People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

L'Arbi Ben M’hidi University - Oum El Bouaghi

Faculty of Letters and Languages

Department of English

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

of Master in Anglo-American Studies

By: HEBBOUDJI Nardjess Supervisor: Mr. FILALI Billel

2017-2018

Spiritual Healing: Perpetual Words

Dedication

To my endearing Parents and Sisters.

Acknowledgements

I am profoundly grateful to my Brilliant supervisor Mr. FILALI Billel, who passed to me the

love of powerful words and spiritual depth, whose help and assistance to me have been of

inestimable value.

I am also indebted to the members of my family: starting by my dearest parents who were by

my side all over my life. Part of this success was due to the support offered by my beloved

sisters Celia and Zahra.

Finally, I wish to pay my tribute to my aunts Rima and Samia, my uncle Ali, and my cousins

Hamza, Ibtissem, Kamel, Karima, and Ouafa. Their encouragement constantly eased my path.

i

Abstract

“Spiritual Healing: Perpetual Words” attempts to analyze and prove the possibility of the

cultural travel from eastern to western realms of the world through “mystic lexicon”. The

study also, attempts at assessing critically the notable similarities and differences between

Eastern Sufism and Western Mysticism, and examining major Islamic mystical ideologies.

Therefore, the research is aiming at studying and analyzing the way in which Sufism, with all

its aspects, was able to penetrate into the American society by covering major factors that

helped the enculturation of the phenomenon, and how religious and cultural groups facilitated

its existence in U.S. Moreover, it examines the impact of the Masnavi, a significant Parisian

work in the United States through different versions and translations. By doing so, it seeks to

unveil the real facets of Sufism and how it was perceived and welcomed by the Americans,

making oriental Rumi the best-selling poet in U.S.

Key Words: mystic lexicon, East, West, United Sates, Masnavi, Rumi, Sufism, mysticism.

ii

Résumé

La « Guérison Spirituelle: Mots Éternels» essaye d’analyser et de prouver la possibilité d’un

voyage culturel du monde oriental vers le monde occidental à travers un « lexique mystique ».

L’étude tente également à évaluer non seulement les ressemblances et les différences entre les

deux soufismes oriental et occidental, Mais aussi à étudier et analyser la manière qui a pu

pénétrer dans la société américaine en couvrant les principaux facteurs qui ont contribué à

cristalliser le phénomène, et comment les groupes religieux et culturels ont facilité leur

présence dans la société américaine. En outre, la recherche examine l’influence Mathnawi

dans le monde occidental, célèbre ouvrage iranien aux Etats- Unis, en mettent l’accent sur

certaines publications et traductions. L’étude donc cherche à révéler les vrais aspects du

soufisme du point de vue Américain, et comment Rumi l’oriental a pu gagner cette réputation

dans les Etats- Unis.

Mots Clés: lexique mystique, Orient, Occident, Etats unis, Masnavi, Rumi, Sufisme,

mysticisme.

iii

ملخص

ن خلال" المعجم ھذه الدراسة محاولة تحلیل واثبات امكانیة السفر الثقافي من العالم الشرقي الى العالم الغربي م تناولن

ى ھدف الدراسة الت والصوفیة الغربیة. كماتقییم أوجھ التشابھ والاختلاف بین الصوفیة الشرقیة الصوفي". بالإضافة الى

و كیف سھلت الجماعات الدینیة و الغربي لتغلغل في المجتمعنبھا من اتحلیل الطریقة التي تمكنت بھا الصوفیة بكل جوا

رسيفھو عمل فا في العالم الغربي المثنوي تأثیریدرس مع الامریكي. علاوة عن ذلك فان البحثتمجالثقافیة وجودھا في ال

الدراسة تسعى نفإ منھو ترجماتھ و إصداراتھالضوء على بعض ذائع الصیت في الولایات المتحدة وذلك من خلال تسلیط

الى دراسة الصوفیة حسب التوجھ الامریكي و كیف حقق جلال الدین الرومي اعلى المبیعات في أمریكا.

,جلال الدین الرومي ,المثنوي ,الولایات المتحدة,العالم الشرقي ,العالم الغربي ,المعجم الصوفي: الكلمات المفتاحیة

.الصوفیة

iv

Table of Contents

Abstract…..………………………………………………………………………..……………і

Résumé…..…………………………………………………………………………………......іі

ііі……….……………………………………………………………….....................……ملخص

Dedication ……...……………………………………………………………………………..iv

Acknowledgements.………………………………………………………………………...….v

Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………...vi

General Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...1

Chapter I: Mysticism, Islamic Sufism and, Sufi Literature: a Brief Overview

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………… 4

I - Western Mysticism vs Eastern Sufism: a Comparative Study ………………………..……5

II- Sufism……………………………………………………………………………………....8

III- Sufism: its Ideologies and Principles ……………………………………………………12

VI- Sufi Literature………………………………………………………………………..…..16

1- Omar Khayyem .………………………………………………………………………....17

2- Saadi …………………………………………………………………………...........…...20

3- Hafiz ……………………………………………………………………………………..22

4- Rumi: a Short Biography……………………...………………………………….....….. 24

Conclusion ...…………………………………………………………………………………26

Chapter II: American Sufism: Turning to the Core of Spirituality

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………..28

I- Sufism in Europe and North America …………..................................................................29

II- Oriental Sufism vs American Transcendentalism: a Comparative Study.………………..35

III- The Impact of Rumi in the Western World: Versions and Translations ………………..39

VI- Rumi Phenomenon in the United States ………………………………………………....42

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………...……46

General Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………...…...48

v

Works Cited ……………………………………………………………………………...…51

1

General Introduction

For many people, the mere mention of the word" Sufism" brings to minds ideas of:

people wearing woolen clothes, asceticism, and whirling dervishes. All of which are, indeed,

key icons of Sufism, however, before looking in details, at the various critical dimensions of

Islamic mysticism (Sufism). One should recognize that Sufism in its discourse is indefinite.

What is evident is that this system of corrected behaviors is inspired from the spiritual and

mystical philosophy of Islam, based on direct connection with God. Sufis dedicate themselves

to Allah through meditation, repetitive prayer, remembrance and non-violence. The doctrine

in its broad sense deals with both esoteric and exoteric meanings of Quranic verses, writing

poems, and reciting them in Zaouays.

Poetry that embodied the Sufi contexts is undoubtedly the key element that makes the

readers respond to such literature, especially the one of the thirteen Century which marked the

Golden Age of the greatest mystical art and literature. Prominent poets like: Attar, Sa'di, and

Hafiz had shaped this poetry. Many western writers and poets were influenced by its heritage

like: Edward Fitzgerald translation of Omar el Khayyam’s Quatrains, which made a fortune in

Victorian England and later on in United States. The Masnavi also achieved a great

commercial success, making Rumi the best-selling poet in USA.

The so called “Quran with Persian tongue” continued to be significant in recent years,

and it was translated into 23 languages. Its tremendous impact in western society was shown

through the appreciation of many poets such as: Robert Bly who advised Coleman Barks to

translate Rumi's book, suggesting that: “these poems need to be released from their cages”.

Indeed, the Masnavi was translated despite the growth of the anti-Islamic sentiment. Such

effort rendered the translation more original, making it a unique American spiritual poetry.

2

William Chittick, an eloquent figure in Islamic philosophy described Rumi as “the

greatest spiritual master of Islam”, and maintained that his works are “the most studied by

Western Orientalists”. Moreover, the UNESCO celebrated in 2007 an international year of

Rumi. Symbolically, Rumi is regarded as the appropriate representative of peace in the world.

Opponents in the other hand found the couplets of the Masnavi uneasy to comprehend;

western readerships left perplexed whenever reading its unordered anecdotes. For them,

Rumi’s narrative lyrics are difficult to follow. Although, the Masnavi received a deep

veneration even among non-Muslims especially Christians and Jews.

This research purports to study and analyze the way in which Sufism, with all its

aspects, was able to penetrate into the American society. It seeks to unveil the real facets of

Sufism, and how it was perceived and welcomed by the Americans. The study attempts also

to examine the reasons behind the engagement of Islamic mysticism in USA as a feature of

new cultural horizon.

Structurally, this research is divided into two main sections; a theoretical and a

practical. The theoretical part (chapter I) explores western mysticism and eastern Sufism from

theological point of view, highlighting its remarkable similarities and differences. Then, it

determines the etymology of Sufism as Islamic dimension and underlines the different Sufi

ideologies and principles. Finally, the chapter proceeds to analyze four major Sufi figures

with an attempt to trace their impact in both eastern and western spheres of the world.

The second section of the research (chapter II) encompasses a whole chapter that deals

with the Masnavi as a case of study in general and the Essential Rumi in particular,

considering the last as the English ramification of the original work. It covers a historical

survey over the factors behind the infiltration of Sufism in Europe and North America, the

academic intention to Sufism, and the different religious and cultural affiliations. The latter

3

made allowance for Transcendentalism to prosper as a literary movement. The last parts of the

chapter highlight the different versions and translation of the Masnavi. At the end, the chapter

is concluded with a demonstration of Rumi from American angle and a shared cultural

heritage.

It is noteworthy to mention that the analysis of the case of the Masnavi cannot be

attained easily, since the accessibility of its sources was a hindrance for the researcher. In

addition to the unavailability of references related to the topic, the course of research

depended on translations from Arabic and French books. The step to put a title to the research

witnessed some difficulties too, because it is a multi-disciplinary approach that combines

between civilizational, literary, theological, and other angles that measure it from different

aspects of the society.

Importantly, some quotations from Quran in these data seemed less reliable if

compared with other authentic sources. So, some personal efforts are made in order to give

strength to the arguments of the research. Other sources with Persian language were totally

ignored because of the inability of mastering this language.

