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Sport for Development the potential value anD next StepS

Frank van E

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Sport for development:

the potential value and next StepS

review of policy, programS

and academic reSearch 1998-2013

Van Eekeren, F., K. ter Horst & D. Fictorie (2013),

s-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands: NSA International,

KNVB, Right To Play Netherlands

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SummarySportforDevelopment(SfD)aspirestoachievesocialimpactbyusingsport,playandphysicalactivity.TheDutchorganizationsNSAInternational,theRoyalNetherlandsFootballAssociation(KNVB)andtheDutchofficeofRightToPlay,implementingpartnersoftheDutchMinistryofForeignAffairsinthefieldofSfD,wishtofurtherimprovethequalityandeffectivenessoftheirSfDprograms.Forthissoundevidenceandmoreinsightinworkingmechanismsbetweensportanddevelopmentareneeded.TheyaskedUtrechtUniversitytocomposeanindependentacademicdocumentinresponsetothequestion:Whatisthepotentialofsportasatoolfordevelopmentandhowtobenefitfromthatinthebestpossibleway?Toanswerthisquestion,UtrechtUniversityhasdoneathoroughpolicyandacademicliteraturereview,includingtheanalysisofmorethan200articles,booksandpolicydocumentsoverthe19982013period.

OriginsTheemergenceofSfDasasectorinthe90sen00sislargelyduetotwofactors.First,therehasbeenanincreasedrecognitionofthesocietalmeaningofsportbypoliticiansandpolicymakers.Beforethe1990ssportwasconsideredaluxury.Gradually,theconvictionemergedthatsportscannotonlybeasourceofinspiration,butalsoaneffectivetoolincombatingsocialproblems.Nationalandinternationalpolicydocumentsanddeclarationsconsistently,andincreasingly,assignpositivemeaningstosport.Thetenorseemsthatatleastsportcanplayaroleasatoolfordevelopmentorevenbuildabetterworld.Second,thefactorwhichcreatedopportunitiesforthesportfordevelopmentmovementistheaidparadigmshiftindevelopmentcooperation.Criticsontraditionalapproachestodevelopmentcooperationclaimthattheeffortsbytraditionaldevelopmentorganizationsdidnotcontributetosignificantchangeindevelopingcountries.Newinsightsintheconceptofdevelopmentledtoaparadigmshift,inwhichmoreemphasisislaidonsocialdevelopmentandcreationofsocialnetworks.Thisopeneddoorsforneworganizations,suchasSfDorganizations.Theirsportorientedapproachisconsideredrefreshingandoffersnewpossibilitiesindevelopmentcooperation.

PositionoftheNetherlandsSince1998,theDutchgovernmenthaspublishedanumberofconsecutiveSfDpolicydocuments,whichhavehadaninfluenceinternationally,bothatpolicylevelandinpractice.However,eachpolicydocumenthadanexpirationdate.ThemainreasonfortheseshortlivedpolicydocumentshasbeenthefluctuatingpoliticalattentionandaccompanyingresourcesforSfD.ThecurrentSfDpolicyandprogramonlyallowsalimitednumberofexperiencedimplementingpartnersandlocalembassiestodelivercontextspecificSfDinterventions.ThecurrentimplementingpartnersoftheDutchSfDprogram,i.e.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay,haveplayedanimportantroleinthecontinuityoftheDutchparticipationinSfD.AdistinctDutchapproachhasnotbeendeveloped,buttherearesimilaritiesintheapproachesofNSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay,suchasafocusonsoftware,thetransferofknowledgeandskills,developmentofcurricula,trainingcoursesandmanuals,localcapacitybuildingthroughmultistakeholderapproach,localcoachesandcommunityleadersasrolemodels,knowledgedevelopment,andavarietyoflocalimplementingpartners.

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AcademicresearchTheincreasingpopularityofsportastoolfordevelopmentcomesalongwithanincreasingamountofclaimsmadeonthepowerofsportfordevelopment,suchasindividualdevelopment,healthpromotionanddiseaseprevention,promotionofgenderequality,socialintegrationandthedevelopmentofsocialcapital,peacebuildingandconflictprevention/resolution,postdisaster/traumareliefandnormalizationoflife,economicdevelopmentandsocialmobilization.Since2000,academicinterestandoutputonsportfordevelopmentissuesincreasedsignificantlyandthepolicyclaimshavebeentestedandoftenchallengedinmorethan2,000studies.

Basedonthesestudies,itcanbestatedthatsporthassomeuniquefeaturestocontributetodevelopment,especiallyincomparisonwithotherinterventions.Individualsandgroupsallovertheworldareinterestedinsports,regardlessofbackground,age,race,religion,genderorstatus.Therefore,sportcanattracttargetgroupsthatareusuallyhardtoreach.Theycaneasilybeinvolved,sportisvisibleandaccessible,sportoffersrolemodelsanditcontainsintrinsicvaluesthatplayanimportantroleinsociety.Particularsportactivitiesandsocialprocessesofparticipationcanbekeytoreachcertaindevelopmentgoals.

Nevertheless,manyclaimsofthepowerofsportinpolicyandpracticecannotbemetaccordingtoempiricalresearch.Researchanalysishasmadeclearthatsporthasthepotentialtocontributetodevelopmentgoals,butsportdoesnotnecessarilyleadtothedesireddevelopmentaloutcomes.Accordingtotheacademicliterature,healthistheonlyoverarchingoutcomethatshowsadirectrelationshipwithphysicalactivity.Forallotheroverarchingdevelopmentoutcomesitishardtoproveadirectcausalrelationbetweensportfordevelopmentactivitiesanddevelopmentoutcomes.Thisalsocountsforyouthandeducation,genderequalityandpeaceandreconciliationdevelopmentgoalsthatarefociinDutchfundedSfDprograms.

Atthesametime,academicresearchoffersclearsuggestionstousesportasavehicletocontributetothesegoals.Itisimportanttoapproachsportassiteforsocializationexperiences,notcausesofsocializationoutcomes.Itisnotsportinitselfthatleadsautomaticallytodevelopment.Sporttakesplaceinacomplexsocialcontextinwhichvariousfactorsinfluencethefinaloutcomesofasportfordevelopmentprogram.

AbasicSfDmodelToprovideinsightinthepotentialofsportfordevelopmentandhowtocontributetodevelopmentinthebestpossibleway,wedevelopedabasicSfDmodel.ThismodeltakesintoaccountthattherelationbetweensportanddevelopmentoftenisindirectandthattheoutcomesofSfDprogramsdependon,sometimeshardtoaffect,variables.Themodelstartswithsportasasiteforsocializationexperienceandthendistinguishesnecessaryconditions,supportingconditions,themomentoftruth,intermediateoutcomesandoverarchingoutcomestakingintoaccountexternalvariablesaswell.

Anecessaryconditionforanyoutcomeisparticipationinsport.Supportingconditionsrefertoprocessesandorganizationalandprogramcomponentsthatshouldleadtotheachievementofdesiredoutcomes.Frequentlymentionedsupportingconditionsarerelatedtotheorganizationoftheactivitiesandprograms,theroleofcoachesorleadersandthesocialenvironmentinwhichthe

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activitiestakeplace.SomeconditionsaregeneralandapplytoalmosteverySfDproject,whileothersaremorecontextspecific.Ifconditionsaremet,sportmayresultinintermediateoutcomes.Examplesofintermediateoutcomesarethedevelopmentoflifeskills,increasedsocialinteraction,butalsodevelopmentofleadershipandcommunitybuilding.Theseintermediateoutcomes,oftenreferredtoas(aspectsof)socialcapital,areanessentialelementintheachievementoftheoverarchingdevelopmentaloutcomes,likechildandyouthdevelopment,genderequality,conflictresolutionandpeace.Atthesametime,itshouldbenotedthatintermediateoutcomesarenotalwaysdesiredorpositiveoutcomes.Sportcanleadtoinjuries,toexclusionandtoantisocialbehavior.Thevalueofsportfordevelopmentiscreatedduringthemomentoftruth,i.e.theactualinteractionbetweenasportcoachorleaderandtheparticipants.Theexactmechanismsduringthemomentoftruth,whichresultineitherpositiveornegativeoutcomes,arestillunclear,includingthebestwayforSfDorganizationstofacilitatethemomentoftruth.Whatisrequiredisadevelopmentalapproachbasedonarealisticviewonthemeaningofsport,andanunderstandingofthesocialprocessesandmechanismsthatmayleadtodesiredoutcomesforsomeparticipantsororganizationsincertaincircumstances.Fromthisperspective,monitoringandevaluationneedtopursuethisunderstandingviaparticipatory,processcenteredandformativeevaluation.

NextstepsTheacademicliteraturelearnsthat,tomaximizetheoutcomes,SfDorganizationsshouldacceptthatadirectrelationshipbetweensportanddevelopmentishardtoproveandthattheyshouldfocusontheintermediateoutcomesinstead.AccordingtothepresentedSfDbasicmodel,SfDorganizationsshouldtakecarethatthenecessaryandsupportingconditionsaremettoincreasethechanceofachievingthedesiredoutcomes.IntheyearstocomeoneofthemainchallengesfortheSfDsectoristoinvestinqualityofprogramsandsustainabilityofresults.Dutchorganizationscanplayavaluableroleindealingwiththesechallenges,makinguseofthefindingsandrecommendationsofthisreview.Theycanincreasetheirimpactusingsportfordevelopmentbyastrongerfocuson:

Facilitatingthemomentoftruth:ThismeansthatSfDorganizationsoperatefromaservicemanagementperspectivetofacilitateandbesubservienttointeractionbetweenthecoachandparticipants,whichdeterminestoalargeextenttheoutcomesofaprogram.

Investinginlocalinvolvement,capacityandpartnerships:ThismeansthatSfDinvolveslocalcivilsocietyorganizations,i.e.sportorganizationsand/orotherorganizations,whichcansupportthemomentoftruth.Furtherinvestmentinlocalpartnershipsandorganizationalcapacitywillbecrucialtodeliversustainableprogramswithimpact.

Programsatmicrolevel,structurallysupportedatmesoandmacrolevel:ThismeanstheSfDorganizationseitherlocalorforeignhavetostructurallycooperatewithcivilsocietyorganizationsandhavetomakesurethattheyhaverelationswithgovernments,multilateralinstitutionsand(i)NGOs,whoaresupportivetotheSfDprogramsatgrassrootslevel.

Integrationofpractice,policyandresearch:ThismeansthatprogramscanbeimprovedifsystematiccooperationbetweenSFDorganizationsandlocalpartnersandacademicinstitutionsisstimulatedandfacilitated.ThiscooperationshouldleadtosmartintegrationofscientificresearchandevidencebesidesmonitoringandevaluationwithinSfDprograms,especiallywithregardtotheorganizationofpartnershipandcapacitybuilding.

