average amount of time the participants have been fans of the Cleveland Browns and how
high they rate their level of fandom. A bigger fan, although sometimes disheartened by a
losing season or failed entry in to the NFL Playoffs, still feels a sense of pride and hope
for the future of his or her team. The identification with the Cleveland Browns was
strong, leading to believe that the participants in this study felt that the Cleveland Browns
were a part of his or her self-identity. This is the essence of being a sports fan: always
looking forward to the future, which sheds light in to the popular sports-related phrase,
“There’s always next year.”
It is also important to note that fans of the Cleveland Browns were likely to wear
team apparel regardless of a win or loss, which is not consistent with Cialdini et al.’s
(1976) findings that college students were more likely to wear apparel on the Monday
after a weekend win. Additionally, this study predicted that fans that were more likely to
speak out when they are in the minority are more likely to wear Cleveland Browns
apparel after a loss. This prediction assumed that even when an individual may tend to
50
feel ostracized by other fans because of his or her opinion, he or she is the type of fan that
does not feel that his or her self-esteem has been lowered by his or her team’s failure(s).
The research relied heavily on recruiting participants who use social networking
sites often. The participants in this study were not influenced by factors such as
computer-mediated communication and were likely to speak out regardless of their stance
or opinion. The participants of this study were more apt to speak out when in the minority
opinion and had positive things to say when they were bigger fans and felt more
knowledgeable about the Cleveland Browns. The findings were consistent with the
research by Bordia (1997), stating that an individual who is more likely to speak out will
spend more time during the thought process, prior to posting a message via computer-
mediated communication, in order to elicit a better response from others.
Although previous literature showed that Cleveland was ranked #8 for Most
Unhappy NFL City (Study: Eagles Fans Most Depressed, 2011), the results tell a much
different story. It seems that the higher a fan of the Cleveland Browns an individual rates
his or herself, the more proud he or she is of the city of Cleveland in all of the areas
measured. While the previous literature describing unhappiness may have been solely
related to the team’s overall losing seasons and failure to enter the Playoffs or Super
Bowl, it surely did not account for the passion that Cleveland Browns fans feel toward
their team as a representation of the city of Cleveland. With that high sense of pride
comes the reminder of the fateful night when Art Modell left the city of Cleveland behind
with the entire Cleveland Browns team in tow. The negative emotions felt toward Art
Modell are still present, understandably, 17 years after the team moved to Baltimore.
51
Although the results were not highly correlated, the emotions were felt as LIWC combed
through the 349 responses to the simple question, “Who is Art Modell?”
4.1 Limitations
The data for this research were collected less than two months after the
conclusion of the 2011-2012 NFL season, prompting Cleveland Browns fans to recall a
season in which the team did not make it to the NFL Playoffs. Time was of the essence
when collecting the data for this research, and while this may be a difficult time for some,
it may be a time of reflection for others. However, this study relied on participants to be
subjective. Recall was difficult for some respondents because the season had been
months behind at the time of data collection. Given the time between the end of the
season and data collection, it would be beneficial to circulate a survey at the beginning of
a season when hopes are high and Cleveland Browns fans feel more emotionally-charged
with new draft picks and a rested team.
Originally, the main goal of data collection was to circulate the survey on the
social networking site, Facebook. This task proved to be a difficult one, as the participant
was less likely to notice the post soliciting participants by the researcher as a user versus
the administrator. The administrator’s post would have shown up on the participant’s
personal Facebook feed; however, the researcher’s post as a user of the SNS only shows
up on the wall of the page. Additionally, it was difficult to reach the administrators of
Cleveland Browns Facebook pages and groups. One of the reasons this outcome was
reached could be due to the recent conclusion to the football season and the Facebook
pages may go silent until training camp begins over the summer.
52
The decision was made to expand the data collection to other SNS such as
Twitter, blogs, and Reddit, a social news website, which caused a slight change in the
research to a more general approach to SNS versus a focus solely on Facebook. The other
SNS continued to collect Cleveland Browns fans; however, the social news website
began to collect non-Cleveland Browns fans who offered conflicting results, such as the
indication that he or she was a fan of another NFL team but still indicated a five on a
scale of 0 to 10 when asked to identify how big of a Cleveland Browns fan he or she was.