Methodologically, the research uses many methodological approaches such as the

comparative approach in the first part of the chapter dealing with eastern and western

mysticism, the historical, and the descriptive approaches in both chapters. While the analytical

approach; analyzed the case of study. Finally, the quantitative as well as the qualitative

approaches in analyzing, evaluating the facts and events using the given data (books, articles,

essays, dissertations…). All these approaches are pursued under the MLA 7th edition format.

4

Chapter One

Mysticism, Islamic Sufism, and Sufi Literature: a Brief Overview

Introduction

In time where the world suffers from a religious strife and the spiritual upheaval one

doubts his/ her identity, displacement, the meaning of life…and survives purposelessly. As

consequence, many chose to put an end to their lives, disregarding the penalties. Others stack

in state of madness trying to answer such questions. Both cases are in fact because of the

spiritual vacuum, the emptiness of society, and the institutionalization of materialism. For

these reasons, many sought to find a smooth way to satisfy their unhappy souls by moving

eastward and encountering the Sufi dogma, and gaining in return part of peace.

The chapter deals with Sufism from the side of its Islamic theosophy and cultural

aspect. It shows the way in which Sufism was successful in giving a brighter image to Islam

as a religion in western circles in general and the American society in particular. The chapter

sheds light on the remarkable similarities and differences between eastern Sufism and western

mysticism throughout determining the etymology of Islamic mysticism, and the various

opinions between opponents and proponents. It assesses its ideology and identifies some of its

principles. Lastly, it examines the influence of Sufi literature in the west, learning about some

towering figures and highlighting their main writings.

5

I-Eastern Sufism Vs Western Mysticism: A Comparative Study

The American Heritage Dictionary of English Language defines mysticism as: “A

spiritual discipline aiming at the union with the divine through deep meditation or trancelike

contemplation” (Shrader 3). Principally, it is based on intuition and senses. Though, it has its

sacred value. It is derived from Latin mysterium which came from the Greek term musterion

or secret rites. Undoubtedly, esotericism in its theoretical side survived form ancient times

and occurs in almost world religions. For example in Judaism, the well-known Maimonides of

the 12th Century wrote very significant mystical texts such as A Guide for the Perplexed. In

Christian Europe St. Teresa of Avila, Meister Eckhart, and later on John of the Cross

pioneered Christian mysticism. Sa’di and Rumi paved the way for the Islamic one (Barret &

Griffiths 396).

These esoteric texts are often characterized by mystical experiences mostly expressed

on theological and philosophical literatures by pious men and prophets within religious

traditions (Barrett & Griffiths 395).

[Mystical experiences]: are those peculiar state of consciousness in which the

individual discovers himself to be one continuous progress with god, with the

universe, with the ground of being, or whatever name he may use by cultural

conditioning or personal preference for the ultimate and eternal reality. (qtn in

Barret & Griffiths 395)

According to Barrett and Griffiths, mystical experiences happen while shaping

religious and spiritual practices. Sometimes coincidently. It has two forms the extroversive;

the acknowledgment of monotheism whereby you find the oneness in the hearts of the inner

6

reality, and introversive which encompasses a total dissolution of the self-loss of egocentrism

and the loss of all borders (397).

Mysticism is often associated to many alternatives like: Sufism, Esotericism, and

spirituality. Though, the term spirituality is new perception in the western world, it appeared

lately during the 16th and 17th Century in France and then gradually moved to many European

vernacular languages. Nowadays, it is used to define religion. By contrast, early ages of Latin

Catholicism were familiar with the word “spiritus” which in fact has a very a definite

meaning; a cosmological and metaphysical prominence above the psyche. In the other hand,

spirituality “Ruhaniyyet” or “maanaviyyet” in the eastern side of the earth designates the

inner meaning of things, a term which was attained from Quran and was glorified because it is

from “the command of Lord” as suggested by Seyyed Hussein Nasr (209).

In the western world, mysticism has always been related to the union of deity. Yet, it

was neither mentioned in the Old Testament nor the modern one. Historically, the term was

linked to Clement of Alexandria in the late 2nd Century; Clement tackled the aim behind the

spiritual practices and the unification with the divine. Another feature to consider is when

Origan of Alexandria established a theology based on mysticism that became institutionalized

by the 4th Century. But, it was only addressed to the monastic leaders and never regarded to as

an academic discipline (McGinn 51-52).

Contextually, by the 12th Century, new mysticism emerged by the Protestants which

was more opened if compared to the old one since it accepts all believers, including the

females who participated in these spiritual experiences. Quickly, the subject became less

interesting, because many mystics suggested that the main goal of contemplatives in the

unification with God is about vanishing the distinction between God and soul. Other mystics

employ the excessive language about the madness of love and the lascivious issues which

often discussed topics like the ecstasy. Furthermore, some mystics were judged by heresy of

7

“a free spirit” for disregarding the role of church and overemphasizing the deeper presence of

God (McGinn 51, 53).

Similar to western mysticism, eastern Sufism attempted to a direct liaison of man to

God, who is considered as a companion and beloved rather than a draconian powerful ruler of

mankind fates. In fact, Sufism seeks to know God by religious experience which is above all

intuitions and intellect (Ghosh & Mir 76). It is therefore worth to say that early Sufis were

affected by the Christian priests in Egypt and Syria who were renowned by deprivation and

other spiritual practices. Even prophet Muhammed (PBUH) had a good relation with a Syrian

monk called Bahira (Sergius).Yet; Muslim Sufis did not adopt all Christian traditions and

rejected some basics of western mysticism. However, asceticism remained prominent until

modern days (Cook 1-2).

Cook continued that some of the Sufi literatures have a Christian derivation. Some

Sufi passages are even extracted from the bible. Parallel to western mystics, the ascetic Sufis

share similar practices. To mention some, both admire the extra prayers at night, fasting, and

total rejection of sleeping. Additionally, many prefer to be accompanied by the fakirs (2). In

his book Bezels of Wisdom Ibn –al Arabi of the 12th Century wrote an influential chapter

about Jesus (Jae 1).

The Quranic Sufi interpretations of Jesus are different from the Christian ones.

According to Rezazadeh, “Jesus the spirit of God” is regarded as a major prophet in Islam and

has a great place in Islamic mysticism, eschatology, and morality. Though, this prophet is

always related to his mother whenever Quran mentions him “Isa ibn Maryam”, because the

holy book considers him as a human being not a divine as Christianity purports (47-48).

For Quranic verses, the death of Jesus is only a delusion of the Christian myth. God

ascended him, God said:

8

O Jesus! I will be One Who Gathers thee and One Who Elevates thee to Myself

and One Who Purifies thee from those who were ungrateful, and One Who

Makes those who followed thee above those who were ungrateful until the Day

of Resurrection. Again, you will return to Me. Then, I will give judgment

between you about what you had been at variance in it. (Sublime Qur'an, Al

Imran 3:55)

By this perspective one notes that Quran denies the crucifixion of Jesus (Reynolds 240).

According to eastern mystics, Jesus is a “proto Sufi” and a messenger from God.

Arguing against the western mystic point of view, Sufis had never considered Jesus as human

divine and “savior figure”. In the other hand, Jesus for Sufis like the Christians has always

been an icon of pureness, perfection, love, and remedy. The shared picture about Jesus is most

likely inspired from the common ecumenical perceptions between the Muslims and

Christians, as well as the tolerant Sufi point of view to the other religious affiliations (Milani

47- 48).

II- Sufism

There are various distinguished views over the etymology of the term “Sufism”. Some

scholars argued that the origin of the word “Sufism” derived from the Arabic word “Safaa”

which refers to the human’s pureness of souls, hearts, and behaviors. Other researchers

maintain that it came from the Greek expression “SiyuSoofia” which means divine

knowledge. Moreover, some scholars denote that the word signifies “Sufana” i.e., a kind of

plant. Others proclaim that Sufism designates “Soofa” that alludes to an old clan that their

members devoted themselves to the service of “Kaaba. Other researchers purports that it is

originated from the term “Soof” which means wool, generally symbolizes the asceticism from

9

life desires (Belqies 56). According to Khannam, “ahle suffa” are people who spent their lives

in worshiping and learning by heart Quranic verses and prophetic hadith, in the time of

prophet Muhammad (PBUH) (9).

Synonymous to Islam, Sufism is used as an alternative to the peaceful religion making

a profound impact in different parts of the world. Irrespective to Islamic theological divisions,

Sufism encompasses both branches of Islam, similar to orthodox Muslims; Sufis seek to reach

a perfect obedience. However, their affinity to be unified with God in this world permits them

to be “Proto Type Muslims” (Miller 1).

Related to Islam, Sufism is considered as the core of religion. Nicholson, Stoddert, et

al. pointed out that “There is no Sufism without Islam because Sufism is the spirituality or

mysticism of the religion of Islam” (qtd in Belqies 55). Supporting this argument, Anne Marie

Schimmel in her book Mystical Dimension of Islam argued that Quran is the “the unique

lexicon” for Muslims, since it bears exoteric and esoteric meanings (24). In parallel, Chittick

goes in the same line with Schimmel, and believed that Sufism is allied to Islam and is

accountable for the crystallization of Islamic spirituality and moral ideals (4).

As a matter of fact, the growth of Sufism has always been a debatable focus. Many

scholars claimed that it aroused from the cadavers of previous religions while others

maintained that it flourished duo to the conflicts that stirred after the death of the prophet.

Some historians argued that Muhammad (PBUH) was the first Sufi. According to Anuzsia,

Sufism emerged because of the disagreements between some Ulama (scholars) and the

breakdown over who should be the heir to the prophet (2).

As it was mentioned before, the rigorous era of the Umayyad dynasty pushed many to

be far away from the society and preferred the solitude in order to seek the peace of soul. In

fact, the period witnessed a shift from the prestigious secular life to a very sober one, whereby

10

people start to consecrate themselves to Allah. It is important to mention that at that period,

spirituality was used as an alternative to Islam as a religion; they considered both as one

(Gupta 12).