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Index

Summary ...........................................................................................................................2

Preface...............................................................................................................................7

1. Originsanddefinitions ...................................................................................................9

1.1 Recognitionofsportfordevelopment .............................................................................. 9

1.1.1 Recognitionofthesocialmeaningofsport ..................................................................10

1.1.2 Changesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperation ................................................11

1.2 Claims .............................................................................................................................12

1.3 Definitions.......................................................................................................................14

1.3.1 Sport ...........................................................................................................................14

1.3.2 Development...............................................................................................................15

1.3.3 Sport(for)development ..............................................................................................16

2. Policies,programsandapproaches..............................................................................18

2.1 PolicyandprogramsintheNetherlands ..........................................................................18

2.2 Internationalpolicyandprograms .................................................................................. 22

2.3 Dutchpolicyandapproachesininternationalperspective .............................................. 26

2.3.1 Donorcountrypolicies ................................................................................................ 26

2.3.2 Differencesandsimilaritiesinapproaches .............................................................. 28

3. Academicresearch:towardsamodel ........................................................................... 31

3.1 Theexpansionofacademicinterest.................................................................................31

3.1.1 Quantity ......................................................................................................................31

3.1.2 Quality ........................................................................................................................34

3.2 Towardsabasicmodelforsportfordevelopment ...........................................................38

3.2.1 Overarchingdevelopmentoutcomes...........................................................................38

3.2.2 Intermediateoutcomes........................................................................................... 40

3.2.3 Necessaryandsupportingconditions ......................................................................... 42

3.2.4 Themomentoftruth ...............................................................................................43

3.2.5 Uniquenessofsportfordevelopment ......................................................................... 44

3.2.6 Amodelforsportfordevelopment ......................................................................... 45

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4. Specificdevelopmentissues........................................................................................ 47

4.1 Childandyouthdevelopment:Education ........................................................................47

4.1.1 Intermediateoutcomes .............................................................................................. 48

4.1.2 Conditions .............................................................................................................. 49

4.2 Childandyouthdevelopment:Behaviorchange............................................................. 50

4.2.1 Intermediateoutcomes............................................................................................51

4.2.2 Conditions ...............................................................................................................51

4.3 Genderequalityandgirlsandwomenempowerment..................................................... 54

4.3.1 Intermediateoutcomes ...............................................................................................55

4.3.2 Conditions .............................................................................................................. 58

4.4 Peacebuildingandconflictresolution .............................................................................61

4.4.1 Intermediateoutcomes........................................................................................... 62

4.4.2 Conditions ...............................................................................................................63

5. Conclusionandnextsteps...........................................................................................67

5.1 Sportspotentialtocontributetodevelopment ...............................................................67

5.1.1 Claimsvs.empiricalresearch .......................................................................................67

5.1.2 Dutchpolicyandpractice............................................................................................ 68

5.2 ValuablenextstepsforDutchSfDorganizations ............................................................ 69

Literature ......................................................................................................................... 71

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PrefaceInrecentyears,thefieldofSportforDevelopment(SfD)hasgrownexponentially,withhundredsofinitiativesaroundtheglobe.Allinitiativesaspiretohavesocialimpactbyusingsport,playandphysicalactivity.Whereasfiveyearsago166organizationscouldbefoundontheInternationalPlatformonSportforDevelopment(Kidd,2008),today484initiativesarelisted1.Theamountofprogramsisalmostimpossibletooverseeandsportisclaimedtobeauniversallanguageandtheultimatetoolforsocialchangeanddevelopmentbyavarietyofactors,suchastheUNOfficeonSportforDevelopmentandPeace(UNOSDP),theInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)andnationalgovernments.

ThisemergeofSfDisremarkable.Untilthe1990s,sportwasdismissedasaluxuryandfundingsportsprogramsindevelopingcountrieswasnotatallanoptionworthreconsideringforgovernmentsandinternationaldevelopmentagencies(VanEekeren,2006).Majorshiftsanddevelopmentshavetakenplaceovertheyears,bothatthenationalandinternationallevel.WhereastheNetherlandswasoneofthepioneersinthefieldforalongtimeandoneofthefirstcountriestoformulateformalpolicyregardingsportfordevelopmentin1998,todayvariousother(international)organizationsandcountrieshaveemergedtopickuptheball.Simultaneously,UNAgencies,internationalsportfederations,internationalandnationalnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)andnationalgovernmentsstartedincorporatingsportastoolfordevelopmentintheirpoliciesandagendas.

Essentially,sportisincreasinglybecomingacceptedbothasagoalinitselfandasamediumtoachievedevelopmentobjectives.Asaresult,relevantquestionsarise,suchas:Whenandhowcansportbeameaningfulinstrumentfordevelopmentoradevelopmentgoalinitself?Whatarethepossibleoutcomesofsportinspecificsituationsforspecificdevelopmentgoals?Whichconditionsarenecessarytoachievethesepositiveoutcomes?Whatarethelimitsofsportfordevelopmentprograms?Howcansportfordevelopmentorganizationsadequatelyusetheknowledgeavailableintheirprogramdesignandexecution?Howshouldtheyorganizethemselves,andwithwhomshouldtheycooperate?

Thesequestionshaveledtotheacademiccommunitytakinganinterestinsportfordevelopmentasanobjectforresearch.Nowadays,academicsareinvolvedinmonitoringandevaluatingSfDprograms,andthenumberofcriticalfollowersofthesectorisgrowing.Thesecriticsclaimthatthebeliefinthepotentialofsportisoftenbasedonthecommonsenseofadvocateswhoalreadyareconvincedofthepowerofsport.TheirbeliefisreflectedinUNphraseologyandvariouscountrypoliciesthatsoundwonderfulandpromising,butareoftenthinandpoorlyfounded.Withoutasoundfoundation,thereisariskthatsportfordevelopmentisbasedupontheclaimsofsportevangelists(Coalter,2010).

1www.sportanddev.orgJuly2013.Thisnumberoforganizationsmightbethetipoftheiceberg,sincemanyoftenlocalbasedSFDorganizationsarenotregisteredattheplatform.

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Amorecriticalandacademicapproachwillhelptoimprovethequalityandeffectivenessoffutureprojectsandtofirmlyestablishtheissuefortheyearstocome.Thisentailsbeingwillingandabletolearn.Increasingthelearningcapacityofthesectormaybethebiggestchallengeintheyearsahead(VanEekeren,2006).

NSAInternational,theRoyalNetherlandsFootballAssociation(KNVB)andRightToPlayhaveaddressedthischallenge.Overthepast15years,thesethreeorganizationshavebeenthemainDutchactorsinthesportfordevelopmentlandscapesettingupprogramsindifferentcountriesworldwide.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlayapproachsportasameansforaddressingsocialissuesandachievingdevelopmentgoals.Theyaimtoaddresssocialissuessuchaschildandyouthdevelopment,peacebuildingandconflictresolutionandwomenempowerment.ThethreeorganizationscollaborateintheprogramSportforDevelopment20122015,initiatedandfundedbytheDutchMinistryofForeignAffairs.Themainobjectiveoftheorganizationsistodevelopandexecutewelldesignedprogramsatgrassrootslevelineightdevelopingcountries,whichareallfocuscountriesinDutchforeignpolicy:Kenya,Mali,Egypt,Mozambique,SouthAfrica,Indonesia,SurinameandthePalestinianTerritories.

NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlayrealizethatasoundevidencebaseandinsightinworkingmechanismsareneededtoimprovethequalityandeffectivenessoftheirfutureprograms.Therefore,theyaskedUtrechtUniversitytocomposeanindependentacademicbackgrounddocument,whichprovidesanunderpinninganalysisofsportfordevelopment.

Themainquestionofthisdocumentis:Whatisthepotentialofsportasatoolfordevelopmentandhowtobenefitfromthatinthebestpossibleway?Thequestionisansweredthroughathoroughpolicyandacademicliteraturereview,forwhichmorethan200articles,booksandpolicydocumentsoverthe19982013periodhavebeenanalyzed.Withthefollowingchaptersweendeavortoformulateananswer:

ChapteronedescribestheoriginsofSportfordevelopmentandwhatisunderstoodbytheconcept,asmanystakeholdersdefinethesignificanceofsportintheirownway.

Chaptertwoprovidesahistoricaloverviewofthefieldofsportfordevelopmentinternationally,inwhichtherelevantpoliciesandmilestonesaffectingthematurationandgrowthofthesectorwillbeoutlined.Inthisoverview,theNetherlandsisthepointofreferenceandacomparisonwithothercountriesandstakeholdersinthefieldofsportfordevelopmentwillbemade.

Chaptersthreeandfourelaborateonthecurrentbodyofacademicknowledgeinthefieldofsportfordevelopment.First,wewilloutlinehowtheamountofacademicpublicationshasincreasedsince1998.Subsequently,wewillprovideinsightinwhatisscientificallyknownaboutthepotentialofsport,withspecialattentionforthethematicareas,whichareparticularlyrelevantforDutchpolicyandtheworkofNSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay.Thiswillresultinabasicmodelforthepotentialvalueofsportfordevelopment.

Chapterfiveformulatesananswertothecentralquestion.Byconcludingwhattheaddedvalueofsportfordevelopmentis,thelimitsofsportwillbediscussedaswell.Futurechallengesandopportunitiesforpractice,researchandpolicydevelopmentareoutlined.

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1OriginsanddefinitionsThischapterwillgiveaconciseintroductionoftheconceptofsportfordevelopment.Itdescribestheoriginsofusingsporttoachievedevelopmentalgoals(onthenationalandinternationallevel).ThesecondpartofthechapterprovidesanoverviewofthemostusedclaimsanddefinitionsofsportfordevelopmentinordertoreachacommonperspectiveonwhatSfDentailsandhowdifferentprogramscanbeclassified.

1.1 RecognitionofsportfordevelopmentThelegitimacyofsportfordevelopmentisnowadaysbasedonlongstandingtraditionalassertionsaboutthenatureandcontributionofsporttosociety.Dunning(1999)simplystates:Sportmatters.Sportrevealscharacteristicsaboutasociety;throughthetypesofsporttheydo,throughtheimportancetheyattachtosport,throughtheamountofpeople,aboveallwomen,whodosportsandthroughthewaytheydosports.Sportcanbeseenasamirrorofsocietywhichreflectsandinfluencescontemporaryissues,or,asformulatedbyBriene,Koopman&Goessen(2005):Sportispartofsocietyandsocietyispartofsport.

Inhistoricalterms,theideathatparticipationinsportoffersautility(otherthanbeingenjoyedforitsownsake)canbetracedtothemidnineteenthcenturyUnitedKingdom.Middleclassreformersintheareasofeducationandurbanwelfarebegantodeveloptheideathatsportparticipation,whenappropriatelydirected,couldbeinvolvedinthedevelopmentofcharacter,workdiscipline,teamwork,fairplay,andothersociallyapprovedcharacteristics(VanBottenburg,2004).IntheUnitedKingdom,sportbecameincreasinglyusedineducationalsettings,intheformofphysicaleducationandtheorganizationofgames.Furthermore,sportwasbeingusedbycommunityorganizationsanddetentioncenters,wheresportwasapproachedasatoolforcharacterbuildingorchanging.Subsequently,theseideasspreadtootherfirstworldcountriesandtheircolonies.

ThisisoneofthereasonswhyCoalter(2013)arguesthatsportfordevelopmentisnotanewfield,asisproclaimedbymany(e.g.Kidd,2008).Inindustrializedcountries,sportshavebeenatopicinpublicpolicyforalongtimenow.Inthefirstplacetoextendsocialrightsofcitizenship,whilealsoemphasizingthepresumedwidercollectiveandindividualbenefitsofsport,referredtoasexternalitiesbyeconomists(Coalter,2007).DespiteCoaltersclaimthatSfDisnotnew,therewasmarginalattentionforsportastoolorcatalystfordevelopmentindevelopingcountriespriortothe1990s.Althoughsomeindividualcountrylevelinitiativeswereundertaken,sportwasmainlyseenaseitherluxuryorleisure.

TheemergenceofSfDasasectorinthe90sen00sislargelyduetotwofactors:1)The(renewed)recognitionofthesocialmeaningofsport2)Changesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperation.

TheemergenceofSfDasasectorinthe90sen00sislargelyduetotwofactors:1)Therecognitionofthesocialmeaningofsport2)Changesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperation

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1.1.1 RecognitionofthesocialmeaningofsportSportsandpoliticshavebeen(artificially)separatedforalongtime.BothpoliticiansandsportadministratorsstucktotheadageofformerIOCpresidentAveryBrundageofalmostsixtyyearsago:[s]portiscompletelyfreeofpolitics(ascitedinCashmore,1990).IntheNetherlands,governmentinterferedaslittleaspossibleinsportsaffairs.Sportwasseenasaprivatedomain,wheregovernmentintervention(andfunding)wasunnecessaryandinappropriate.Acombinationofsportanddevelopmentwasoutofthequestion.Developmentcooperationpolicywasfocusedon'hard'povertyissues,includingagriculture,infrastructureandwaterandsanitation.Sportwasseenasluxury.

Theperspectiveonsporthaschangeddramaticallyinrecentyears.InhindsightthischangebeganintheNetherlandsin1992.Atthetime,areportwaspublishednamedSportasasourceofinspirationforoursociety(ATKearney/NOC*NSF,1992).Thereportmadegovernmentsreflectontherelationshipbetweensportspolicyandthesocialsignificanceofsport(VanBottenburg&Schuyt,1996).Gradually,publicfundscameavailabletoachievesocialgoalssuchaseconomicgrowth,socialinclusionandhealththroughsport(Boessenkooletal.,2008).Itisintheseareasthatsporthasbecomeincreasinglyimportantinthepublicdomainandpartofthepublicdebate.