Due to the influx of non-fans, the sample had to be purposive in order to get the most
accurate results including only Cleveland Browns fans. Thus, the sample was not quite as
representative as it was originally set out to be, and the majority of fans were collected
via Reddit and Twitter versus Facebook.
Finally, the lack of female participants was surprising for the research, as 42% of
NFL fans are female (Women proving to be dedicated NFL fans, 2011) but only made up
10.7% of the participants in this study.
4.2 Implications for Future Research
For the Cleveland Browns in particular, research findings would become much
more intriguing when conducted after a winning season, spot in the NFL Playoffs, or
during the draft, in comparison to a losing season such as 2011-2012. Additionally, many
gaps still exist in the literature regarding sports fan identity and computer-mediated
communication such as SNS. The future research in this area has the opportunity to
capitalize on the relationship between social networking users that are sports fans and the
way in which they related to each compared to the way fans interact in person or at
games. The opportunity to conduct field research at a sporting event on the behavior of
53
sports fans with the inclusion of factors such as alcohol intake, weather conditions, and
the presence of children versus solely interacting via computer-mediated interaction
would be beneficial to the research in the area of sports fandom.
54
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX B
PILOT STUDY
NOTE: The following is extracted from work completed for COM 633, Content Analysis
Research Methods (Dr. K. Neuendorf, instructor) during fall term, 2011. This pilot study
informed the subsequent research conducted for this thesis.
Pilot Study 2011
H1: Fans in the minority opinion regarding a victory or defeat will be less likely
to speak out than fans in the majority opinion on the Official Cleveland Browns
Facebook Page.
H2: Fans in the majority opinion regarding a victory or defeat are more likely to
use first person singular and plural pronouns when describing the Cleveland
Browns’ victory than fans in the minority opinion.
RQ1: Will there be a significant correlation between a defeat and user comments
indicating relativity of time to refer to a future season?
The population of the pilot was Cleveland Browns fans. The sampling frame was
Cleveland Browns fans that are Facebook users and indicated that they “Like” the
Official Cleveland Browns Facebook Page; at the time of data collection, there were
517,018 fans that fit in to this sampling frame.
A systematic sample was used to collect user comments and every nth user
comment was chosen for analysis. The first unit of sampling was the article examining
the loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers. There were a total of 922 comments and every 34th
user comment was selected. The second unit of sampling was the article examining the
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victory against the Seattle Seahawks. There were a total of 516 comments and every 19th
user comment was selected.
The CATA program LIWC (Pennebaker, Francis, & Booth, 2001) was used to
analyze the posts with regard to their use of various parts of speech, and emotional tone
as assessed by the LIWC built-in dictionaries.
Pilot Study Results
H1 was supported. Positive emotions are positively correlated with a victory at
r=.271 but was not significant at p=.043. Also, anger is also positively correlated with a
victory at r=.354 and is significant at p=.007. See Table B1 for the results.
As shown in Table B2, positive emotions showed a mean at 4.7053 for a loss and
11.5254 for a win. Anger showed a mean at .3783 for a loss and 2.1204 for a win. See
Table XI below:
Table XI Victory/Loss and Positive/Negative Emotions
Positive Emotion Anger
Loss Mean 4.7053 .3783
N 30 30
SD 6.57291 .97527
Win Mean 11.5254 2.1204
N 26 26
SD 20.62990 3.26940
Total Mean 7.8718 1.1871
N 56 56
SD 15.10001 2.47562
H2 was not supported. Self words are negatively correlated with a victory at p=-
.089 and are not significant at r=.513. However, a high correlation was present between
self words and negative emotions at p=.523 and was significant. A high correlation was
present between self words and anger at p=.279 and are not significant at r=.037. A high
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correlation was present between self words and sadness at p=.359 and was significant.
See Table XI for the results.
RQ1 found a high correlation between pronouns identified as Other (e.g. them,
they) and words dealing with the future (e.g. next season) at r=.645 and was significant at
p=.007. See Table XII for the results.