By the 9th C, sharia law was considered insufficient to reduce the distance between

man and God. For this reason, they began to assume certain additional spiritual practices.

Moreover, Sufism was institutionalized and many clerics established some orders that

facilitate the remembrance of god. Duo to these orders, Islam occupied the heartlands of Asia

and Indian subcontinents. However, these orders embraced their own rules that are far away

from sharia law (Gupta 12).

Gupta approved that Sufism became crystalized by the appearance of the Mu’tazilate

school, a group that intensified reason and rationality. From this perspective, the phenomenon

perceived a shift to Gnosticism and logic. Later on, during the rule of Mamoun the son of

Haroun A-Rashid, many religious dialogues have been advocated. The fruits subsequently,

developed Sufism and engaged it in new form of Gnosticism, theosophy, and monotheism

(13,16).

At the beginning of 20th Century, the majority of Muslims were influenced by Sufism.

However, opposition to Sufism gradually shaped both western and Muslims thoughts. For

example in 1950, A.J. Arrberry propelled a rigid sharp criticism on the later exhibition of

Sufism. The impression that Sufism gave about Islam was not very appreciated since it

misrepresented its sacred law (Sirriyeh 2).

Word that had not lived to see every demented madman help up his follows as “Pole”. Their ulama take refuge in him; indeed they have even adopted him as a Lord, instead of the Lord of the thrown, For they have forgotten God, saying, “so and provides deliverance from suffering from all mankind” When he dies, they make him the object of the pilgrimage and hasten to his

11

shrine, Arabs and foreigners alike: Some kiss his grave, and some threshold of his door, and the dust. Indeed, people at that time were visiting the regional graves of the so called ‘saints’ and ‘God’s friends’.

Thus, the image of saints was more exulted than God himself, and the mediocrity of

these “wallayas” was very common for the Sufis and the anti-Sufis. Not only Arberry who

claimed the illegitimacy of such traditions, but also the “Wahhabi sect” in which sheikh

Abdu Allah, the son of the initiator of the Wahhabis criticized the excessive meetings in these

graves and the decoration of their tombs with gold and silver, at the extent that it became

more significant than regular prayers in mosques. Hence, the recitation of Sufi poetry was

favored more than the psalmody of the Quran itself (Sirriyeh 2-3). Furthermore, Sufism was

also accused by liberals of being responsible for the technological tardiness and social

backward (Cook 9).

In the other hand, the fascination of Sufism and the mystical elements of Islam tainted

Jewish and Christian thoughts from early ages. For instance, the contact zones between

Christians and Muslims permitted more tolerant view to Islamic mysticism in Sicily. During

his reign, Fredrick II was deeply influenced by the Sufi traditions; his ability to master Arabic

engaged him to read a great deal of Sufi poetry, in spite of his crusading campaign in the East

(O'Leary 279). Moreover, Pugio Fidei adversum Mauros et Judaeos of Raymond Martini was

in fact influenced by al-Ghazali's Destruction of the Philosophers. It is also worthy to mention

that this Latin scholastic was significantly motivated by the doctrine of the First Intelligence

found by al-Ghazali and his Emanation of mystical Theory (O'Leary 288-289).

Jewish thoughts were also enthralled by Islamic mystic beliefs, especially after the

flourishment of Sufism. According to Pytlik, there was a mutual admiration between Jewish

and Sufi ideologies which history has seldom underlined. In fact, Judaism initially influenced

Sufism in its constructive step in Baghdad. Yet, with the growth of Sufism, Jewish mystics

12

started to indicate their immense appreciation to the Sufi tradition. It is the Maimonides son,

Abraham, who rotated his interest into a Sufi direction with Jewish mystic practices. The

latter, believed that Sufis followed Israeli prophets (8).

Even Islamic mysticism borrowed from “Isra’iliyyat”, which came from a Jewish

structure Pirkei Avot (Saying of the Fathers). When Sufism flourished, many Jews converted

to Islamic mysticism; they found its dogma very systematic and full of mystical approach. By

the 13th C, an important concern toward the nature of the letters in the Holy Scriptures has

been raised between Ibn al- Arabi and Jewish mystics in order to discuss topics about the

divine holiness and mystical veracities; they end up with a composition entitled Gematria in

which both traditions contributed to this work (Pytlik 9).

In addition to that, many European Catholics and Protestants of the 19th C sympathized

with Sufism like Louis Massignon1, his student Henri Corbin2, and later on Frithjof Schuon3.

All of whom presented Islamic mysticism in reliable style and great rationality. They had also

headed momentous Sufi schedules. In America, the spiritual teaching of Hazrat Inayat Khan

and the Haqqani foundation made Sufism more popular, especially with the establishment of

the Sufi international movements and the contributions of western academic followers of Ibn

al –Arabi in the arena (Cook 10).

III- Sufism: its Ideologies and Principles

Unmistakably, Quran is the quintessence of Islamic mysticism; this can be deduced

from the literary, metaphysical, and the philosophical horizon. Apart from that, Quran can be

interpreted from its mystical side in which Sufis adopt certain ideologies to their path. First

1 Influential figure of the 20th C, Catholic French scholar who was deeply engaged in religious studies especially Islam. He represented the image of Islam in a positive way. 2 One of the 20th C scholar, thinker and theologian, skilled in Sufism. Well known for his great work Alone with the Alone: Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn Arabi

13

and foremost, Man is considered as a spark from the light of God, all human kind belongs to

God’s light and each individual is separated from it, and attempts to meet again with the

divine spirit. Returning is of a high priority in the Sufi doctrine, it is often marked by devotion

and adoration which subsequently guide to God (Arian Ali 31).

Contextually, Sufis are interested in the inner reality, a reality that compromises both

the recognized and the anonymous worlds. In fact, they are more subject to the imaginary and

the non-existed rather than the ordinary world paying a little attention to the time, space, and

the fundamental aspects of the vital exterior world. Sufis had never been against the outer

world and the acknowledgement of the natural creation (Arian Ali 31).

The idea that God settles on a throne and commands from the highest heaven is not

really accurate. According to the Sufi ideology, God is everywhere and now_ “And We are

closer to him than [his] jugular vein” (Sublime Quran, Qaf 50:16), which makes them

initiative to a deep ecstasy within oneself. Nevertheless, they struggle outwardly towards

enhanced life, neglecting the decisive consequences. This struggle is indeed indispensable for

the inner purification and beatitude that help them to reach their goal (Arian Ali 31).

“Die before die” is among the prominent dogmas in Sufism. Seeking truth and Sufi

origin is their chief tasks that deserve riskiness including death. The latter is the cheerful fate

that no one can eliminate. Hence, death is the vehicle to God and the only bridge to be with

the divine without lamenting their destiny because it is honorable (Arian Ali 33).

A Sufi also possesses an eye to see. The eye in this context does not refer to the

ordinary eye of human body, but the one of heart that enables to see the veiled reality.

Correspondingly, a Sufi can see his beloved (God) through this eye. For example; in one of

the famous love stories of Arabic heritage “Leila and El-Majnoun”, Leila was always far

away from him. Yet, El-Majnoun could see her no matter where and when. Metaphorically,

14

for the amorousness of Lord, Leila was the beloved. And for this reason Sufis seek to

stimulate the eye of their hearts to uncover all veils (Arian Ali 33).

Furthermore, the doctrine seeks the excellence of man through continued stages of

Sufi illumination under different qualities. The perfect man, thus, is a miniature of God’s

perfection and he behaves typically according to the divine manifestation (Brown 76).

He is the pole (qutb) around which the universe revolves. In his essence, he is

the ruh called by various epithets such as Haqiqat-i- Muhamadi (first

intellectual) and Ruh- ul-Qudus (the pure soul). ( qtd in Brown77)

Among the controversial issues that the Sufi philosophy looks for is whether God is

male or female. Obviously, God is above gender differences or any duality, he is therefore

unlimited and absolute. However, it is frequently pronounced from feminine angle when

referring to “the beloved”, symbolically showing the qualities of mercy, beauty, and wisdom

(Brown 74).

However, the core of the Sufi beliefs that represent the pain of the everyday life can be

eradicated through salvation and returning to God. This philosophy affords an outline that

helps people to understand their relation with God that makes the human being moves from

his concrete situation to the final objective of human life. By contrast, society is always

attempting to neglect such kind of people because they alert the whole environment about its

falseness. The best example is embodied in the personality of al Hallaj Mansour who was

never tolerated about his thoughts and mainly the one that is “chosen by God” (Arian Ali 32,

35).

Encompassed by different pillars of Sufism, one can state four major principles: first,

the oneness (tawhid), one of the obvious subjects of Sufism that exists in both traditionalist

15

and universal angles. The term is generally, referred to the divine unity of devotion in which

“there is no God but Allah”. It underlines the unity and the uniqueness of God as creator and

the upholder of the universe (Brown 73).

Steven Masood defines tawhid as the amalgamation with the Lord, an explanation that

is not recognized by all Muslims. Though, it may advocate the idea that the creator and the

creatures are integrated to each other. Supporting such argument, Hazrat Inayat Khan argued

that “God and man are not two; the Sufi does not consider God separated from him”. The idea

is all about the surrounding to God’s will and losing selfness in God’s presence. However,

being linked to God does not mean inclining godliness, but incorporating their individual

consciousness with the upholder (Brown 74).

The second principle is remembrance, which is exposed in the Quran more than forty

times. It designates the knowledge conveyed by the prophet as “dhikr” or “reminder”.

According to William Chittick, the only health-giving to Adam’s children inadvertency and

forgetfulness is remembrance that is generally yielded by the prophets, taking in consideration

the human response (63).