Thisnewthinkingonthevalueofsportcoincideswithideasaboutpublicvalueandthegovernmentsroleinsocietyingeneralandisconsistentwithbroadersociopoliticaldevelopments:Dutchgovernmentsinthe1990sand2000sincreasinglyreliedonthepersonalresponsibilityofcitizensandprivateorganizations.Thereseemedtobeanewideaonsocialengineering,althoughthistimeitisnotthegovernmentbutcitizenswhohavetoimprovesociety.Citizensmustdemonstrateactivecitizenshipinadvocatingforpublicinterests(Verhoeven&Ham,2010).Addressingsocialissuesisnolongerthedomainofgovernmentalone,itisalsoaroleoftheprivatesector,civilsocietyandindividuals(albeitincooperationwithgovernment).Sportorganizationsareoftenregardedascivilsocietyorganizationsandtherefore,politiciansandpolicymakersencouragesportorganizationstotakeonasocialrole.SportsorganizationsintheNetherlandstapintothisdevelopment,claimingtheirsocialpositionandarguingacausalrelationbetweensportandsolvingsocialproblems.Whereclassiccareorwelfarepathwayshavenotledtothedesiredsolution,thisisnowexpectedfromthesportsector.Gradually,theconvictionemergedthatsportsisnotonlyasourceofinspiration,butalsoaneffectivetoolincombatingsocialproblems.

Abriefinventoryofnationalandinternationalpolicydocumentsanddeclarations(EU,UN,governments,internationalsportfederations)showsthat,alsooutsidetheNetherlands,policymakersandpoliticiansconsistently,andincreasingly,assignpositivemeaningstosports.Thetenorseemsthatatleastsportcanplayausefulroleasatoolfordevelopment(EuropeanParliament,2005)orevenbuildabetterworld(IOC,2013).Nowadays,itishardtoimaginethatsportisnotusedtoaddressallkindsofsocialissues.Developingandinvestinginthesporthasintheeyesofmanynotonlysportingvalue,butalsovalueforotherdomains.Or,asformerNOC*NSFpresidentEricaTerpstratendstosay:Sportisgoldforsociety.

Gradually,theconvictionemergedthatsportsisnotonlyasourceofinspiration,butalsoaneffectivetoolincombatingsocialproblems.

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Thisrecognitionofthesocialmeaningofsporthasopeneddoorsforsportswithindevelopmentcooperation.Anno2013,theUnitedNationsstate:Sportcannolongerbeconsideredaluxurywithinanysociety,butisratheranimportantinvestmentinthepresentandfuture,particularlyindevelopingcountries(UN,2013).

1.1.2 ChangesintheapproachtodevelopmentcooperationOtherfactorswhichcreatedopportunitiesforthesportfordevelopmentmovementaretheaidparadigmshiftandtheemergenceofthefourthpillarindevelopmentcooperation.

Thereismuchdebateamongthegeneralpublic,politiciansandacademicsaboutthecurrentroleofdevelopmentaid;whatithasaccomplishedaftermorethanfiftyyearsofdevelopmentwork,itseffectiveness,anditsprospectsforthefuture.Perspectivesonthesequestionsarediverse.Assessmentsrangefromclaimsthatdevelopmentaidhashadquitelimitedsuccess(Easterly,2006);thatitservestopromulgatetheneomercantilisttendenciesoftheWest(PetrasandVeltmeyer,2002);or,thatwhilebeingmodestly

successful,areframingofpurposesandgoalsisnowinordertomatchtheneedsofachangingworld(Sen,2006).

Criticsontraditionalapproachestodevelopmentcooperationclaimthattheeffortsbytraditionaldevelopmentorganizationsdidnotcontributetosignificantchangeindevelopingcountries,despiteofthebillionsofeurosthatwereinvestedoverthelast50years.Theircritique,amongothercomments,focusesontheemphasisoneconomicandmaterialdevelopmentinthetraditionaldevelopmentcooperationsector(cf.PetrasandVeltmeyer,2002).Newinsightsintheconceptofdevelopmentledtoaparadigmshift,inwhichmoreemphasisisputonsocialdevelopmentandcreationofsocialnetworks.

Traditionally,officialdevelopmentcooperationhasbeentheplayingfieldofgovernments,multilateralinstitutionsandestablisheddevelopmentNGOs.DeveltereandDeBruyn(2009)callthemthethreepillarsofdevelopmentcooperation.Inthelastdecadehowever,otheractors(suchasbusinesses,migrantorganizations,tradeunions,professionalgroups,groupsoffriends,schools,etc.)insocalleddonororNortherncountrieshaveactivelyshowninterestindevelopmentrelatedactivities,andindevelopingandimplementingdevelopmentorientedinitiativesindevelopingcountries(theSouth).Thishasledtotheemergeofthefourthpillarandtheinvolvementofcivilsocietyorganizationsindevelopmentcooperation.

Thefourthpillaroffersanalternativeforthepublicthathaslostconfidenceintraditionaldevelopmentcooperationandforthosewhosupportadevelopmentapproachthatfocusesonsocialdevelopmentandthecreationofsocialnetworks.Politicalappreciationofthefourthpillarisontheriseandtheircredibilityisgrowingattheinternationallevel.Representativesofthefourthpillarcanincreasinglybefoundininternationalnetworksandatforums,wheretheyhaveearnedtheirplacenexttoUNexpertsandotherdevelopmentspecialists(Develtere&DeBruyn,2009).

Thefourthpillar,includingSfD,offersanalternativeforthepublicthathaslostconfidenceintraditionaldevelopmentcooperation.

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Sportfordevelopmentorganizations,suchasNSAInternationalandRightToPlay,orprivatesportorganizationswhogotinvolvedinsportfordevelopment,suchasKNVB,canbeconceivedasrepresentativesofthefourthpillar.Theirsportorientedapproachisrefreshingandoffersnewpossibilitiesindevelopmentcooperation.Theirinvolvementisalsowelcomed,sincepoliticalsupportfordevelopmentcooperationisdecreasingintheNetherlands.Developmentbudgetsarecutrigorously,newwaysoffundingareneededandsupportofthegeneralpublicisnecessary.Sportmayhelptoprovideamorerecognizableandvisibleimagetodevelopmentcooperation.Furthermore,governmentsarelookingforcooperationwithprivateorganizations,insocalledpublicprivatepartnerships.Cooperationwithsportsorganizationsfitsinwell,becausesports(withitsfamousrolemodels)opensdoorstobusinessesandotherpotentialpartners.

Atthesametime,sportsareimmenselypopularinmostdevelopingcountries,whichcontributestolocalinvolvement.Also,largesportingeventsincreasinglytakeplaceindevelopingcountriesandcities(thinkoftheFIFAWorldCupinSouthAfricaandBrazil,CommonwealthGamesinNewDelhiandtheOlympicGamesinBeijing,SochiandRiodeJaneiro).Inaddition,manysportsorganizations,suchasKNVB,FIFAandIOC,areawarethattheycannotlimittheirworktotheorganizationofsports,andrealizethattheymustshowbroadersocialcommitment,forexamplewithacorporatesocialresponsibility(CSR)strategy.

Allthismeansthatgovernmentsaremoreopentointegratesportintotheirdevelopmentpoliciesandstrategies.ThiswasillustratedbytheEuropeanParliamentin2005,whodrewadirectlinebetweensportandtheMilleniumDevelopmentGoals,bydeclaring:()physicaleducationandsportsprojectsmayhelptoattaintheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals,especiallywithregardtothemessuchashealth,education,socialmobilization,genderequality,environmentandpeaceamongpeople.Nowadays,supportingsportsbaseddevelopmentprogramsandprojects,throughearmarkedbudgets,islegitimateindevelopmentpolicies.

1.2 ClaimsTheincreasingpopularityofsportastoolfordevelopmentcomesalongwithanincreasingamountofclaimsmadeonthepowerofsportfordevelopment.Theseclaimsconcerndifferentsocialissuesandaffectdifferentlevelsinsociety(micro,mesoandmacro).TheSfDsectorusesdifferentconceptstoindicatewhatismeantbysportfordevelopment.Anoftenuseddefinitionistheuseofsporttoexertapositiveinfluenceonpublichealth,thesocializationofchildren,youthsandadults,thesocialinclusionofthedisadvantaged,theeconomicdevelopmentofregionsandstates,andonfosteringinterculturalexchangeandconflictresolution(Sugden,1991,2006,2008;Lyras,2007;Lyras&WeltyPeachey,2011).

AccordingtotheSportforDevelopmentandPeaceInternationalWorkingGroup(SDPIWG,2007),sportisseentohavethemostbenefitsin:

Theincreasingpopularityofsportastoolfordevelopmentcomesalongwithanincreasingamountofclaimsmadeonthepowerofsportfordevelopment.

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Individualdevelopment Healthpromotionanddiseaseprevention Promotionofgenderequality Socialintegrationandthedevelopmentofsocialcapital Peacebuildingandconflictprevention/resolution Postdisaster/traumareliefandnormalizationoflife Economicdevelopment Communicationandsocialmobilization.

AselectionofclaimsbySfDactorscanbefoundinBox1.

Box1:Selectionofclaimsonthepotentialofsportfordevelopment

SporthasbeenlinkedtotheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).Inthepast,sporthasbeenmostcommonlylinkedto:eradicationofpovertyandextremehunger;achievinguniversalprimaryeducation;respondingtothepsychosocialneedsofvictimsofdisastersandemergencies;promotinggenderequalityandempoweringwomen;andcombatingHIV/AIDS,malariaandotherdiseases(www.sportanddev.org,2013).

Therelationshipbetweensportanddevelopment,however,isnotasobviousasitseemsatfirst.Besidesallpositiveoutcomesassociatedwithsport,likeimprovedfitnessandhealth,inclusionand

Selectionofclaimsonthepotentialofsportfordevelopment

PlayisNOTaluxury;itisatoolforeducationandhealth.Itcanbringentirecommunitiestogetherandinspireeveryindividual.Agameoffootballcanteachchildrenabouttoleranceandpeace,andagameoftagcanteachaboutmalaria.Playhelpsteachimportantlifelessonsanddevelopskillslikecooperation,leadershipandteamwork.(RighttoPlayInternational,2013)

()footballismorethanasport.Footballdevelopsindividuals.Itincreaseslifequalityandencouragesparticipationwithinthecommunity.Fordisadvantagedareas,developingcountriesandtheyoungpeoplewhowouldotherwisestandonthesidelinesoflifelivingthere,footballisadevelopmenttool.(KNVB,2013)

Sportcanstrengthentheconfidenceandlifeskillsofyoungpeoplefromdisadvantagedbackgroundstodrivetheirownfuture,becomeactivecitizensandcommitthemselvestobuildinguptheircommunity.Theybecomeagentsofchange,andassuchbreaktheviciouscycleofpoverty,injustice,violenceandinequalitythathaskeptthemandtheirfamiliesatthemarginofsociety.(NSAInternational,2013)

Sportisbecauseofitspopularity,visibilityandsocialsignificanceacatalystforachievingspecificdevelopmentgoals.Sportinthiscontextisatoolforhealthpromotion,peacebuildinginfragilestatesandconflictprevention,reconciliationandrehabilitationin(post)conflictcountries.(MinistriesofForeignAffairsandHealth,WelfareandSport(VWS),2008)

Byitsverynaturesportisaboutparticipation.Itisaboutinclusionandcitizenship.Sportbringsindividualsandcommunitiestogether,highlightingcommonalitiesandbridgingculturalorethnicdivides.Sportprovidesaforumtolearnskillssuchasdiscipline,confidenceandleadershipanditteachescoreprinciplessuchastolerance,cooperationandrespect.Sportteachesthevalueofeffortandhowtomanagevictory,aswellasdefeat.Whenthesepositiveaspectsofsportareemphasized,sportbecomesapowerfulvehiclethroughwhichtheUnitedNationscanworktowardsachievingitsgoals.(UnitedNations,2005)

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fairplay,thereissufficientevidenceofthedarksideofsport,suchasinjuries,exclusion,violence,hooliganismandfoulplay.Chapter3willanalyzetheclaimsofthepowerofsportfordevelopmentonthebasisofacademicliterature.