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Table XII Victory, Pronominal Usage, and Positive/Negative Emotions
Win Self Other Pos Emo Pos Feel Neg Emo Anger Sad Future
Win Pearson Correlation
1 -.089 -.118 .227 .271(*) .016 .354(*) -.113 -.156
Sig. (2-tailed) .513 .384 .092 .043 .905 .007 .408 .250
N 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
Self Pearson
Correlation -.089 1 .027 -.236 -.116 .532(**) .279(*) .359(**) .159
Sig. (2-tailed) .513 .846 .080 .395 .000 .037 .007 .241
N 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
Other Pearson
Correlation -.118 .027 1 .051 .071 -.045 .161 -.092 .645(**)
Sig. (2-tailed) .384 .846 .708 .602 .739 .237 .502 .000
N 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
Pos Emo Pearson Correlation
.227 -.236 .051 1 .154 -.048 -.022 .033 -.060
Sig. (2-tailed) .092 .080 .708 .256 .725 .873 .811 .659
N 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
Pos Feel Pearson
Correlation .271(*) -.116 .071 .154 1 .096 .315(*) -.038 -.082
Sig. (2-tailed) .043 .395 .602 .256 .482 .018 .783 .546
N 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
Neg Emo Pearson
Correlation .016 .532(**) -.045 -.048 .096 1 .176 .878(**) -.046
Sig. (2-tailed) .905 .000 .739 .725 .482 .195 .000 .736
N 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
Anger Pearson
Correlation .354(**) .279(*) .161 -.022 .315(*) .176 1 -.081 .164
Sig. (2-tailed) .007 .037 .237 .873 .018 .195 .552 .228
N 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
Sadness Pearson Correlation
-.113 .359(**) -.092 .033 .-.038 .878(**) -.081 1 -.111
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Sig. (2-tailed) .408 .007 .502 .811 .783 .000 .552 .416
N 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
Future Pearson
Correlation -.156 .159 .645(**) -.060 -.082 -.046 .164 -.111 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .250 .241 .000 .659 .546 .736 .228 .416
N 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
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APPENDIX C
DEMOGRAPHICS
Table XIII Biological Sex
Table XIV Age
N
Valid N
Missing Mean Minimum Maximum
Age 338 11 33.03 18 74
Table XV Cleveland-area Residents
N
Valid N
Missing Mean Minimum Maximum
Live in CLE 348 1 17.51 0 74
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APPENDIX D
CLEVELAND BROWNS FANDOM
Table XVI Cleveland Browns Fan - Years
N
Valid N
Missing Mean Minimum Maximum
Live in CLE 348 1 17.51 0 74
Table XVII Cleveland Browns Fan Rate
Table XVIII Browns Backers Fan Club Members
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Table XIX Games Attended during the 2011-2012 Preseason and Regular Season
Table XX Season Ticket Holders
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Table XXI Cleveland Browns Knowledge
Table XXII Cleveland Browns 2011-2012 Preseason and Season – Wins
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Table XXIII Cleveland Browns 2011-2012 Preseason and Season – Losses
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APPENDIX E
SOCIAL MEDIA
Table XXIV Cleveland Browns Facebook Page Likes
Table XXV Cleveland Browns Twitter Followers
Table XXVI How often do you use Facebook?
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Table XXVII How often do you visit the Cleveland Browns Official Page on Facebook?
Table XXVIII How often do you start a new wall post on the Cleveland Browns Official Fan Page on Facebook?
Table XXIX How often do you comment on a post made by the administrator of the Cleveland Browns Official Fan Page on Facebook?
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Table XXX How often do you comment on a post made by another user on the Cleveland Browns Official Fan Page?