For the Sufis, the word also indicates the way of full awareness toward God. It can

therefore, refer to the mention of Lord. The word furthermore is discussed in many discourses

in a juxtaposition with “du’aa” or “supplication” which means calling upon God when you

need him. Generally, the latter takes the shape of request in formal way and not forcibly

repeated. While dhikr employs Arabic names usually extracted from Quran and the prophetic

hadiths but both are non-compulsory, and distinctive from the five daily prayers (Chittick 64).

At the end, Chittick maintained that the only way to understand the dhikr approach is

by answering the three questions: what is to be remembered? The aim of remembrance, (God

whose reality is acknowledged by Shahada), why should be God remembered, (Because he is

16

the dominator and only one responsible for the human beings faiths and the tranquility

requires remembrance), how it can be remembered? By following the prophet who is the best

example to be followed (65).

Beyond shadow of doubt, love is among the prominent themes of Sufi principles.

According to Brown, love and heart exceeded the gnosis in the Sufi context. In fact, Sufism is

generally entitled “the path of love” and “the religion of heart”. Love and hearts are multi-

discursive terms; it may refer to the core of human being or the source of enlightenment.

Hand in hand, Lings argued that the heart is “the spark of spirit” which has the qualities of

divinity. Thus, it is the one responsible for the transcendence (80-81).

From the 13th century onward, there was a shift from mysticism and asceticism of the

Sufi teaching to an emphasis to love and devotion. Sufism valued love since it is highlighted

in the Quran “he loves them and they love him” (5:54). Ultimately, God loves his creatures

first, and then they come to love him by following the model of the prophet (PBUH) where by

it permitted the refinement and the pureness of their souls. At the end, they become perfect

(Chittick 74, 77).

Affording forty days period of isolation and sitting alone are some of the common

manners of the Sufi meditation. Such seclusion is done for the purpose of purifying the inner

soul (batin), illuminating hearts, and reaching spiritual perfection. Apart from that, apparently

these traditions rooted back to some prophetic hadiths, even the prophet (PBUH) before his

revelation had the habit of going in the cave of Hira and spent forty days in ( Far & Bozorgi

110-111).

VI- Sufi Literature

17

A.J Arberry has frequently termed the olden times of Persian poetry as “the Golden

Era”; taking into account its mystical poets and the impact that they left upon the history of

literature. As a matter of fact, the Sufi poetry gained a particular recognition among several

authors including the British orientalist Reynold Nicholson. Other critics saw Sufi poetry as

“the mine of Persian literature”, while Costello honored it and described it as an impressive

diamond used in the structure of palaces in the air (Moghaddas & Boostani 76).

Sufi poetry took different forms. The major ones are: the quatrains; which came from

Arabic origin Robaai. Probably, Rudaki was the first to initiate this form of poems in which

there two couplets of lines are ordered within two internal rhymes. The qasidah generally

deals with sarcasm, compliment, and morality. Unlike the quatrains, the qasidah is longer and

mono-rhymed. In addition to that, the ghazel which is classically, characterized by the theme

of love. The mathnawi: narrative lyrical poems that enclose internal rhymes altered with each

line (Moghaddas & Boostani 77).

Considerable poets of the medieval period played an effective role in improving the

Sufi maturity in poetry. Such poets are usually viewed as the most eloquent authorities in the

Sufi heritage and helped to open a window on the Persian culture for others. This section

includes four poets who have a gigantic influence on the western world and facilitate to offer

masterpieces to other cultures.

1 - Omar Khayyam

Let’s begin with Abu’l Fath ibn Ibrahim Khayyam, branded most broadly by Omar

Khayyam (1048_1131), Neishapurian poet from Khorasan, raised in a middle class family.

“Khayyam” signifies “tent maker”, a title which has been innate from his father Ibrahim who

quickly discovered his son aptitude and the necessity to be skilled under prominent masters of

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the time and finally finds Qadi Muhammed, the imam of the mosque under whom he received

his lessons. The latter uncovered how much the kid was talented and tried to improve his

skills (Green).

After grasping Quranic sciences, Arabic, grammar, literature, and other sciences,

Khayyam decided to be educated from other master, Khawaja Abu al Hassan Ambary with

whom he made efforts in different sections of mathematics, astronomy and, traditional

cosmological doctrines. Rapidly, Omar was ready to study with the famous Muwaffaq

Nishaburi, “who taught only the best of the best”. The one was responsible for the education

of gifted children and the aristocracy class. Lastly, he studied philosophy with Sheikh

Muhammed Mansur where he became aware with the texts of the great Avicenna (Aminrazavi

19-20).

The factors that affected Khayyam knowledge were also the two journeys that he spent

far away from Neishapur. The first was an invitation from his children companion, Nezam Al

Mulk who became vizier and established a series of schools entitled Nizamiyeh in Baghdad,

Nishapur, and Isfahan where he accepted to be a teacher there. But, Om ar quickly returned

to his native land, because of the disputes with other scholars. Then, he came back after the

assassination of the king Alp Arslan. Though, his health declined, and he returned

immediately to Nishapur after the approval of the Sultan (Aminrazavi 27-28).

After his death, Khayyam left about 14 treatises that discuss scientific nature.

However, the treaties were introduced in such way that non experts cannot comprehend.

Among them, a Translation of Treatise on Avicenna Lucid Discourse: an Arabic

interpretation of Avicenna that labelled the difficulties in supposing his attitudes, and whether

they are unplanned or determined, emphasizing the link between time, gesture and God

(Aminrazavi 34).

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On Existence is therefore, one of the significant works of Khayyam, originally written

in Arabic. It argues themes of existence and non-existence. In addition to the metaphysical

interpretation of God’s creation, highlighting a good example of the fire which yields light

without any intention (Aminrazavi 37).

Finally, the Quatrains: the most debatable part of Khayyam reviews. The Rubbaiyat,

in fact are combination of two classical languages Arabic and Persian; however, Persian

language has a great portion in increasing Khayyam particular reputation. Only 25 poems

belong to Arabic. The latter are written in two hemisected stanzas and well attributed.

Nevertheless, many doubt about their legitimacy and drop them from the customary studies of

Khayyam (Aminrazevi 39).

According to Araghi and Ramezanpoor, the Quatrains of Khayyam gained popularity

in the West decades before. He maintained that, the early appearance of Quatrains was in the

17th C in the writing of Thomas Hyde. The latter translated parts of the Quatrains in his work

Veterum Persarumet Parthorum et Medorum Religionis. However, the arrangement of the

whole Quatrains in the Western works was precisely during the 19th C, in England, and

America. These translations were directed in more planned method, while it was less formal

in France and Germany (111).

It is crucial to denote the famous translation of Edward FitzGerald’s Quatrains; this

American poet was able to demonstrate the Persian beliefs without mastering language, and

grasping the oriental wisdom in very appropriate manner (206). Fatefully, Khayyam became a

legendary in the west, thanks to his translation (Katouzian 2). In the other hand, Omar

Khayyam Club in America afforded to the arena of literature through several versions of the

translation, and end up by establishing a literary school, engaged in Khayyam aspects of

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literature. Whose members gave themselves the title of “Omarians” (Aminrazavi S &ALM

223).

2 – Saadi

Another poet of the classical Persian writers that headed the list was Sa’di. According

to Davie. M.D, Muslih - Adin was born at Shiraz, in Persia, on 1176 AD; the title Sa’di,

however was picked up from the king of Persia Saad Attabak. Sa’di bloodlines are possibly

from Ali the cousin of the prophet Muhammed. The position of his father in the government

permitted him to be close from the aristocracy, enjoying some advocacy and enthusiasm.

Sooner, the father died, leaving Sa’di and his mother in cruel estate which forced them to go

to Saracen (’).

Quickly, Sa’di learned religious education and attained the title of Sheikh. To continue

his learning, he went to Baghdad where he became less known being foreigner and

moneyless. When he was 21 years old, he joined the Nizamiyyeh School where he improved

his capacities, and persisted at Baghdad till 64 years old, having great position as poet.

However, the instability of the situation during the reign of Mutasim Billah, the son of

Haroun- AR Rashid, caused him to run away from Baghdad (M.D xvi).

In spite of the fact that he married twice, Sa’di did not refer to the gentle sex heavily

in his writings, especially that he had not very cheerful life with his second spouse, after being

caught by the crusades. Sa’di had a son and a daughter. Unfortunately, the son died in his

infancy, while the girl later on married the well-known Hafiz. (M.D xvii- xviii).

Unlike Khayyam, Sa’di was laureate poet especially that the king Saad Atabak helped in his

learning career. In return, Sa’di revealed his thankfulness through compliment of the emperor.

By 1291, Sa’di reached the winter of his life, but his spiritual presence remained for many

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Muslims, to the extent that they established a tomb of Sadiya in Shiraz, which was the

destination of numerous travelers (M.D xviii).

Bustan and Golestan are the most prominent works of Sa’di. The ones bear moralistic

qualities. Sa’di who mastered both prose and poetry finished his book Bustan in 1257. The

book was known by his reasonable and idealistic aspects. Borrowing a little of the mystical

experiences within it. The Persians saw it as “a unique volume in the whole canon of Persian

literature”. The latter consists of ten chapters written in the form of tales and anecdotes. It was

dedicated to the people of Shiraz. Regarding its impact, many authors tried to reproduce a

copy of the original work; yet, no one could achieve this realization as Sa’di did (Katouzian

26-28).

Golestan the most delightful of Saadi’s works has been defined as “practical wisdom”

if compared with the book of Bustan. Golestan is much enlarged and it is written with the first

person singular for some of the time. The book is transcribed with “mossaj” style, the most

embellished form of prose with occasional meters, rhymes, and semi rhymes. This style

cannot be acquired easily. The introduction of the book narrated how Sa’di wrote it in which

he was very depressed, and was aided by one of his friends. The element that gave the poet a

specific impression to finish it in a short time (an approximate of 6 months). However, many

critics claimed that the plot was a fiction ( Katouzian 29-33).