1.3 DefinitionsTheconceptofSportforDevelopmentseemsselfevidentandindisputable:thereisalinkbetweensportontheonehandanddevelopmentontheother.However,oftenitisnotexplicitlydefinedwhatismeantbytheusedconceptsofsportanddevelopment.Forinstance,alongtermsportfordevelopmentprogramaimingtocontributetopeacebuildingisverydifferentfromanonedaygrassrootssporteventthataimstobringjoy.Whenclaiminga(positive)causalrelationshipbetweensportanddevelopment,itiscrucialtooperationalizeandconceptualizethemainconcepts.

1.3.1 Sport

Manybookshavebeenwrittenonwhatisexactlyunderstoodassport,tryingtoformulateananswertoquestionssuchas:Doweonlytalkaboutorganizedsportsordowealsocoverleisureactivities?Isplayingchessasportanddoweincludeindigenousgames?Sportisrelativefromculturetoculture,accordingtoEichberg(1984):Itoscillatesbetweengame,dance,competition,fight,gymnastics,festivities,ritual,carnival,theatre,healthtechniques,magic,eroticpresentationandotherformsofphysicalculture.EliasandDunning(1970)argue:Sportactivitiesandgames,particularlyintheirtraditionalnationalforms,reflectculturalconfigurationsandstablepatterns.

IntheareaofSport&Development,sportisgenerallyunderstoodtoincludephysicalactivitiesthatgobeyondcompetitivesports(www.sportanddev.org,2013).TheUnitedNationsInteragencyTaskforceonSportforDevelopmentandPeace(2012)states:Incorporatedintothedefinitionofsportareallformsofphysicalactivitythatcontributetophysicalfitness,mentalwellbeingandsocialinteraction.Theseinclude:play;recreation;organized,casualorcompetitivesport;andindigenoussportsorgames.UNICEF(2004)expandsthisdefinition:Sportinvolvesrulesorcustomsandsometimescompetition.Playespeciallyamongchildrenisanyphysicalactivitythatisfunandparticipatory.Itisoftenunstructuredandfreefromadultdirection.Recreationismoreorganizedthanplay,andgenerallyentailsphysicallyactiveleisureactivities.Play,recreationandsportareallfreelychosenactivitiesundertakenforpleasure.

Thisconceptualizationofsportsisverycomprehensivebyincorporatingallformsofsport,physicalactivityandexercisethatcontributetophysicalfitness,mentalwellbeingandsocialinteraction.Sincesportmanifestsitselfinmanydifferentformswithinsportfordevelopmentprograms,reachingaverydiversetargetpopulation,sportcannotbelimitedtoformalorganizedactivities.Whereasfootballisoftenbeingusedtoattractatriskyouthincommunities,traditionalsportsandindigenousgamesareregularlybeingusedtopromoteunityandculturalheritageortotargethardtoreachpopulationswhicharenotattractedbypopularsports.Differentformsofphysicalactivityareusedfordifferentobjectives.

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Furthermore,theambiguousandsometimesparadoxicalnatureofsportshouldnotbeneglected.Itisimportanttoseesportasasocialconstructionwhichismalleableaccordingtothesocialforce(Sugden,2010).Sporthasbothpositiveandnegativeaspects,itdoesnothaveoneface.Moreover,itisimportanttonotethatsportsandelementsofsportsarebeingdiscussedatdifferentlevelsandfromdifferentperspectives(Allison,1986).

1.3.2 Development

Theconceptofdevelopmentisnoteasytodemarcate;agenerallyappealingterm,howeverdeeplycomplicatedandmultidimensional.Developmentmeansmanythingstomanypeople(see,forexample,Escobar,1995;Cooper&Packard,1997;Crewe&Harrison,1998;Black,2010).Thelevelofdevelopmentofanationwasinitiallyconsideredonlyineconomictermsandconcernedtheextenttowhichitseconomydependedontheagricultural,industrialand/orservicesectors(thelatterbeingconsideredthemostdeveloped).Thelevelofdevelopmentwasmeasuredintermsofthegrossdomesticproduct(GDP)orgrossnationalproduct(GNP)(SDPIWG,2007).But,developmentisnotonlyaneconomicissue,asithaspolitical,socialandculturalimplicationsaswell(Schulpen,2001).Often,adistinctionismadebetweensocialandhumandevelopment.

Socialdevelopmentisabroadtermthatdescribesactionsthataretakentobuildpositiveoutcomesandpreventnegativesocialoutcomesthatcanadverselyaffectacommunity. Theaimofsocialdevelopmentistoimprovetheavailabilityofsupportsystemsinthecommunity,whichpreventnegativeoutcomesbeforetheyoccurorbuffer(lessen)theirimpact.Therefore,socialdevelopmentfocusesonthesocialorganizationthatenablestoachievethegoalsofsociety.

Humandevelopmentfocusesonindividualstodeveloptheircapacitytoachievethegoalstheyaspirefor.Humandevelopment,accordingtotheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP,2006),maybedefinedasaprocessofenlargingpeopleschoices.UNDParguesthatatalllevelsofdevelopment,thethreeessentialchoicesforpeoplearetolivealongandhealthylife,toacquirebetterknowledgeandtohaveaccesstoresourcesneededforadecentstandardofliving.TheUNDPusestheHumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)tomeasureimprovementsinthequalityoflifeofhumans,basedonanindexwiththreecriteria:

Alongandhealthylife,asmeasuredbylifeexpectancyatbirth; Knowledge,asmeasuredbytheadultliteracyrate(2/3weight),andthecombinedgross

enrolmentratioinprimary,secondaryandtertiaryeducation(1/3weight); Adecentstandardofliving,asmeasuredbytheGDPpercapitainpurchasingpowerparity

(PPP)terms(measuredinUS$)(HumanDevelopmentReport,2006,p.394).Ingeneral,developmentisconcernedwithincreasinghealthandlongevity;improvingknowledgeandeducation;ensuringanadequatestandardofliving(UNDP,2006);andprovidingavenuesforhumanrights,justiceandcitizenshipforthosewhohavebeenexcludedanddisenfranchisedfrompubliclife(Small,2002).

Mwaanga(2013)warnsthatthesedevelopmentconceptsaretheoutcomesofahegemonicNortherndevelopmentparadigm,indicativeofthehegemonicpositionofNortherncountriesintheSfDmovement.Hearguesthatmodernizationistheonedominantdevelopmenttheory:Suchdevelopmentthinkingimpliesabinaryunderstandingoftheworld,distinguishingbetweentheless

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desired(developing,traditional)andthemoredesired(modern,civilized)society.AccordingtoMwaanga,thisviewondevelopmentcompelsNotherncountriestoproactivelyassistthepoorcountriesintheirattempttobecomemodern.HeproposesalternativedevelopmentdiscoursesforSfD,suchaspostcolonialtheoryandtheUbuntuphilosophy,inwhichthenotionofagoalfordevelopmentcanbereachedonlythroughatrulydemocraticallyimbuedprocess,wherebythoseatthereceivingendnegotiatetheirowninitiatives.

Itisimportanttonotethat,underallpresenteddefinitionsorconcepts,nocountryeverachievesafinalstateofbeingdevelopedastheUNDeclarationnotes,developmentisaprocessofconstantimprovement.However,keyquestionsremain:whodeterminestheformofdevelopmentinacountry?andwhataretheappropriaterolesforforeignersinthedevelopmentofanothercountry?(SDPIWG,2007).

1.3.3 Sport(for)development

Theconceptualizationofsportfordevelopmentnotonlyfacesdifficultiesinacademiccircles,inpracticetheuseofunambiguousconceptsremainsachallengeaswell.Thetermssportfordevelopment,developmentthroughsport,sportindevelopment,sportanddevelopment,sportforchangeandsportsdevelopmentareusedinterchangeablytorefertoprogramsandprojects.

Variousclassificationsarebeingusedinliteratureandinthefieldtoclarifythespecificnatureofdifferentsportprogramsandinordertoclarifythedifferencebetweensportdevelopmentanddevelopmentthroughsport.

Kidd(2008)suggeststhreebroad,overlapping,approaches:firstly,traditionalsportsdevelopmentinwhichtheprovisionofbasicsportscoaching,equipmentandinfrastructurearethecentralconcern.ThisisforinstancehowtheKNVBinitiallystarteditssportprogramsindevelopingcountries.Later,theytookawiderapproach,andstartedaddressingsocialissuesinthetrainingofcoaches.Secondly,humanitarianassistanceinwhichfundraisinginsportisusedtoprovideformsofaidassistance,frequentlyforrefugees.SomeoftheRightToPlayprojectsfallintothiscategory.Thethirdcategoryistherathergrandioselynamedsportfordevelopmentandpeacemovement,whichcoversawidevarietyoforganizationsandloosecoalitions.Theseorganizationsandcoalitionsfocusonbroadsocialdevelopment,suchasNSAInternationalandKickingAIDSOut.

Levermore(2008)proposesanotherclassificationbasedonamoredisaggregatedapproachtothedesiredoutcomesofsportfordevelopmentorganizations:conflictresolutionandinterculturalunderstanding;buildingphysical,socialandcommunityinfrastructure;raisingawareness,particularlythrougheducation;empowerment;directimpactonphysicalandpsychologicalhealthandgeneralwelfare;economicdevelopmentandpovertyalleviation.

Themostusedanduserfriendlyclassificationisthedistinctionbetweensportplusandplussportapproach(MinistriesofForeignAffairsandVWS,1998;Coalter,2007).Sportplusmeans:programsandprojectswithafocusonthedeliveryofsport,whichmay(also)resultindevelopmentoutcomes.Plussport

Bothsportdevelopmentandsportfordevelopmentareaimedatmakinglifemoremeaningfulthroughinteractionwithoneother.

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takesacertainsocialordevelopmentissueasstartingpointandusessportasatooltoaddressthatissue.Thisclassificationisratheracontinuumonwhichprogramscanbeplacedthanastrictclassification.

Engelhardt(2013)arguesthattheoverarchingaimofsportdevelopment/sportplusorsportfordevelopment/plussportmayseemverydifferent,butthatisnottosaythattheycannotworktogetherwithmutualbenefits.Shestates:Bothsportdevelopmentandsportfordevelopmentfocusondeliveringqualityinterventionsandactive,plannedparticipationontheground.Wewouldperhapsdowelltoviewthembothasvariationsofthesameidea,interventionsinsocietyaimedtowardsthemosthumanofgoals:makinglifemoremeaningfulthroughinteractionwithoneother(www.sportanddev.org,2013).

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2Policies,programsandapproachesThischapterwillgiveaconciseintroductiontothefieldofsportfordevelopmentonanationalandinternationallevel.Itdescribeshowsportfordevelopmenthasbeenintegratedininternationalandnationalpolicies.TheNetherlandsandtheyear1998,whenthefirstDutchformalpolicyhasbeenformulated(SportinDevelopment:TeamworkScores!),willserveaspointofreference.ThechapteranalyzeswhatcanbesaidabouttheroleandapproachoftheNetherlandsintheinternationalfieldofsportfordevelopment.

2.1 PolicyandprogramsintheNetherlands

19801998ThehistoricalrelationshipbetweentheNetherlandsandSouthAfricaplaysanimportantroleintheemergeofsportfordevelopmentpolicyandprogramsintheNetherlands.Duringthe1980s,thesportboycottagainsttheApartheidsysteminSouthAfricawasthefirstpoliticalinvolvementoftheNetherlandsinsportindevelopingcountries.Afterthefirstnonracialelectionsin1994,DutchsportorganizationsopenedtalkswiththeirSouthAfricancolleagues,variousNGOsstarteddevelopmentprogramsinthepostApartheidcountryandtheDutchgovernmentwaswillingtoinvestinthebuildupofthenewSouthAfrica.Varioussportfordevelopmentinitiativesemerged,suchasthecooperationbetweenSCORE,aSouthAfricansportbasedNGO,andtheNetherlandsOlympicCommittee/NetherlandsSportsFederation(NOC*NSF)andbetweentheSouthAfricanFootballAssociation(SAFA)andtheNetherlandsRoyalFootballAssociation(KNVB).

Variousotherprivateinitiativesemergedinresponsetorequestsfromlocalgovernments,sportingorganizationsandindividualsfromthesouthnotonlyinSouthAfrica.Forexample,thesportleadersprogramoftheNetherlandsCatholicSportsFederation(NKS,oneofthepredecessorsofNSAInternational)inBurkinaFaso,andvolleyballprogramsrelatedtodealingwithtraumainRwanda.Sportorganizationsandpassionateindividualswerepioneeringonvariousfronts.Subsequently,thesepioneersincreasinglyturnedtothegovernmentforsubsidiesfortheirprojects.