Figure E1 Cleveland Browns Facebook Page – April 2012
Figure E2 Cleveland Browns Twitter Page – April 2012
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APPENDIX F
SPORTS FAN MOTIVATION SCALE
Table XXXI Principal Component Analysis
Loadings Communality Group
Affiliation 1
Economic 2
Escape 3
Aesthetic 4
Self-Esteem
5
Eustress 6
Entertainment 7
Family 8
SFMS14 – Be with other people
.817 .068 -.140 .204 .171 .035 .291 -.091 .701
SFMS16 – Be with large group of people
.749 .064 -.122 .035 .011 .206 .062 -.086 .607
SFMS11 – Friends are sports fans
.638 .024 -.140 -.009 .109 .076 .371 -.106 .461
SFMS17 – Increases my self-esteem
.556 .115 -.398 .154 .234 .058 .304 -.354 .488
SFMS10 – Making wages
.151 .862 -.069 -.109 .004 .025 .068 -.048 .767
SFMS2 – Bet on sporting events
.050 .793 -.082 .052 .181 -.036 .090 -.016 .679
SFMS7 – Bet on the outcome
-.002 .771 -.104 -.032 -.190 -.094 .117 -.076 .646
SFMS9 – Forget my problems
.152 .055 -.899 .105 .163 -.034 .040 -.124 .817
SFMS13 – Takes away from life’s
.257 .122 -.870 .237 .101 .044 .060 -.257 .812
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hassles SFMS1 – Temporarily escape life’s problems
.143 .080 -.869 -.037 .150 -.018 .040 -.069 .770
SFMS12 – Form of art
.131 -.006 -.116 .872 .064 .127 .125 -.203 .772
SFMS4 – Artistic value
.042 .037 -.126 .851 .013 -.031 .100 -.137 .742
SFMS5 – Beauty and grace of sports
.149 -.160 -.008 .795 .157 .075 .188 -.317 .969
SFMS3 – Get pumped up
.136 .062 -.090 .201 .792 .184 -.001 -.267 .672
SFMS8 – Feel good when team wins
.145 -.028 -.194 .002 .704 .090 .202 -.198 .534
SFMS21 – Team’s successes and losses are mine
.102 -.012 -.227 -.031 .598 .094 .052 -.521 .534
SFMS20 – Form of recreation
.055 -.005 -.097 .009 -.109 .781 .134 -.063 .693
SFMS15 – Entertainment value
.189 -.037 .034 .064 .298 .749 -.021 -.147 .620
SFMS19 – Good time
.184 -.098 .167 .130 .309 .586 .204 -.266 .484
SFMS22 – Be with spouse
.196 .117 -.030 .145 .023 .121 .856 -.091 .745
SFMS23 – Be with family
.342 .085 -.037 .142 .155 .081 .816 -.055 .694
SFMS18 – .178 .012 -.149 .167 .291 .203 .031 -.824 .697
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Stimulation from watching SFMS6 – Physiological arousal
.071 .078 -.065 .283 .149 .079 .094 -.818 .700
Eigenvalue 2.435 2.083 2.749 2.479 2.061 1.724 1.925 2.246 [17.702]
Percent of Total Variance
10.586% 9.056% 11.952% 10.778% 8.960% 7.495% 8.369% 9.765 [76.965%]
Percent of Common Variance
13.755% 11.767% 15.529% 14.004% 11.642% 9.739% 10.874% 12.687% 100%
KMO measurement of sampling adequacy = .737
Bartlett’s test of sphericity: approx. chi-square = 2316. 537, df = 253, p < .001
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APPENDIX G
WILLINGNESS TO SELF-CENSOR SCALE
Table XXXII It is difficult for me to express my opinion about the Cleveland Browns if I think others won’t agree with what I say.
Table XXXIII There have been many times when I have thought others around me were wrong about the Cleveland Browns but I didn’t let them know.
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Table XXXIV When I disagree with others about the Cleveland Browns, I’d rather go along with them than argue about it.
Table XXXV It is easy for me to express my opinion about the Cleveland Browns around others who I think will disagree with me.
Table XXXVI I’d feel uncomfortable if someone asked my opinion about the Cleveland Browns and I knew that he or she wouldn’t agree with me.
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Table XXXVII I tend speak my opinion about the Cleveland Browns only around friends or other people I trust.
Table XXXVIII It is safer to keep quiet than publicly speak an opinion about the Cleveland Browns that you know most others don’t share.
Table XXXIX If I disagree with others about the Cleveland Browns, I have no problem letting them know it.
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APPENDIX H
OPINION ITEMS
Table XL When I have positive things to say about the Cleveland Browns, and I have been in the majority opinion, I have expressed my opinion.
Table XLI When I have negative things to say about the Cleveland Browns, and I have been in the majority opinion, I have expressed my opinion.
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Table XLII When I have positive things to say about the Cleveland Browns, but others do not and I have been in the minority opinion, I have expressed my opinion.
Table XLIII When I have negative things to say about the Cleveland Browns, but others do not and I have been in the minority opinion, I have expressed my opinion.