Dealing with the boundaries between English and Persian literatures, Persian literature

crossed it easily. Evidently, this is often seen in the various translations to English and other

European languages. For example, Golestan was the first masterpiece which was translated to

Germany by Gulistan. The one is considered as guide book to European pupils. Then, the

translation induced the attention of Adam Oliaryos to translate Bustan. Years later, the

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influence moved toward Emerson. Nevertheless, Sa’di lost his prestige with the coming of

Hafiz (Roozbeh 285).

3 - Hafiz

Shams eddin Mohammad, identified most frequently as Hafiz. Hafiz was born in 1315,

in the province of Shiraz, where he mastered the Quranic verses. In fact, he acquired the title

of Hafiz, because he memorized the Quran in early stage of his life. ‘The tongue of hidden’

and ‘interpreter of secrets’ are among the epithets that designate Hafiz. The collaboration of

theology with the mystical aspects of Sufism made his poetry of certain uniqueness (Salami

1).

Being instructed under Sheikh Attar, allowed Hafiz further fortunes if compared with

his colleagues, since his teacher was emphasizing on both the body and mental capacities. A

point worthy to be mentioned is that, Hafiz had never been austere in his opinion, when

judging the dervish habit. He surely learned this flexibility from his instructor (Abdul Majid

6-7).

Hafiz delivered his lifetime under the sponsorship of different leaders to whom he

availed as poet in his all career. Starting by Shah Ishak, a governor of Shiraz, who was

arrested by Moberezuddien Mohammed Mozzafar, and executed away from the town. After

his death, the patronage was prolonged by Shah Suja, Mozzafar’s son. Though, there were

occasional disparagements with Hafiz about poetical concerns. Later on, the master charged

him with heresy (Bell 10-11).

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Unlike the previous masters, Kawamuddin, the vizier engaged Hafiz in school to teach

his disciples lessons in Quran. In parallel, Sultan Ahmed Ilkhani suggested him to be his court

poet; he refused, but many lines of his ghazel valorize him, entitling him” Khan the son of

khan “or “emperor the son of emperor”. Hafiz was renowned beyond his native land, his

reputation extended to the kingdoms of Bengal and Deccan. Many argued that he was invited

by the king Ghyasuddin Purbi, but Hafiz expressed his regret (Bell 12-13).

Socially speaking, Hafiz married Saadi’s daughter and had a son. Remarkably, Hafiz

was close to his wife as well as his son. This is very evident in his elegiac poems after their

death. Hafiz died during the 14th C, there is no exact day of his death, but on his shrine, it is

marked 1388 where he was buried at the garden of Mossala near Shiraz (Bell 15, 18).

According to Avery and Heath-Stubbs, the poems of Hafiz were viva voce; his

heritage was passed from one generation to another by reciting it orally (2)Many

historiographers maintained that Hafiz did not have much time to gather his poems in a divan.

Though, his disciple Syed Kasim -al -Anwar was responsible for assembling the whole divan

(Abdul Majid 23-24).

Hafiz bridged the distance between the “East” and the “West”, centuries before. The

Romans pioneered the translation of the poems of Hafiz in 1680. In 1771, the influence

moved to the British Sir William Jones, this translation achieved a great impact later on.

Then, several translations under the Latin influence were published like the one of J.

Richardson in 1774. Indeed, the poems of Hafiz were targeted by many western poets,

especially of the Romantic era in which it attracted the attention of Byron, Swinburne, and

others (Behbahani 2-3).

The fame of Hafiz extended to the Victorian era, at that time, more than eighty

translations were made. The celebrity of Hafiz moved beyond Europe and reached America.

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The well- known Ralph W Emerson was influenced by the German version of Goethe and

published his own translation in 1838. Moreover, extra translations of his Ghazels were added

to his works (Behbahani 3).

It is worthy to shed some lights on the German poet, Goethe who was already

influenced by the translation of Josef Von Hammer of Hafiz poems. Goethe produced his own

translation, and in the same time reduced the distance between the two Abrahamic religions

(Christianity and Islam). The translations served as a vehicle to the oriental world, involving a

depiction of Jesus face. Regarding the Germanic history of literature, one can notice how Sufi

literature infiltrated into the German one by the intermediation of Hafiz, especially in West

Ostlisher Divan where he renowned him as “a seeker of truth spiritual on spiritual level”, and

described him as “his twin” in one of his poems (Mahdavi & Sajjadi 2234-2235).

4 - Rumi: A Short Biography

Rumi is also along the greatest poets of Sufi literature, if not the one who headed the

list in both eastern and western world. According to Boostni and Moghddas, Rumi was born

on September 30, 1207 in Balkh, a city of Khorasan, particularly in Bakhsh (Tajikistan now).

Baha -al –Din, Rumi’s father was a cleric, judge, and dutiful mystic (77). However, they flee

Balkh, because of the attacks of Mongol armies; they did not stabilize in one place: they went

to Samarkand, Damascus, and finally in Konya; the heart land of Anatolia (Barks xxi)

After his death, Baha-al Din left his Ma’arif text to Rumi, the latter analyzed it with

Burhan-al Din Mahaqqiq; a student of Baha before, along with other writings of Attar and

Sanai. Being influenced by such mystic poets, Rumi tried to achieve chillas; fasting in an

isolated place during 40 day. This made Rumi ready for his first mystical conversation with

Shams of Tabriz. The thrilling event that unified Shams with Rumi was exceptional, because

25

it influenced later on Rumi’s writings. Shams existence with Rumi did not last for so long,

and he left in unusual circumstances. Because of Shams absence, Rumi felt sad for his mate

soul and fluently delivered the poetry without any preparation (Barks xxi-xxii).

Rumi married Ghowhar Khatun, and got two sons Sultan Valad and Aladdin.

Unfortunately, Ghowhar died early. Then, he remarried Kira Khatun, and had a son Mozzafar

and a daughter Maleke from her. After the rupture of Shams, Rumi found another friend

Houssem Chalabi who helped him in writing the Masnavi. Finally, Rumi died in December

13, 1273(Barks xxii-xxiii).

Rumi Literary and Moral Heritage

Four main works should be highlighted among Rumi’s writings. First of all, Divan

Shams or Divan I Kabir which is a group of poems named after his soul mate Shams. Divan

Shams is a composition of 4000 couplets that took the second position among Rumi’s works.

Second, Fihi Ma Fihi [“In It Is What It Is”]: gathered by Rumi’s students and includes Rumi’s

dialogues and discourses. Then, “The Letters”: a series of letters from Rumi to his

countrymen, family, and friends gathered in book entitled Makatib. Lastly, Masnavi the most

eminent work of Rumi, it consists of 26000 couplets divided in six sections. All of whom

discuss the lower sensual aspiration, knowledge, and the elimination of the ego, in order to

recognize God’s presence (Karimnia et.al 8536).

Rumi’s poems are circulating everywhere and every when, his couplets bear both a

literary aesthetic verses as well as a moralistic legacy. In fact, Rumi’s works seek to renovate

the ordinary creatures to Godlike humans. It attempts to look for the perfection of human

beings through a high devoutness, values, and loyalty. By doing so, it stimulates in the

individuals the skill to respect one another, love each other, and acting properly (Valerievna)

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According to Ghabool view, Peace is prominent in Rumi‘s considerations. The term

indicates a co- existence between all religions, and more tolerance in the interfaith dialogues.

The core of this dogma is based undoubtedly on God determination, love, and justice (703).

Love is vital in Rumi’s poems, it is used in different contexts, but generally it designates “a

constellation of emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong affection or profound

oneness”. In Rumi teaching, love represents the close union between the divine and human

being in which it is regarded frequently as the reason behind creation (699).

Rumi’s impact infiltrated western lands too, the British orientalists had always

considered his works as pillar to their own, as a result, the western writers started to translate

his works. For example, Joseph Von Hammer and Rückert are among the earliest translators

of Rumi’s works. Reedhouse who mastered the Turkish language was the first to initiate a

translation of Masnavi in English. Later, Nicholson with his analytical interpretation of

Masnavi made it the most accurate translation. In addition to Colman Barks who achieved a

great commercial success in America with his version of the Masnavi (Karimnia et.al 8536-

8539).

Conclusion

All in all, it is evident that Sufism has been influenced by other religions and cultures.

Indeed, its first period was under the effect of Christian mysticism, but lately it was directed

by Quranic verses and prophetic hadiths. Many Orientalists like Nicholson, Corbin, and

Massignon confirmed that Islam was the source of Sufism, though one cannot deny the

contribution of other civilizations in its flourishment. In other words, Islamic mysticism can

be defined as the sum total of all religious mysticism, and is therefore a multiplicity within

unity.

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Despite the fact that Christian mysticism has its brighter side vis-à-vis the unification

of God, and claiming his centralization, it goes beyond all beliefs, since it has its pagan

element considering Jesus as divine. Yet, the notion seems to be more adequate by reason of

“all paths lead to his presence”.

The universal aspects of Sufism are generally crystalized regarding its spiritual

wisdom, while it exists some principles of local Sufi orders that give a negative impression to

the path. These principles deviated from the main doctrine, and should be omitted to avoid

any stereotypes that provide a bad vision to Sufism. However, Godlike quality of men is not

considered as a heresy, but it indicates the one who seeks perfection and serves as a typical

model when desiring the right path to God.

Unfortunately, nowadays the west is able to understand the Sufi concepts more than

the oriental realm do. This is remarkably noticed in the various translations from Persian to

other European languages. Obviously, such respect of the oriental culture is shown in the

works and interests of the postmodernist Goethe. Hence, the idea that appreciating a work in

his native language seems old fashioned, because many works especially the Sufi poetry

gained in translations.