Atthetime,sportfordevelopmentfundingbytheDutchgovernmentwasmerelyincidental.ThefirsttimefundingfromtheDutchgovernmentwasusedforsportfordevelopmentwasaftertheplanecrashinwhichtheZambiannationalfootballteamperishedin1993.ThethenministerofDevelopmentCooperation,JanPronk,madefundsavailabletorebuildtheZambianfootballteam,whichhadlostalmostallitsplayersintherunuptothe1994WorldCupintheUSA.Theministeracknowledgedthatgoodperformancebythenationalteamwasimportanttoadevelopingnation.Dutchparliamentcalledtheministertoaccountforthisinitiative.

VarioussportfordevelopmentinitiativesemergedinpostApartheidSouthAfricaandtheDutchgovernmentwaswillingtoinvestinthebuildupofthenewSouthAfrica.

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ThenewpoliticalsituationinSouthAfrica,thevariousprivateinitiativesandchangesinpolicy(duetheearliermentionedparadigmshiftseeChapter1),gavewaytoamorestructuredapproach(andbudgets)bytheDutchgovernment.In1998,theMinistryofSportandtheMinistryofForeignAffairsdevelopedacombinedmemorandumwhichexplicitlylinkedsportastoolfordevelopmenttointernationaldevelopmentcooperation(entitledTeamworkScores![Samenspelscoort],1998).ThememorandummotivatedandbroughttogetherDutchorganizationsandannouncedstructuralplanstoencourageandsupportsportindevelopingcountries.Itsofficialgoalwasformulatedasfollows:Topromotethebestpossibleuseofphysicaleducation,sport,games,andactivitiesinvolvingphysicalexerciseindevelopingcountrieswiththeaimofincreasingbothindividualhealthandwellbeingandsocialcohesionanddevelopment.Oneofthegoalswastointegratesportandphysicalexercisewithotherdevelopmentactivities,suchasruraldevelopmentprojectsandprogramsforstreetchildren,therebyencouragingtheintegrationofsportinawiderangeofsectors,whichwastotallynewatthattime.

19982008TypicalfortheDutchorganizationofsportfordevelopmentistheinvolvementoftwodifferentministries,whichrequiresthoughtfulcoordinationandmanagementoftasksandresponsibilities.Thememorandumfrom1998appointedtheMinistryofForeignAffairsasresponsibleforallNGOsandmultilateralagenciesworkingindevelopmentcooperation,whiletheMinistryofSporthadtheresponsibilityforliaisingwiththeInternationalOlympic

Committee(IOC),sportbasedNGOs,localsportassociations,andothersportorientedorganizations.

TheSfDmemorandumgavetheMinistryofSporttheabilitytosignMemorandaofUnderstanding(MoU)withvariouscountries.TheseMoUsweredesignedtoexchangesportknowledgebetweencountries.TheKNVBbecameanimportantpartnerfortheMinistryofSportinimplementingtheMoUs.DutchfootballcoachesrancoursesinZambia,SouthAfrica,Indonesia,BurkinaFasoandSurinam.Also,NKSgainedtheopportunitytosustaintheirprograminBurkinaFasoandstartoffinSurinam.

Moreover,thegovernmentsubsidizedaSportandDevelopmentprogram,runbytheNationalCommitteeforInternationalCooperationandSustainableDevelopment(NCDO),anindependentadministrativebody.Thisorganizationsetupaplatformforsportanddevelopmentorganizationstoregularlymeetandexchangeinformation.NCDOalsodevelopedawebsite(www.sportdevelopment.org)makingrelevantinformationaboutprojects,organizations,funding,andsoonaccessible.Inaddition,NCDOpublishedSupporter,aquarterlyaboutsportindevelopingcountries,whichensuredthattheissuewasbroughttotheattentionoftheDutchpublic.

Althoughthebudgetforprojectsindevelopingcountriesremainedlimited,thenewpolicydocument,theMoUsandtheNCDOSportandDevelopmentprogramsparkedanumberofnewlargescaleprojects.SomeDutchsportorganizations,amongwhichKNVBandNSA,formally

Thenewpolicydocument,theMoUsandtheNCDOSportandDevelopmentprogramsparkedoffanumberofnewlargescaleprojects.

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incorporatedsportanddevelopmentintotheirmissionandevenappointedaspecializedemployee.Itprovedhardertoinvolvethetraditionaldevelopmentcooperationsector.Incidentally,NGOssuchasTerredesHommes,Cordaid,IKVPaxChristiandOxfamNovibcooperatedinsportfordevelopmentprojects,butitwasnotsystematicallyincludedintheirprogramsandstrategies.

Thepolicymemorandumof1998wasfollowedbyajointpositionstatementfromtheMinistryofForeignAffairsandtheMinistryofSportin2000.WhiletheMinistryofSportsresponsibilitiesremainedthesame,theMinistryofForeignAffairsadoptedalargesectorapproach.Developmentcooperationpolicyshiftedfromtheuncoordinatedsupportontheprojectlevelinalargeamountofcountriestoafocusonsupportatprogramlevelinasmalleramountofcountries.Smallersectorslikesport,youth,andinclusionofpeoplewithdisabilitieswereintegratedintoabroader,overarchingpolicyfocus,suchashealth,educationandruraldevelopment,aswellasgoodgovernance.Furthermore,theDutchembassieswereassignedadifferentrole,astheynolongerreceiveddirectsupportforsportfordevelopmentprojects.

ThispolicyshiftmadeitdifficultforsmallerNGOstoobtainfundsforsportfordevelopmentprojects.Atthesametime,globaloperatingsportfordevelopmentorganizationssuchasRightToPlayfitinwellinthenewpolicy.TheDutchForeignAffairsministrywassoimpressedbytheRighttoPlayprojects,particularlythosefocussingonhealthpromotionandrefugees,that,in2002,itannouncedtosupportRightToPlaytoconductalargemultilateralprogram.RighttoPlayNetherlandsbecameamemberoftheInnovationPlatformDevelopmentCooperationandin2008;itwasassignedagrantof1.2millionEuroforprogramsinSudanandBurundi.

Manysportfordevelopmentprogramschangedsubstantivelyinthisperiod.From2004,itwasmadepossibleforDutchsportsorganizationstojoinPSO,amemberorganizationwithalargebodyofknowledgeinthefieldofdevelopmentcooperation.ThePSOmembershipofNOC*NSFwasaturningpointthatmadevarioussportfordevelopmentorganizationsthinkdifferentlyabouttheirapproach.ItstimulatedNKS(later:NSAInternational),forinstance,tofocusoncapacitybuilding.IntheNKSprogramshumanresource,organizationalandinstitutionaldevelopmentbecamekey.Moreover,newfundingpossibilitiesforDutchsportfordevelopmentorganizationsarosethroughPSO.

20082013On11February2008,thethenDutchMinisterforDevelopmentCooperationBertKoendersandtheStateSecretaryforHealth,WelfareandSportMaritteBussemakerpresentedthepolicymemorandumentitledThepowerofsportindevelopmentcooperation.Anopengoal[Eenkansvooropendoel.Dekrachtvansportinontwikkelingssamenwerking].ThispolicymemorandumhadtheintentiontostimulateDutchinvolvementandcommitmentinthefieldofsportanddevelopmentcooperation.

Thevisionbehindthismemorandumwastoenabledevelopmentcooperationbodiesandorganizationstomakeoptimalandsustainableuseofthepowerofsportandplayprograms.Furthermorethestartingpointwasafocusoncooperationinwhichsportcanmakeacontributiontodevelopmentgoals.Therefore,thepolicywasbuiltaroundthefollowingthreeelements:

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CommitmenttotheuseofsportwithininternationaldevelopmentcooperationbyDutchorganizations(alsoknownasSportscoalitionsinaction,viaNOC*NSF);

Commitmenttotheuseofsportwithininternationaldevelopmentcooperationbylocalorganizations(viaEmbassies);

CommitmenttoreinforcingthesupportfortheuseofsportwithininternationaldevelopmentcooperationintheNetherlands(viaNCDO).

Theprogramaimedtoimprovethepositionofyoungpeople,girlsandwomen,andthedisabledin10selectedcountries(partially)throughtheapplicationofDutchsportsknowhow.TheselectedcountrieswereSouthAfrica,Suriname,Kenya,BurkinaFaso,Zambia,Mozambique,Senegal,Bhutan,IndonesiaandGuatemala.Asidefromthesecountries,specialprojectsweresetupinthreefragilestates:Burundi,SudanandthePalestinianTerritories.Theprogramfocusedspecificallyonthethemesofhealth,educationandemancipation/participationandwasimplementedbysocalledmaincontractors:NSA,KNVB,Todos,RespoandBhutanandPartners.TheycooperatedwithRightToPlay,WomenWinandvariouslocalorganizations,mainlycommunitybased.TheexplicitroleofDutchembassiesinthismemorandumwasnew.Intheyearsbefore,embassieswereincidentallyinvolvedinsportfordevelopmentprograms,forexampleinZambiaandSouthAfrica.Theirinvolvementheavilydependedonpersonalinterestbyembassystaffmembers.Now,withthenewmemorandum,embassiesin10countrieshadtointegratesportfordevelopmentintheiractivitiesandprograms.

Thebudgetmadeavailablefortheperiodbetween2008and2011was16millionEuro.ThismoneywaspartlyallocatedtofundthecommitmentbyDutchsportand/ordevelopmentorganizations.AnevaluationbyNCDO(2011)providedinsightinthequantitativeandqualitativeresultsoftheprogram.Themostimportantsuccesseswereformulatedasnewnetworkrelationsandcollaborationswithdomainsoutsidesport.Forexample,NSAcreatedalargenetworkofgrassrootscommunitybasedorganizationsinKenya,whereitrunsprogramsfocusedonpeace,security,educationandlivelihood.Also,knowledgeexchangethroughjointtrainingprogramsandcooperationwithuniversitieswasmentionedasayieldoftheprogram.Theevaluationalsoprovidedvariousrecommendations,suchasmorefocusonknowledgeexchangethroughthereuseofproductsandexchangeofbestpracticesandprovideframeworks(suchasguidanceindicators)formonitoringandevaluation.

The2010FIFAWorldCupinSouthAfricaprovidedaboosttosportfordevelopmentactivities.InthecontextofthisWorldCup,theKNVBrenamedtheirglobalcoachthecoachesprogramintoWorldCoachesandrepositionedtheirprogramwiththeexplicitintegrationoflifeskillsinfootballcourses.TheWorldCoachesprogrambecamelessdependentongovernmentsubsidiesthankstotheinterestandinvolvementofprivateorganizations,suchasNike.Also,theWorldCoachesprogramofferedvariousopportunitiesforpublicprivatepartnerships(socalledPPPs),whichwasacknowledgedbythewater,sanitationandhygiene(WASH)sector.In2011,aPPPbetweenKNVB,theWASHsectorandtheMinistryofForeignAffairsemerged,resultinginaFootballforWaterprograminGhana,KenyaandMozambique.

Themostimportantsuccesseswereformulatedasnewnetworkrelationsandcollaborationswithdomainsoutsidesport.

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Becausethe2008policymemorandumonsportfordevelopmentexpiredin2011,anewprogramwasdevelopedin2012.Thistime,theprogramwascomposedsolelybytheMinistryofForeignAffairs.TheMinistryofSporthassportfordevelopmentnotformallyinitsportfoliosanymore,sinceitsfocusismoreondomesticissuesnow.WithinthenewlyinitiatedprogramSportforDevelopment20122015themainthemesaresustainabledevelopmentandpeace.Disadvantagedgroupsyouth,children,women,girlsanddisabledpeopleagainhaveacentralpositionwithintheprogram.

Furthermore,theprogramislessfocusedonraisingpublicsupportandknowledgesharingthanbeforeandhasshiftedtothesupportofsportnetworksforsocialentrepreneurship.Whereasintheperiod20082011abudgetof16millionEurowasavailable,forthisprogramabudgetof6millionisallocated,duetooverallbudgetcutswithindevelopmentcooperation.Thenumberoftargetcountriesalsowentdownfrom10to8.Atthesametimenewtargetcountrieshavebeenappointedaspartofthose8selectedcountries.NSAInternational,KNVBandRighttoPlayaretheimplementersoftheprogram.