Sufi literature in general offered a great deal to the philosophical and mystical texts in

the Islamic civilization. Thus, it discussed interesting topics that bridge the distance between

the universe and eternity, mainly because of the spiritual vacuum and the increase of the

materialistic life. As result, Sufi literature played the role of morality and idealism in which it

payed little attention to race and gender.

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Chapter Two

American Sufism: Turning to the Core of Spirituality

Introduction

Sufism in the west becomes a hotly debated topic. Generally, the so-called Sufism is

always used as synonymous to Islam, since it goes hand in hand with it: whenever Islam

reached a community in the world, Sufi movements are omnipresent. Hence, Sufism is

considered as a momentous vehicle to the spread of Islam along other mercantile activities in

the past.

Historically, Sufism was the crux of the Moorish culture in Spain. This fact is very

evident in the writings of the Andalusian philosopher and poet Ibn- al Arabi who was

probably, the first to put the imprint of Sufism in the west. According to Llewellyn Vaughan –

Lee, courtly love that embodied European romantic literature was extracted from the

troubadours that were influenced by Sufi Arabic poetry.

After the collapse of Andalusia, Llewellyn Vaughan –Lee stated that Sufism stagnated

until the flourishment of the Ottoman Empire where it extended heavily in many parts of

eastern European communities, especially the Balkans. Though, the coming of the Bosnian

war and its aftermath caused damaging loses; a large number of Sufis were killed at that era.

This chapter sheds light on the way whereby Sufism with its philosophical and literary

aspects was able to penetrate into the western lands in general, and Uncle Sam boundaries in

particular.

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I- Sufism in Europe and North America

The tendency toward Sufism in the west remains of a great significance. In fact, in

addition to the believers who are generally attracted by the Sufi ideology, a score of studies

are conducted over the subject. Oriental studies of the mid-18th century affirmed that

European awareness of some Sufi figures of the medieval period seemed insufficient for the

colonial power to be acquainted with the atmosphere of the third world countries.These

orientalists were pioneers to investigate the origins of Sufism. Though, there were those who

claimed its relation to Islam such as Nicholson and Massignion.Others affirmed the

incompatibility between the two such as Tholuck and Palmer. Scholars like Lt James William

Graham suggested a clear closeness between Judaism and Christianity Vs Islam and Sufism in

the sense that Sufism is continuity to the existence of Islam i.e. “Sufism was the new

Testament of Islam” (Khalil & Sheikh 355, 357).

Historically, the colonial persecution pressed native inhabitants to quite their

motherlands. Many Arabs fled theirs countries and went to the west. In their journey, they

brought with them their religion that was often cohesive to Sufism. As a result, “Euro Sufism”

and the emphasis in this dimension of Islam became of particular status; scholars like René

Guenon and Frithjof Schuon inclined to be ‘‘a Sufi Perennialists” (Westerlund 4).

Among the factors that led to the infiltration of Sufism in United States is the nature of

its policy. According to Hermansen, the American Dream helped in the domestication of this

concept. Contextually, one can add the increase of the feelings of individuality and the

tentative modes of spiritualty. Moreover, the freedom of religion in the U.S. and the Bill of

Rights allowed an easy penetration of Sufism within the U.S society (Westerlund 4).

Another reason behind the enculturation of Sufism in America’s main lands, as

Hermansen suggested is the nature of the U.S as a multi religious, multi ethnics, and multi-

30

cultural society, mainly immigrants from Africa and the Middle East. However, these Sufis

did not represent a remarkable intellectual degree. Nevertheless, European Sufis denote a

well-educated level in its scholarship. Hermansen acknowledged the process of globalization

whereby all people are unified in a single society, among its sides the monopolization of

English language that permitted the communication in the entire world. For instance, the

production of great deal of Sufi works in English becomes very fashionable. Together with

the mass media and social networks which endorsed a speedy access to these Sufi groups.

Finally, Hermansen argued that above sexism, Sufism was successful in living into the core of

the American social life when advocating the idea of the equality between man and women

(Westerlund 7, 10).

Early in history, Sufism reached the extreme southern parts of Europe including

Bosnia, Albania and southern parts of Russia. Nowadays, the number of Sufis in Europe

dramatically increased as a result of the immigration from Islamic countries and the need of

jobs, especially North Africans in France and southern Asians in Britain. Nevertheless, the

majority of refugees were born in Europe. In terms of conversions, Sufism attracted many

Europeans who were in fact Islamicists. However, a few converted to Islam “Sufism”. In spite

of their few numbers, those Europeans are mindful of this esoteric background and are

generally, considered as delegates of Sufism in Europe (Westerlund 13-14).

As it was pointed out before, the existence of Sufism in Europe was the result of the

establishment of different types of Islam there. On this basis, one can distinguish three

“forms” of Islam. First of all, those secularized persons who kept their superficial religious

identity just for social motives, mainly the Iranians who fled the Khomeinian Republic of

Islam. There are also those Islamists who belong to very sensitive sect. Yet, they ceased to be

extremists, even though they kept exploring the importance of Islam as accurate canon of life

or as governmental organism (Leonard 185-186).

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With respects to these two forms, the Muslims mainstream are indeed the

overwhelming majority in Europe, they are generally guided by the different behaviors of

their motherlands, and are not much influenced by the secularization of Europe. All these

forms can indeed bear Sufi ideology within, since Sufism embraces both branches of Islam;

however, Sufis are generally classified in Muslim Mainstream form (Leonard 187-188).

According to Westerlund, the role of Sufis becomes of great significance in European

social life in recent years. For example, in the medical milieu, the sheikhs of different Sufi

orders are working in cooperation with health centers and clinics in order to achieve spiritual

therapy. Furthermore, those sheikhs play an important educative function in instructing

teenagers of different levels, especially concerning ethical and moral issues (16, 18).

During the beginning of the 20th C, an interesting intellectual discipline was reputed in

Europe. Towering figures who were greatly influenced by the Sufi ideologies built the

primary principles of the school. The school was well known by the “Perennial Philosophy”

or “Sophia Perennis”. The expression was coined decades before in several contexts. This

section spots some of the light on the perennialist school of thought that found by René

Guénon. Moreover, it tackles the significance and the impact of this school on the image of

Sufism in the western world (Fabbri).

Like the word spirituality, Perennial Philosophy is a newly adopted word to the

western world. According to Nasr view, Perennial Philosophy appeared for the first time in a

dialogue with Leibniz, during the Renaissance where they required him about the philosophy

he is following, he answered “the Perennial philosophy”, later facts proved that he himself

had took the expression from the Italian Agustinus Stenchius of the 16th C (Markwith 43).

In one of his discussions that are related to the subject, Oldeadow maintained that the

adjective perennial refers to an element that existed before and still existing, an element that is

32

perpetual for all times. In fact, “the perennial wisdom concerns all that is most profound and

common to all great religions. That truth, all that truths that lie at the heart of all religions and

which have always and always will lie at the heart of all religions” Lings completed.

As a matter of fact, Suhrawardi and other Persian philosophers were in the picture

centuries ago dealing with the subject of perennial philosophy. Later, the expression was

translated into Latin literally as “Prudentia Priscus” (Nasr). Yet, it was not put in practice until

the reawakening of the school by many French scholars like René Guenon who is considered

as the founding father of the philosophy in modern era along with Ananda Coomaraswany,

Frithjof Schuon and others (Fabbri). Nasr stated that England was involved gradually into the

perspective, especially with the publications of Aldous Huxley where he emphasized the

resemblances between the almost religions, gathering quotations from their sacred texts to

demonstrate its analogous construction.

In the United States, Sufism took different forms. Statistics affirmed that the number

of Sufis in America is increasing if compared to Europe. More than that, the seeming of

having a large amount of Sufis in America more than in Europe is correct; after all,

Americans are fascinated with Sufism due to its traditions of love and peace which are often

embodied in American art and literature. Therefore, the International Seminars on Sufi

Courses of Prose in Philadelphia, California, and New York helped in crystalizing the

phenomenon profoundly. The whirling dervishes and the Sama dance appeal by tourists as

well as spiritual seekers (Acim 66).

Dealing with the spiritual seekers, the period following the WW II in U.S. was

opulent. Regarding the Roosevelt’s policy, a relaxed economic and social situation marked

the period, mainly with the technological advancements that prospered during the 1950’s and

1960’s. TV and other electric equipment were in vogue at that time. What has been happening

33

in America during the 1929-1960 was in fact unique in the sense that the nation became a

superpower with immense capacities in the production of vehicles, steel, fabrics, and electric

machines (Farber & Bailey 5).

It is also important to emphasize the unusual birth of the “baby boomers” after the

WW II which later became very intellective, and hold decision-making positions. More, it is

worth to say that this generation was a mixture of various ethnic and racial groups.

Consequently, different multi ethic and multicultural groups personified the scene as Rachel

Prunchno pointed out (149, 151). Obviously, many cultural and religious movements emerged

such as the Beat movement and the Hippies. These movements were deeply influenced by the

eastern philosophy and poetry (Hart 63).

According to Hart’s view, the unrestricted privileges given to the Americans at that

time, the rebellious movements of segregation, and feminist voices permitted to change the

social customs of the nation. All helped in more engagement of eastern religions in American

culture. Therefore, the religious reforms of the era allowed its arrangement: Americans started

to be less interested in the prejudices of eastern faiths and culture. Another critical aspect to

consider is the restriction of the Quota Act of 1965, migration affected the American belief,

especially with the coming of spiritual leaders whom Americans start to adopt mystical

philosophies (64, 66).