Paradigm DutchSfDpolicy

1980sSportasprivatedomain;traditionaldevelopmentcooperation

Nopolicy

1990sSportasasourceofinspirationforsociety;moreemphasisonsocialdevelopment

FirstformalpolicyonSfD:SportinDevelopment:TeamworkScores!(MinistryofSportandMinistryofForeignAffairs,1998)

2000s

Sportasaneffectivetoolfordevelopment;emergeof4thpillarindevelopmentcooperation

NewcountryprogramSfD:Anopengoal.Thepowerofsportindevelopmentcooperation(MinistryofSportandMinistryofForeignAffairs,2008)

2010sSportasacontributortodevelopmentandsocialentrepeneurship

Program:SportforDevelopment20122015(MinistryofForeignAffairs,2012)

Table1:SportfordevelopmentinpolicyintheNetherlands

2.2 Internationalpolicyandprograms

BriefhistorySportforAllwasthenameofprobablythefirstsportfordevelopmentprogramandwasimplementedinTanzaniabytheNorwegianOlympicCommitteeandConfederationofSports(NIF)in1983.InNorway,athleteinvolvementplayedalargeroleintheemergenceofsportasadevelopmentinstrumentandstill,nationalsportrolemodelshavealargeinfluenceonthepublicopinionofsportfordevelopment.RightToPlay(formerly:OlympicAid),headedbyerstwhileNorwegianOlympicspeedskatingchampionJohannOlavKoss,becamethelargestinternationalNGOforsportanddevelopmentandusespopulareliteathletesastheirambassadors.

AnothersportfordevelopmentearlyadaptorisCanada.FormalinvolvementoftheCanadiangovernmentwasinitiatedatthe1991CommonwealthHeadsofGovernment(CHOM)meeting.Since2000,CanadaisaccommodatingtheheadquartersofRightToPlayinToronto.Intheearly2000s,theNetherlandstogetherwithNorwayandCanadawereabletocallthemselvesthefrontrunnersofthemovement,withRightToPlayasastronglobbyistforthesportanddevelopmentissueinternationally.

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NorwayTheNorwegianOlympicCommitteeandConfederationofSports(NIF)wasabletoimplementasportsdevelopmentaidprojectbecauseofthechangesinNorwegiandevelopmentaidstrategiesinthe1990s.Thesechangesmadefundsavailableforprivateorganizations.Inordertobefunded,certaindemandswereproposedbyNORAD,whichwasNorwayspublicimplementingaidagencyatthetime.Overtheyearspublicsupportforsporthasbeenanimportantfactoraswell.Manygovernmentsindicatedthatindividualchampions,likeJohannOlavKoss,wereinvaluableinmobilizinggovernmentsupportforsportfordevelopmentandpeacebydemonstratingthepowerofsportinhighlypersonalandcompellingways(Straume&SteenJohnsen,2012).CanadaFormalinvolvementofthegovernmentinCanadawasinitiatedatthe1991CommonwealthHeadsofGovernment(CHOM)meetingandsincethenCanadahasbeenwellknownwithinthesportfordevelopmentsector(Hayhurst&Frisby,2010).Internationally,CanadaplaysaninfluentialrolebystructuralcooperationwithmultilateralpartnersastheforumofCommonwealthSportsMinistersConference,theCommonwealthAdvisoryBodyonSport,theConferenceoftheYouthandSportsMinistersofFrenchspeakingCountries(CONFEJES)andtheUnitedNationsGroupofFriendsforSportforDevelopmentandPeace.Box2:policydevelopmentinNorwayandCanada

DuringtheOlympicWinterGamesinSaltLakeCity(2002),RightToPlayorganizedaroundtableconferenceonSfD.TheSaltLakeCityconferenceresultedinthefoundingofaspecialtaskforceonSportsforPeaceandDevelopmentandtheappointmentofmr.AdolfOgiasthespecialUNambassadorin2003.ThetaskforceevolvedintotheSportforDevelopmentandPeaceInternationalWorkingGroup(SDPIWG)whoaimedatachievingtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).RightToPlayservedasSecretariattoSDPIWGfrom2004to2008.TheSDPIWGwasahighlevelpolicyinitiativemobilizing59nationalgovernmentsandkeystakeholdersfromUNagenciesandcivilsociety.ThefocusonusingsportfortheachievementoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoalshasbeenpresentintheapproachoftheUNsincethe2003UNTaskForceReportSportforDevelopmentandPeace:TowardsAttainingtheMisllenniumDevelopmentGoals.Subsequently,manygovernmentsrefertotheMDGswhenstatingtousesportastoolfordevelopment.

In2003,theUNsetuptheOfficeofSportforDevelopmentandPeace(UNOSDP)inordertofurthercontributeinamoresystematicandcoherentwaytothepromotionofsportasacosteffectivedevelopmenttool.Sincethen,theUNMemberStates,gatheredintheGeneralAssembly,haverepeatedlydemonstratedcommitmentandsupporttotheuseofsportasavehicleforhumandevelopmentandpeacebuildingbyadoptingaseriesofresolutions.

SportandUnitedNationsAsearlyas1922,theInternationalOlympicCommittee(IOC)andtheUnitedNationsInternationalLaborOrganization(ILO)alreadyestablishedinstitutionalcooperation,resultinglateroninpartnershipswithotherUnitedNationsagenciesandprograms.Furthermore,therightofaccesstoandparticipationinsportandplayhaslongbeenrecognizedinanumberofinternationalconventions.In1978,UNESCOdescribedsportandphysicaleducationasafundamentalrightforall.However,sportandphysicaleducationprogramsdirectedatachievingdevelopmentgoalstendedtobeusedinanadhoc,informalandisolatedmanner.In2001,formerUNSecretaryGeneralKofiAnnannominatedAdolfOgiashisSpecialAdviseronSportforDevelopmentandPeace,whowassucceededinApril2008byWilfriedLemke.

Box3:SportandUnitedNations

Theincreasedinterestfromdonorcountries,suchasAustralia,theUK,SwitzerlandandGermanyandtheEU,stimulatedariseinrequestsfromthedevelopingcountries,especiallyfromAfrica,andatthesametimetheserequestsfromtheSouthcouldbemoreadequatelytargetedbyspecific

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organizations.UKSportandCommonwealthCanadaorganizedadonorconferenceinLondonandarecipientconferenceinJohannesburg.ThemainissueofdebateattheseconferenceswascooperationbetweenNorthandSouth.Here,thefirststepsweretakentoformulateacodeofconductforcooperationbetweenNorthernandSouthernorganizations.SCORE,aSouthAfricanNGO,wasthecoordinatingorganizationforrecipientcountriesinandplayedinimportroleintheformulationofthecodeofconduct.

AtthefirstMagglingenconferenceinFebruary2003,manyinternationalorganizationsandgovernmentssignedtheMagglingendeclaration,expressingtheircommitmenttosportanddevelopment.Justlikeits2005edition,thisconferencewasorganizedbytheAdvisortotheUNSecretaryGeneralonSportforDevelopmentandPeace,theSwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCooperation(SAD)andFederalOfficeofSportMagglingen(BASPO).InNovember2003,theNetherlandsspecificallyNCDO,theMinistryofHealth,WelfareandSport(VWS)andNOC*NSForganizedaninternationalmeetingofexperts,entitledTheNextStep.Here,practitionersfromboththeNorthandtheSouthgatheredforthefirsttimetodebatethevalueofsportandtodecidewhatstepstotake.TheNextStepConferenceinAmsterdamwasfollowedbyeditionsinZambia(2003),Namibia(2007)andTrinidad&Tobago(2011).Afterthoseconferences,newnetworkorganizationsarose,suchasKickingAIDSout.

However,sportandphysicaleducationprogramsdirectedatachievingdevelopmentgoalstendedtobeusedinanadhoc,informalandisolatedmanner.In2005,whichwasdeclaredbytheUNastheYearofSportandPhysicalEducation(IYSPE),thishasbeenrecognizedbystating:Whatwasmissing,wasasystematicapproachtoanimportantsectorincivilsociety:sport(UN,2005).Consequently,theUnitedNationsisturningtotheworldofsportforhelpintheworkforpeaceandtheefforttoachievetheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.

TheIYSPEwasforvariousgovernments,bothintheNorthandtheSouth,thestartingpointforallocatingbudgettosportfordevelopmentprograms.Internationalumbrellasportorganizations,suchastheIOCandFIFA,cametorealizethatsportscouldcontributesignificantlytodevelopment,andasaresulttheyformulatedtheirownpolicies,strategiesandprograms,suchasFootballforHope.Also,theinterestofdevelopingcountriesinorganizingmegaevents,suchastheOlympicGamesandthefootballWorldCup,andaccompanyingpressureofpublicopinionnottoorganizesuchexpensiveeventsattheexpenseofthepoor,forcedIOCandFIFAtopursueasociallegacythroughtheorganizationofsuchevents.In2008,IOCandtheUNagreedonanexpandedframeworkforactiontousesporttoreachthegoalsoftheUN.

In2013,thesportanddev.orgplatformcelebratesits10thanniversary.Theplatformisahubforsharingknowledge,buildinggoodpractice,facilitatingcoordinationandfosteringpartnershipsbetweenandwithindifferentstakeholdersinsportanddevelopment.TheInternationalPlatformonSport&Developmentiscurrentlysupportedbyadiversityoforganizations,fromtheprivatesector(Nike),thesportssector(InternationalSportandCultureAssociation;UEFA),multigovernmental(theCommonwealthsecretariat),charity(LaureusFoundation),toorganizationsofnationalrepresentation(AustralianSportsCommission,NorwegianOlympicCommittee,UKSport).In2012,

Whatwasmissing,wasasystematicapproachtoanimportantsectorincivilsociety:sport

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2013 3rdUNIOCForumonSportforPeaceandDevelopment

2012 ExpertsMeetingattheCommonwealthSecretariattodevelopguidelinesonSportforDevelopmentandPeacetobeusedthroughouttheCommonwealth.

UNICEFRoundtableonchildprotectioninsport

2011 4thconference'TheNextStep',heldinTrinidad&Tobago.

2ndUNIOCForumonSportforPeaceandDevelopment

2010 2010FIFAWorldCup

2009 FirstUNIOCForumonSportforDevelopmentandPeaceheldinLausanne

OnlineedebatewithSfDexperts,convenedbysportanddev.organdNCDO

2008 UNSecretaryGeneralBanKiMoonestablishesatrustfundonSportforDevelopmentand Peace.

Mr.W.LemkeappointedasthenewSpecialAdviseronSportforDevelopmentandPeace

IOCandtheUNagreeonanexpandedframeworkforactiontousesporttoreachthegoalsoftheUN.

2007 EuropeanCommissionpublishesaWhitePaperonSportstatingitwillpromotetheuseofsportasatoolfordevelopmentininternationaldevelopmentpolicy.

3rdconferenceTheNextStep,Windhoek,Namibia

2005 Magglingen2005Declaration

EuropeanParliamentResolutiononSportandDevelopment

2ndconferenceTheNextStep,Livingstone,Zambia

UNICEFWorkshoponMonitoringandEvaluation,NewYork,USA

2004 CouncilofEurope:TheContributionofSporttoInterculturalDialogue,Istanbul,Turkey

RoundtableForum:HarnessingthePowerofSportforDevelopmentandPeace,Athens,Greece

2003 UNResolution58/5

TheNextStep:'InternationalExpertMeetingonDevelopmentInandThroughSport',Amsterdam,TheNetherlands

EstablishmentofSportforDevelopmentandPeaceInternationalWorkingGroup(SDPIWG)

EstablishmentofInternationalplatformwww.sportanddev.org

InternationalDonorMeeting,London,UK

InternationalRecipientMeeting,Johannesburg,SouthAfrica

UNTaskForceReport

Appointmentofmr.A.OgiasUNSpecialAdvisoronSportforDevelopmentandPeace

DeclarationandRecommendations:MagglingenConferenceonSport&Development,Magglingen,Switzerland

2002 RoundTableConferenceSaltLakeCity,USA

sportanddev.orgorganizedanexpertmeetingheldattheCommonwealthSecretariattodevelopguidelinesonSportforDevelopmentandPeacetobeusedthroughouttheCommonwealth.