In reality, Zen Buddhists, Hindu disciples, and Sufi clerics were the concerns of many

Beats first and the Hippies in the sixties. Transcendentalism and early literary romantic

movements were also influenced by these mystical norms. As such, American literature

contains significant norms of eastern cultures. In fact, poets like Henry David Thoreau, Ralph

Waldo Emerson and Whiteman were recognized as the Persians of Cambridge (Hart 66- 67).

34

The impressiveness of these cultural movements toward love and wisdom allowed

more tolerant communication with other religions. Spiritual experiences were frequent among

their practices and rituals. Hence, the New Age generation is often known as the generation of

spiritual seekers (Waston & Beck 264).

…bring with it an expanded consciousness, an acute awareness of psychic

realm and a deeper understanding of the purpose of living …it is awakening

people of sufficient development to the reality of one world, one creator, one

Universal Truth_ the eternal truth that there is no death and that love is the

unifying force of cosmic world. (qtd. in Waston & Beck 264 )

Islamic scholar ships quickly returned into a serious arena of study in America. Unlike

the European studies, the American studies of Islam tend to compare the different norms of

religion as well as Islamic mysticism, most notably after the upturn of Muslims in American

lands with the establishment of Committee on the Comparative Study of Muslim Societies in

1986. Not only Muslims were interested in such field, many Africans were converted to Islam

and adopted the Sufi beliefs (Hermansen 28, 32).

Influenced by the traditionalist school, American Perennialism also contributed to the

approach. It is Sayyad Hussein Nasr who symbolizes the propensity of Sufism with particular

analysis of the phenomena in this school of thought, Nasr’s interpretation seemed very

adequate for the Americans; however, it was weakened by some uncertainties within the

Islamic context. Emphasizing the divine unity of religion, Nasr and his followers like Morris,

Chittick, and Murata played a significant role in the arena along non-Muslim but Islamicists

intellectuals like Huston Smith and Victor Danner who was converted to Islam later on

(Hermansen 34- 35).

II- Oriental Sufism Vs American Transcendentalism: Comparative Study

35

A huge literature was written about the way in which oriental thoughts were

fascinating the American literature decades ago. The first chapter highlighted the last effects

of Persian poetry and prose on western writers. Not only their way of writings, but also their

private life and its impact. For instance, the modernist Ezra Pound named his son Omar Pound

after Omar Khayyam as well as the great Khayyamian occurrence in U.S. This section

investigates common aspects between Sufism and Transcendentalism.

Beyond the shadow of doubt, Transcendentalism is not only a literary movement that

became visible in the late 18th C. In fact, it is also related to the way people think coupled

with religious effort that stimulated in New England, such complex shift contains indeed

mystical ideas mixed with metaphysical thoughts, even Thoreau claimed its arduousness of

understanding in his entry of journal in March 1853

The secretary of the Association for the Advancement of Science requests me… to fill the blank against certain questions, among which the most important one was what branch of science I was specially instead in….I felt that it would be to make myself laughing-stock of the scientific community to describe them that branch of science which specially interests me, inasmuch as they do not believe in a science which deals with higher law. So I was obliged to speak to their condition and describe to them that poor part of me which alone can understand. The fact is a mystic, a transcendentalist, and a natural philosopher to boot. Now that I think of it, I should have told them at once that I was a transcendentalist. That would have been the shortest way of telling them what they would not understand my explanations. (Wilson 2)

Likewise, the so called “transcendentalists” were not structured in such manner they

depicted a literary movement or demonstrating a formal beliefs. Instead, they worked

autonomously asserting on some notions of ‘‘man’s place in the world”. In fact, at the very

beginning, Transcendentalism started to shape the form of fresh religion based on Platonian

and other prehistoric philosophies. Then, the introduction of Emerson’s essay the Nature

revolved it into more rational framework (Wilson 2-3).

36

The social developments of the time allowed more freedoms to the citizens, and

involved radical changes. Women’s suffrage movement and anti-slavery movement enhanced

social equality, and negated gender differences. The fact that led many to appreciate the

religious affiliation of Transcendentalism, especially that those transcendentalists opposed the

pro-slavery legislations in different manners, and many supported such abolitionist groups

(Manzari 1973).

Historically, American Transcendentalism witnessed social, political, and religious

developments that influenced its way of thinking. Religious activities and the tendency toward

eastern culture permitted less tolerance to many secularized groups that affect negatively the

society, mainly those people with lower income. Additional groups like Temperance

movement, which protested against “the body as Temple”, and corrupted deeds were among

the transcendentalists interests (Manzari 1974).

American Transcendentalism was, in effect, a ramification of European Romanticism

whereby they shared the same concerns in sensations and spirituality. Not only this, but also

guarantying an esteem for humankind, valorizing the human being, mainly after the Darwinist

Theory of the time. Actually, the movement flourished as a response to the materialistic life of

the late 18th, early 19th C and the promotion of spiritual emptiness (Wilson 7).

One might clearly notice the remarkable tenets between American transcendentalism

and oriental Sufism that can be summarized in different points:

Man: an Outlet to the Divine

According to Golkhosravi, mysticism; the core of both transcendental and Sufi

ideologies, tends to treat the divine and the human being as one. Unlike many religions that

detach the two, considering them as separate entities. In fact, this union is recognized through

37

an imaginary concept within the soul, by the evaporation of man in order to seek God, and

attaining self-recognition. Moreover, the representation of the Divine is incarnated within the

human sensations of mercy, friendliness, and gentleness. The two ideologies argue that “Man

is no longer a slave of God”, since their relationship is based on love. Therefore, God is

always referred as “the Divine Beloved” or “the Great Camerado”, mainly in the texts of

Rumi and Whitman as two giant figures representing the two given ideologies.

The Spiritual Journey

Among the frequent themes discussed in transcendentalist and Sufi texts, travel,

especially the emblematic one in which writers lay emphasis on the inward pilgrimage that

one can reach regardless to the geographical boundaries. In his journal (march21, 1840),

Thoreau highlighted the idea of traveling spiritually “Let us migrate interiorly without

intermission; and pitch our tent each day nearer the western horizon.” For instance, a trip

needs a vehicle to circulate far away from the actual locations, while the travel of mind

requires a sincere intention to be displaced into new locus (Wilson 144).

Simple Life vs Materialism

Taking into consideration the prosperity that America witnessed during the early 19th

C, many transcendentalists decided to live a humble life and escape the materialistic fortune.

Such themes are often characterized in Thoreau writings, whereby he tried to run over his

desires and necessities. In his first chapter of Walden “Economy”, Thoreau claimed that

“Most of luxuries, and many of the so-called comforts of life, are not only indispensable, but

positive hindrances to the evaluation of human kind”( Wilson 182).

38

Asceticism in the other hand is of great importance in the Sufi circles. According to

Far and Bozorgi, prophetic hadiths and Quranic verses often discussed these ascetics who

ignore the comfortable life. This passage is from Nahj al-Balaghah depicting austere men:

The God fearing in this world are the people of distinction. Their speech is to the point, their dress moderate and their gait is humble… The greatness of the Creator is seated in their hearts, and so, everything else appears small in their eyes… Their bodies are thin, their needs are scanty, and their souls are chaste… The world aimed at them, but they did not aim at it… He passes the night in fear and rises in the morning in joy… You will see his simple hopes, his shortcomings few, his heart fearing; his spirit contended, his meal small and simple, his religion safe, hi desires dead and his anger suppressed. (Nahj al- Balaghah 108- 109)

Death

According to Fehm’s view, death in the Islamic mystic tradition is a salvation. This

redemption is painful, and destined upon everybody (11). In most Sufi texts, death indicates

the one which will take the human into the “Abode of Light” as Rumi advocates. In her book I

am Wind, You Are Fire, Schimmel itemized that death helps in the elimination of all immoral

conducts that deprave the heart (12).

Die before you die, for every act of shedding off a quality is a small death ; every

sacrifice for the sake of others is another small death whereby the individual gains new

spiritual value; thus; in a series of deaths, the soul rises to immortality or to a level of

spiritualization that it has never dreamed of. (Schimmel 157-158)

Similar to Sufi ideology, transcendentalists clash with the idea that death is the

termination of life. According to them, death is an aspect of a regular process that helps in

change of nature and the transcendence of the soul to the eternity. Hence, their texts often

discussed themes of the generation after death (Wilson 170).

III- The Impact of Rumi in Western World: Versions and Translations

39

The previous sections examine how Sufism was enculturated into the western shores,

and the way its ideology shaped the exclusive American intellectual movement of the time,

from the historical and ideological point of views. The left sections analyze the impact of

Masnavi, the most influential Sufi heritage in America through its vast translations and

versions from a literary point of view.

The pseudo of Rumi of 13th C had and still mingling around the world; his six volumes

book of the Masnavi remained of grand significance until modern days. According to

Karimnia, Ebrahimezade, and Jafari, Sir William Jones was the first to introduce former

couplets of the Masnavi in English during a sermon in one of the Asiatic Associations (1791).

Later attempts to translate it in French by Jack Fan Walenburg rapidly failed (8536).

Years later, German orientalists became fascinated by the Persian poetry, particularly

the works of Hafiz and Rumi. Joseph Van Hammer Purgstall, and his student, Friedrish

Rückert tried to personify Rumi’s soul in a German physique, as a result their translations

gained certain fame and many poets were eager to write similar works. Not only poets but

clerics and thinkers like Karl Marx, Hegel and William Hastie were also attracted by Rückert

translation. In his “Encyclopedie der Philosphischen Wissenschaften dim Grundrisse”, Hegel

quoted about twenty one poems of Rumi and denoted him as “the excellent Jalal-ud din

Rumi” (Schimmel 310).