Box4:SelectionofInternationalandNationalMilestones

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ArenaOvertheyears,aSfDsectoremerged.Thesectorischaracterizedbyitsbroadengagementofactingplayers;governmentalandnongovernmental,sportandnonsport.AlsoprivateorganizationsgetinvolvedinSfD.Sportrelatedbusinesses,likeNikeandAdidas,choosecooperationwithorganizations,projectsorprogramsthatmatchwiththeirmarketingorcorporatesocialresponsibly(CSR)strategy.Thesameappliesforsoftdrinkmanufacturers,telecomsuppliersandhealthinsurancecompanies,whoshareaninterestinimagebuildingandawarenessindevelopingcountries.EventheEnglishPremierLeagueclubsexpandtheirsocialactivitiesfromdeprivedareasintheirownhometowntolessprivilegedcountriesintheSouth.

TheSfDsectorcanbecharacterizedasanarena(VanEekeren,2006).Thisarenaisformedbydiverseactors:targetgroups(intheSouth),recipients(governments,NGOsandcommunitybasedorganizationsintheSouth),intermediaryorganizations(SfDorganizationsandtheirimplementingpartners)anddonors(governments,UN,EU,sponsors).Thearenagetsmoreandmorecomplicatedbecauseoftheincreasingnumberofactors,agreatvarietyofrolesandformsofcooperation,andconflictinginterest.Furthermore,theactionsbytheactorsareinfluencedbysoftandintangiblepowers,suchas(international)politics,publicopinion,lobby,relationshipsandaccessofinformation.

2.3 DutchpolicyandapproachesininternationalperspectiveAnno2013,theNetherlandsisnolongeroneofthefrontrunnersoftheSfDmovementasitusedtobeintheearly2000s.Thisisduetonationalpolicychanges(infinances,contentandcapacity)andthemassiveexpansionofSfDinothercountries.However,thisdoesnotmeanthattheNetherlandsplaysaninsignificantrole.

2.3.1 Donorcountrypolicies

Notinalldonorcountriesaselfstandingpolicyonthisthematicareaexist.TheUnitedKingdomforinstance,asignificantactorinthesector,hasnooverarchingorselfstandingpolicy.IntheUK,sportfordevelopmentisintegratedinalessstructuredwayintotheirinternationaldevelopmentandinternationalsportefforts.Departmentswithinthegovernmentareworkingtogetherinformally.Canadaalsolacksanoverarchingpolicyonitsinternationalapproachtosportfordevelopment.Itsinvolvementischaracterizedbytheengagementofdifferentdepartmentsandagencies.SporthasbeenlinkedatvariouspointsintimetoCanadasforeignpolicy,internationaldevelopmentandinternationalsportpolicyobjectives.

Anothersignificantactor,Switzerland,hastakenamainstreamingapproachsince2007byembeddingsportasadevelopmentthemewithintheSwissAgencyforDevelopmentCooperationonparwithotherdevelopmentthemes(suchaseducation,health,water,sanitation,etc.).Thismeanssporthastocompeteforfundingwithothermethodsandinstrumentsandtherecognitionofsportasvaluabletoolbecameincreasinglyimportant.Before,sportfordevelopmentusedtobeafreestandingprogramwithitsownbudget.

NorwayandAustraliaseemtohavethemostcentralizedanduniformedapproach.Norwegiangovernmentformulatesoneofitsmainlessonslearnedovertheyearsasfollows:Longtermcommitmentisimportantinsportfordevelopment.Unlessthegovernmentanditspartnersare

27

preparedtoworkinacountryforaprolongedperiodoftime,itwillbedifficulttoachievepositiveresultsandtoestablishtruecollaborationamongmultiplestakeholders(SDPIWG,2007).Atthemoment,oneofthemostambitiousSfDpoliciesbydonorcountriesseemstobedeliveredbyAustralia.Recently,itlauncheditsDevelopmentthroughsport20132017strategy,whichcanbedescribedaselaborate.ItidentifiesdevelopmentobjectivesfirstandthenidentifieshowwellplannedsportbasedactivitiescancontributetotheseobjectivesviaajointstrategybetweentheAustralianSportsCommission(ASC)andtheAustralianAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(AusAID).

UnitedKingdomThenationalgovernmentsupportssportdevelopmentandhumandevelopmentthroughsportundertheInternationalDevelopmentAssistanceProgram(IDAP).UKSport,asemiindependentagencyoftheDepartmentofCulture,MediaandSport(DCMS),isleadingtheactivitiesoftheUnitedKingdom.SwitzerlandTheSwissAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation(SDC),aspartoftheForeignMinistry,istheleadingbodyforSFDwithintheSwissgovernment,inclosecooperationwiththeFederalOfficeofSport(FOSPO).CanadaCanadianHeritage(PCH)andtheCanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency(CIDA),theDepartmentofNationalDefence(DND),andForeignAffairsandInternationalTradeCanada(DFAIT)allmakeandhavemadesignificantinvestmentsinsportfordevelopmentovertheyears.NorwayTheMinistryofForeignAffairs(MFA)isresponsiblefortheNorwegianStrategyforCultureandSportsCooperation.MFAandNorwegianAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation(NORAD)arejointlyinvolvedinSFD.NoradprimarlyworkswithNGOsandprovideslongtermdevelopmentassistance.NIFisanimportantimplementingpartner.AustraliaTheDevelopmentthroughsport20132017strategyisajointeffortoftheAustralianSportsCommission(ASC)andtheAustralianAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(AusAID).Box5:internationalpolicy

NationalDutchpoliciesonSfDhavebeeninfluential,butnotverystableovertheyears.Thisfluctuationcanbetracedbacktoseveralfactors,suchasthevaryingpoliticalattentionandaccompanyingresources.Overtheyears,theDutchpoliticallandscapeanddevelopmentcooperationpolicychanged,influencingtheMinistryofForeignAffairsinvolvementinsport.Attimes,sportandinternationalcooperationbecameeithermarginalizedorstimulated,ashasbeendescribedin2.1.

RemarkableintheDutchorganizationofSfDovertheyearsisthattheprogramisnotimplementedbyoneortwocentralparties,butratherbyanumberofmutualreinforcingpartners.ThesearebothlocalactivepartnersaswellasvariousDutchorganizations.ThecurrentimplementingpartnersoftheDutchSfDprogram,i.e.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay,haveplayedanimportantroleinthecontinuityandenforcementofSfDintheNetherlands.NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlaydevelopedtheirprogramspartlybecauseofthepossibilitiesofDutchnationalpolicy,partlybecauseoftheliberty(andsometimesneed)totakeowninitiative.

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AnotherremarkablenotionisthewayinwhichtheNetherlandsselectsitstargetcountries.AllgovernmentfundedprogramstakeplaceindevelopingcountrieswhichhaveahistoricalrelationshipwiththeNetherlandsand/orareafragilestate.Sincethiscriterionisdecisiveforreceivingfunding,thishashadamajorimpactonthecountryselectionbyDutchSfDorganizations.

2.3.2 Differencesandsimilaritiesinapproaches

ThecurrentSfDprogramcanbecharacterizedasapolicyframeworkthatallowsalimitednumberofexperiencedimplementingpartnersandlocalembassiestodelivercontextspecificSfDinterventions.Pointofdeparturefortheimplementationistobundleforcesandtoavoidfragmentationinordertostrengthenownership,qualityandefficiency.Thereforeaprogrammaticapproachisbeingused,whichisneedsbased,cohesiveandbaseduponacontextanalysisineachcountry.ThismeanstheDutchapproachisnotcharacterizedbyonesizefitsall,butbytailormade.Theprogramaimstoconnecttheoperationsatmicro(grassroots)levelwiththecooperationatmeso(organizational)levelandadvocacyatmacro(nationalandinternational)level.

NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlaycanbecharacterizedbytheirstructuralinvolvementinSfD,longtermrelationshipsinboththeNorthandtheSouth,andtheirspecificapproaches.Intheend,allthreepartnerswanttousethepowerofsporttoimprovethelivesofpeopleindevelopingcountries.Changeinknowledge,attitudeorbehavioristheirmainobjective.Atthesametime,theydifferinthewaytheywanttoachievethisobjective.Theyfocusondifferentapproaches,targetgroups,socialissuesandcountries,asillustratedinTable2:

Changeinknowledge,attitudeorbehavioristhemainobjectiveofNSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlay.

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NSAInternational KNVB RightToPlayGoals Capacitybuildinginsportand

peaceprogramsandorganizations.IncreasingsupportforSfD

EducatingfootballcoachesDevelopinglocalcommunities

EducatingyouthleadersImplementingsportandplayprograms

Mainfocus Youthdevelopmentthroughhumanresourcesdevelopment(sportleadership),organizationalenforcement,institutionaldevelopment.Influencing(national)SfDpolicies

FootballskillscombinedwithlifeskillsLocalcapacitybuilding

Behavioralchange:physical,social,emotional,cognitiveLocalcapacitybuilding

Socialissues

SecurityandsafetyHealthEconomicempowermentGender

WASHGenderHIV/AIDSCrimeAddiction

EducationHealthPeacefulcommunities

Countries Kenya,Uganda,SouthSudan,Surinam,BurkinaFaso,Mali,Egypt,Indonesia,TheNetherlands

NetherlandsAntilles,Surinam,Brazil,Senegal,BurkinaFaso,Ghana,Kenya,Zambia,Mozambique,SouthAfrica,India,Indonesia,Morocco,Tunisia,Egypt,Jordan

Benin,Burundi,Ethiopia,Ghana,Kenya,Liberia,Mali,Mozambique,Rwanda,SouthSudan,Tanzania,Uganda,China,Jordan,Lebanon,Pakistan,PalestinianTerritories,Thailand,Peru

Selectionofprograms

YouthDevelopment/CountryprogramsInternationalSportLeadersExchangePeaceBeyondBordersActivecitizenshipDutchmovementSfD

FootballforWaterSOSChildrensVillagesLightingUpCommunitiesClubLinkingArabicSpring

Countryprograms

Website www.nsainternational.nl www.worldcoaches.nl www.righttoplay.nlTable2:DutchSFDpartners

NSAInternational,KNVBandRightToPlaydiffer,butareinmanywayscomplementary.WhereasRightToPlayistoalargeextentanimplementingorganization,NSAInternationaldoesnotexecutesportandplayprojectsitself,butfocusesonstructuralcapacitybuildingoflocalorganizationsanditsinstitutionalsurroundingsinordertodelivervaluableandsustainableprogramsforyouths.KNVBandRightToPlaybotheducatesportcoaches.KNVBtakessport(i.c.football)asastartingpointfordevelopment,whereasRightToPlayandNSAInternationalregardsportandplayasatoolfordevelopment.Allorganizationshavedevelopedcurriculaandmanualsforsport/footballtrainers/coaches.

Also,similaritiesinapproachescanbeanalyzed.TheDutchSfDpartnersareallaimedatsoftwareintheformofcapacitybuilding(i.e.transferofknowledgeandskills)insteadofhardware(i.e.buildingsportfacilities).Thiscomesalongwiththedevelopmentofcurricula,trainingcoursesandmanuals.ThisapproachiscomparablewiththeAustralianone,recentlypresentedintheirstrategy

30

for20132017,butitcontrastswithapproachesfromFIFAforexample,whoseprogramsfloatonbuildingsportgrounds.

Furthermore,theDutchapproachcanbecharacterizedbyitsattempttosetuplocalnetworks,orcloselycooperatewithlocalorganizations,inordertocontributetolocalcapacitybuildingandsustainableprograms.TheDutchSFDorganizationsconsiderlocalcoachesorcommunityleadersasthemosteffectiverolemodelsandchangeagents.Again,similaritieswiththeAustralianapproacharise.AlsoDeutscheGesellschaftfrInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)fromGermanyandNorgesIdrettsforbund(NIF)fromNorwayinvestinlocalsoftstructures.Others,suchasUKSports,focusonstrengtheningthenationalsportssystemswithindevelopingcountriesworkingwithministries,sportsfederationsandNGOs,andnotsomuchincooperationwithcommunitybasedorganizations.CanadianHeritageinvestedalargeextentoftheirsportfordevelopmentfundsinadvocacyandsupportofinternationalnetworks.

ThethreeDutchpartnersemphasizeknowledgedevelopmentandsharing.NSAInternationalworkscloselytogetherwithvariousuniversitiesofappliedsciencesintheNetherlands,KNVBhasalongtermrelationshipwithUtrechtUniversityandRightToPlaycooperateswiththeUniversityofToronto.SimilarrelationshipsbetweenSFDorganizationsandscholarscanbeseeninAustraliaandtheUK.TheAustralianAIDandAustralianSportCommissionhavefoundedtheirSfDstrategyonvariousacademicreportsandUKSportshashadstudiescarriedoutbytheUniversityofStirling.Atthesametime,thecooperationbetweenacademicsandSfDorganizationsinothercountriesisoftenlimitedtoincidentalmonitoringandevaluation(M&E)studies.

Ingeneral,itcanbearguedthatthereisnotaspecificDutchapproachnorthatDutchorganizationsdosomethingcompletelydifferentthanotherSfDorganizations.Nevertheless,theDutchorganizationsdohavecertainfeaturesthatcharacterizetheirwayofworking.SeeBox6.

CommonfeaturesofDutchsportfordevelopmentorganizations Focusonsoftware:transferofknowledgeandskills Developmentofcurricula,trainingcoursesandmanuals Localcapacitybuildingthroughmultistakeholderapproach Localcoachesandcommunityleadersasrolemodels Knowledgedevelopment Varietyofimplementingpartners

Box6:FeaturesoftheDutchapproach

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3Academicresearch:towardsamodelThischapterdescribestheexpansionofacademicinterestinSfD.Thiswillbeillustratedbythegrowingnumbersofconferences,journals,education,andpublications.Inthesecondpartofthischapterweexploreindepthwhathasbeenstudiedbythisgrowingnumberofinterestedscientists.Thisresultsintheintroductionofabasicmodelofsportfordevelopment.

3.1 TheexpansionofacademicinterestAsstatedinthepreviouschapter,sportfordevelopmentistheuseofsporttoexertapositiveinfluenceonpublichealth,thesocializationofchildren,youthsandadults,thesocialinclusionofthedisadvantaged,theeconomicdevelopmentofregionsandstates,andonfosteringinterculturalexchangeandconflictresolution(Sugden,1991,2006,2008;Lyras,2007;Lyras&WeltyPeachey,2011).Inrecentyears,thenumberofnewprogramsandprojectshasincreased,justastheattentionbypolicymakersforsportfordevelopment.Subsequently,scientistsfromdifferentacademicdisciplinesdelveincreasinglyintothetopicofsportfordevelopment(Hognestad&Tollisen,2004;Coalter,2007,2010;Kidd,2008,2011;Levermore&Beacom,2009;Straume&SteenJohnsen,2012;Donnelly&Coakley,2013).Scientistsbecomeinterestedinthissocietalphenomenon,theywanttoresearchtheclaimsthatareformulatedinpolicyand/orareaskedbypolicymakersandpolicycontractorstostudytheimpactofprojectsandprograms.

3.1.1 Quantity

Itisnoteworthythattheincreasinguseoftheconceptsportfordevelopmentinstudiessuggestsasignificantchangeinperspectiveonthisfieldasanacademicdisciplinehasoccurred.Untilthe1990s,sportfordevelopmentseemedtohavealowstandingacademicstatus(VanEekeren,2006).Studyingsportfordevelopmentwasapproachedasahobbygottenoutofhand,andnotasafactorcontributingtoaseriousacademiccareer.Now,wecanarguethatacademicoutput(suchasconferences,educationandpublications)hasincreasedsignificantly.

ConferencesAdecadeago,oneortwoannualinternationalconferencesweretakingplacewhereallpossibletopicswithinsportfordevelopmentwerediscussed(e.g.theNextStepConferences,meetingsbetweenpractitionersandacademicswithaverypracticalapproach,andtheMagglingenconferences,withpolicymakers,academicsandpractitionersandafocusonpolicyformulation)orsportfordevelopmentwasasmallpartofabroadersummit(e.g.WorldConferenceonSport,EducationandCulture).Nowadays,wellattendedinternationalconferencesandnetworking

Sportfordevelopmentistheuseofsporttoexertapositiveinfluenceonpublichealth,thesocializationofchildren,youthsandadults,thesocialinclusionofthedisadvantaged,theeconomicdevelopmentofregionsandstates,andonfosteringinterculturalexchangeandconflictresolution.

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meetingsaretakingplacethewholeyearround,bothinFirstWorldcountriesandinthedevelopingcountries,oftenfocusingonjustonespecificthemewithinsportfordevelopment.Anoverviewofrecenteventsonwww.sportanddev.org(2013)showsthatfromFebruaryuntilJuly2013,37conferences,seminarsanddebateswereheldallovertheworld.

JournalsJournalsliketheInternationalReviewfortheSociologyofSport,SportinSociety,SociologyofSportJournal,SportManagementReview,JournalofSportandSocialIssuesandSoccerandSocietypublisharticlesaboutsportfordevelopment.InApril2013,thefirstacademicjournalexclusivelyfocusingonsportfordevelopmentwaspublished.TheeditorialteamoftheJournalofSportforDevelopment(JSFD)conceivedtheideainNovember2011.TheywerefrustratedbythepaucityofpublishedevidencesupportingthepositiverhetoricthatcontinuedtofuelthegrowthofSportforDevelopmentprograms(Richardsetal.,2013)andnotedthatmanypractitionersdidnothaveaccesstothefewsubscriptionbasedjournalsthatwerepublishingrelevantcontent.Thereforetheycameupwiththeideatodevelopapeerreviewed,openaccessjournaldedicatedentirelytosportfordevelopment.

EducationAcademicinstitutionsareofferinganincreasingnumberofbachelor,masterandPhDcoursesanddegreesintheareaofSportforDevelopment.Someexamplesofacademicprograms:SportandInternationalDevelopment(UniversityofBrighton,UK),InterdisciplinaryTrainingandResearchinSportandDevelopment(TheFirstCitizenSportFoundation,theUniversityofWestIndies,TrinidadandTobago;TheInterdisciplinaryCentreforSportandDevelopment(ICESSD),UniversityoftheWesternCapeSouthAfrica),SportsCoachingSciencewithDisabilitySport(UniversityofWorcester,UK),SportforSocialCoexistenceandConflictResolution(OpenUniversityofCatalonia,UNESCO,andFutbolClubBarcelonaFoundation,Spain),PhDinSportforDevelopmentandPeace(UniversityofUlster,Ireland),SportsPolicyandSportManagement(UtrechtUniversity),SportandDevelopment(UniversityofJohannesburg,SouthAfrica).Thisdevelopmentisalsodetectableinotherregions,likeAmericaandAustralasia.

PublicationsTheincreasedacademicinterestisbestreflectedinthenumberofscientificpublicationsoverthelastcoupleyears.SearchinginWebofScience,traditionallyregardedasthemostusefulandtrustfulacademicdatabase(Mikki,2009),givesanimpressionoftheincreasedamountofarticlespublishedinpeerreviewedjournals.SearchingonthekeywordsSportfordevelopment,SportanddevelopmentandDevelopmentthroughSportintheperiodbetween1998and2012,resultsin44articles.Mostofthosearticleswerepublishedsincetheyear2010,asillustratedinthefollowinggraph:

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Figure2:Numberofarticlesperyearaboutsportfordevelopment,sportanddevelopmentandsportthroughdevelopmentinWebofScience

AnimportantremarkisthatWebofScienceislimitedtoarticleswhicharepublishedinjournalswhichhavepassedathoroughselectionprocessbasedonpublicationstandards,expertjudgments,regularappearancesandqualityofcitationdata(Garfield,1990;Mikki,2009).

GoogleScholar,anotheracademicdatabasereferredtoasanewparadigminacademicresearch(Drewry,2007),coversawidervarietyofpublicationsthanWebofScience.Nexttojournalandconferencepapers,italsoincludesthesesanddissertations,academicbooks,preprints,abstracts,technicalreportsandotherscholarlyliteraturefromallbroadareasofresearch2.Intheperiodbefore1998,141articleswiththesekeywordsareidentified.124ofthemwerepublishedinthe15yearsbetween1982and1997.Intheperiod19982012theforegoingkeywordsresultedin2,050publications,asillustratedbythefollowinggraph:

Figure3:Numberofpublicationsperyearaboutsportfordevelopment,SportandDevelopmentandSportthroughDevelopmentinGoogleScholar

2ImportantsidenoteisthatinGoogleScholar,comparedtoWebofScience,lessdegreeofcontrolisofferedforperformingsystematicallysearches.Moreoveritiscriticized,contentlacksimportantsourcesandtheamountofnoisemakestheservicelessusefulforthoroughliteraturesearching(Mikki,2009).However,theamountofqualifiedscholarlycontenthasincreasedconsiderablyinGoogleScholarsinceitslaunchin2004anditisthereforearelevanttooltoprovideinsightintheincreasedinterestinthetopic.

024681012141618

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

ArticlesinWebofScience

050

100150200250300350400450

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

PublicationsinGoogleScholar

34

Thisgraphshowsundoubtedlythatthenumberofscientificpublicationsaboutsportfordevelopmentisrapidlyincreasing.Everyyear,morearticlesandbooksarewrittenaboutthissubject.Theincreasemightbefuelledbymegaeventstakingplaceindevelopingcountries,suchasFIFAWorldCupsandtheOlympicGames.SeveralorganizationsstartedforexamplenewprojectsinthecontextoftheWorldCupinSouthAfricain2010.Thismighthavedrawntheattentionofacademicsaswell.

3.1.2 Quality

Ananalysisofthepublishedscientificarticlesoverthelastyearsmakesclearthatnotonlyquantityhaschanged,thequalitativeaspectofthesepublicationsaswell.Intheearlyyearsofsportfordevelopmentasanacademicdiscipline,mostpublishedstudiesconcernedsinglecasestudies.Theygavevaluableinsightsintheprojects,buthadtwodisadvantages:notallkindsofprojectswerecoveredandtheymainlyhadafocusonsubSaharanAfrica.Moreover,theresultswerenotalwayscomparable.Nowadays,moreoftenamultiplecasestudymethodisusedandthosestudieshavealongertimespanthanbefore.Thelargeststudyeverconductedinthefieldconcernsanevaluationofsixsportbasedprojectsinvariouspartsofworld(fundedbyComicReliefandUKSports)overafiveyearperiodbyCoalterandTaylor(2010).Nonetheless,theneedformorelongitudinalstudiesremains,sincethemajorityofstudiesisbasedonashorttimeframe.

ThemesDifferentthemesarecoveredinthescientificpublications,asshowninfigure4.Theycanbedividedinthemesrelatedtotheimplementationofprojects,likevolunteerism,coachingandtraining,andthemeswhicharerelatedtooutcomes,likehealthandsocialcapital.Moststudiesarewrittenaboutsportfordevelopmentinrelationtohealth,butingeneraltheimplementationrelatedthemesarethemoststudied.Manyarticlesmentionevaluations,partnerships,andcoachingandtraining.Volunteerismis,toalesserextent,alsofrequentlystudied.ArticlesaboutsportmegaeventsliketheOlympicGames/OlympicsandtheWorldCuparealsofrequentlypublished.

Figure4:NumberofpublicationsinEnglishaboutacertainthemeandsportfordevelopment,SportandDevelopmentorSportthroughDevelopmentinGoogleScholar,19982012

02004006008001000120014001600

Hea

lth

Evalua

tion

Partne

rship

Coaching

training

Peace

Olympics

Voluntee

rism

Race

Sportp

artic

ipation

Resolutio

n

Lifeskills

WorldCup

Socialcap

ital

ICT

Person

aldevelop

men

tofchildren

Popularthemes

Publications

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AuthorsMoststudiesareconductedbyresearchersfromdonorcountries.Thisisnotatrulysurprisingfact,howeveritemphasizesthemutualoftentermedunequalrelationbetweendonorenreceivingcountries.TheconductedliteraturereviewisfocusedonacademicpublicationsintheEnglishlanguage,becauseofthelanguageproficiencyofresearchersandthepotentialglobalreachofpublications(seefigure5).

Figure5:NumberofpublicationsinacertainlanguageaboutSportforDevelopmentinGoogleScholar,19982012

ItisrelevanttotakealookaswellatresearchpublishedintheSpanishlanguage,becausedevelopmentalworkalsotakesplaceinCentrala