Redhouse, Nicholson, Whinfield, and Gupta’s translations are attempts to duplicate

the spiritual couplets of Rumi to the English audience. However, Redhouse translation

covered only one volume, and has frequently keen to criticism since it did not reflect Rumi’s

accurate meanings. Until the 1920’s, Whinfield’s work “Masnavi i Manavi, the spiritual

couplets of Mawlalna Jalalu‘d – Din Muhaammed I Rumi” was regarded as the preeminent

translation ever made. Yet, Nicholson efforts were more acknowledged. In fact, this British

40

orientalist had translated the whole work successfully. Though, his six book collections have

been judged for its word for word translation, and his inability to interpret Persian idioms (El-

Zein 73).

In the other hand, Gupta succeeded in understanding the Persian background, his

translation was rephrased and accompanied with some comments. Further efforts were made

in order to reproduce this masterpiece; however, most of the attempts were linked to

Nicholson’s translation, and generally are only seen as passages and selections from the entire

work (Karimnia, Ebrahimzade, and Jafari 8538).

According to El- Zein, academic translations of the Masnavi attracted other scholars.

In 1968, Arthur Arberry in the footsteps of his teacher Nicholson translated selections from

Rumi entitled Divan Rumi. However, his work was not published until his death in 1979

(73).Anne Marie Schimmel’s attraction to Islamic literature and Sufism pushed her to include

some of her personal passages in her book The Triumph Sun from the Masnavii. Regarding

Rumi’s impact on this German scholar, Schimmel wrote also her This is Love, a booklet that

contains extracts from the Masnavi. Later on, Chittick published a book entitled Sufi Path of

Love: Spiritual Teaching of Rumi which is in fact a mixture of his Divan Rumi and Mathnawi

(74).

Based on Nicholson’s translation, Kabir along with Camille Helminisky rephrased the

Masnavi with aesthetic language. Karminia maintained that the work of Helminisky was

separated into many selections. For instance, “Rumi: daylight” from the two first volumes,

while “Jewels of Remembrance” selections were picked out from the third and fourth books

(8539).

In an attempt to interpret Rumi’s poetry and introduce it to the public, Coleman Barks

and John Moyne with the help of Arberry’s translation tried to bring to light selections from

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the Mathnawi. It is important to note that this work is a unique version. Undeniably, the

Esssential Rumi gave to the oriental mystic of the 13th century extra fame, considering him as

the most favorable poet in the United States (El- Zein 75).

According to Azedibougar and Patton, Barks was able to translate considerable

selections from Rumi’s greatest work in seven years, however its publications were separated

into four books: Delicious Laughter (1989), One – hand Basket Weaving (1991) accompanied

with the Feeling the Shoulder of the Lion, months later. Finally, his best- selling book in 1995

the Essential Rumi (173).

Observing the Essential Rumi, Coleman Barks explained:

John Moyne and I try to be faithful to the images, the tone as we hear it, and

the spiritual information coming through. We have not tried to reproduce any

of the dense musicality of the Persian originals. It has seemed appropriate to

place Rumi in the strong tradition of American free verse. (qtd in El-Zein 75)

Ironically, his unfamiliarity with Persian culture and language did not prevent him

from introducing the “Rumi spirit” to the American society, in spite of the political conflicts

between Iran and USA at that time. Probably, Barks was the one who was completely aware

of the ‘spiritual hanger’. He tried to include the oriental mystical perceptions in American

dress that suit the need of his people. His interpretation was therefore a transfer of a deep

meaning of mystical dimensions to the western culture (Amiri, Araghi & Farjeni 43).

However, Coleman Barks has always been criticized for being skeptical to ‘the fidelity

principal’, falsifying some evidences about Rumi, his culture, and his inability to convey the

exact meaning of the Masnavi. Hassan Lahouti denounced Barks for neglecting the classical

literature, Islamic conceptions, and making Rumi typically American for commercial

purposes (Azadibougar & Patton 177). Arguing against such opponent view, Steiner affirmed

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that: “fidelity is not literalism or any technical device for rending ‘spirit’”. In other words,

Barks did not distort the original work; it is rather a kind of adaptation (Amiri et al. 43).

VI - The Rumi Phenomenon in United States

According to Richards and Omidivan, the U.S. counterculture movement of the sixties

induced a particular consideration to Rumi, especially “the young generation”, and liberal

groups in city centers. At that time, Rumi’s life and poems were widely regarded as a typical

American legacy, and rarely understood from an Islamic/ Sufi prospective (251).

With the publication of Harper Collins’ the Soul of Rumi, Rumi started to be

introduced to the Americans as an oriental poet and a cleric whose main emphasis is the

spiritual love. A topic that suits almost American readers. Paradoxically, this Iranian poet,

despite his religious background gained the interest of large population of the American

readership even after the 9/11 events, and Qaeda prejudices (Richards & Omidivan 251).

According to El- Zein, the prominence given to religion by Americans is a key factor

to discuss. From ancient times, the American thirst of religion was very common. In his book,

Harold Bloom, explained how Americans are verging on ‘recycling’ the sacred conducts that

they encounter in order to realize their own path. The aptitude given to Americans to imitate

spiritual creeds in their native context is broadly observed in the reproduction of Rumi poems,

which made the Americans ambitious whenever tackling American spirituality (82-83).

In the Silk Road Dance Company press statement (2005), Laurel Gray argued:

As one familiar with the culture and history of both East and West, I feel it is

imperative to use art to build a bridge of understanding between Americans and

the Islamic World. Instead of falling prey to a false notion of a “clash of

43

civilizations” we need to remember that East and West have interacted for

millennia, often crossing cultures with positive results. (qtd in Winegar 662)

According to Winegar’s view, the quotation indicates the attraction of the west to Islamic art,

and saw a necessity to recover modern cross-cultural relations (662).

This press release advocated more projects to involve the linking of the reciprocal

artistic consumptions between the two worlds and promoting harmony. For instance, The

Philadelphia Society of Art, Literature and Music involved a performance of Sufi music in

which its lyrics were characteristically inspired from Rumi poems. Evidently, such American

projects recognized Rumi’s oriental existence, and acclaimed his poems “Although he was a

devout Muslim, Rumi became a ‘Sufi’ and…although he was a devout Muslim, [Rumi]

embraced all people without distinction” (Winegar 666).

Winegar confirmed that the concentration in religious affairs led to conflicts, while

when people deal with culture, they are more likely to see artistic understanding. It is clear

here that Rumi is used as an ultimate form of Islam (666).

…While Islam is now seen by many as the enemy of western civilization (And

vice- versa), there exists an alternative to be found in Rumi’s peaceful path

called ‘Sufism’, within Islam, whose message may prove to be an elegant

solution to a – priori problems of a dangerous and unstable co – existence that

people of all nations now face. (qtd in Winegar 666)

In an interview with Coleman Barks, Andrew Lawter, a broadcaster in “The Sun

Magazine” demanded about the incredible pleasing of Rumi’s poetry, and how such poet

became the interest of large number of the American audience. Barks in return responded that

Rumi’s masterpieces are not first handed for the Americans; they are therefore similar to their

domestic writers’ works Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson, since those writings treat more

44

or less the widespread esoteric discourses and the ascetic ideas. He Added, the American

reception to a “Fluid yet Formal, lyric and narrative” is extensive and his poetry is a

combination of Miguel de Cervantes, John Milton, James Joyce, John Coltrane, and Robin

Williams’s texts which are often compatible with the “sense of humor”.

Questioning Barks view about Rumi, Lawter speculated if Rumi is held as poet or as a

mystic according to the Tennessee rhymester. Barks answered that Rumi for him indicates

both a Sufi who tend to enlighten the universe, and an unusual versifier. He even accredited

his mystical poems since words are not enough to understand the spiritual dimension unless

one experiences it.

The reception of Rumi poetry has been often explained due to three main factors: the

first covers the stylistic values. According to Mojaddedi, Rumi’s words attracted American

audience, because it speaks to readers directly, in seldom use of the pronoun “you”. Its

positive tone and imageries allowed more popularity to his works. In the other hand, Barks

associated this reception to Rumi’s sense of hilarity and to the amazing ‘imaginative

freshness’ (Azedibougar & Patton 175).

According to Ghabool, the spiritual vacuum is also another important push factor that

one should take in consideration, regarding to the materialistic demands and uncommon

opulence that America lived at that time; readers started enjoying the unique “verbalization”

of mystic poems of Rumi. In addition to that, Rumi addressed everybody with his spiritual

accent (703).

However, both aspects are not persuasive enough, since there is a huge amount of

American literary heritage that bears aesthetic devices. For Rumi spiritual appeal, there are

also other Persian and mystic poets that did not attain the same admiration as Rumi did. To

clarify Rumi’s fame, one should take in consideration the various translations made whether

45

scholarly or a non-scholarly version. This point is widely discussed whenever mentioning

Essential Rumi case, in which the writer tried to adapt Rumi’s “high culture” to a “popular”

one. Coleman Barks himself maintained that “international formal and linguistic changes have

been carried out” in this work (Azedibougar & Patton 176). In other words, Barks formed a

dissimilar Rumi that boomed the American bookstores, but also a mystical element close to

the American culture and which fit the American taste of spirituality.

The Rumi phenomenon stretched beyond the admiration of powerful words, the

pseudo of Rumi attracts the nowadays tarock devotees in US, almost tarot and reiki “cards”

are referring to Rumi. Quickly Rumi started to occupy a hi-tech domains, in addition to

modern American artists be they actors, painters, poets, singers…etc. and which often

subordinate Rumi within their creative works. Rumi has been associated also to technological

arena. For example, Robert Wilson and Philip Glass formulated a musical comedy under the

name of “Monsters of Grace”. This musical comedy is envisioned with 3D glasses and is

composed of 114 of Rumi’s poems (Richards & Omidivan 252).

Far away from the arty planet, the American physiotherapist, Deepak Chopra,

acknowledged by spiritual remedial skills, used Rumi’s words combined with music in a CD

album to cure his passions. Amazingly, Rumi had also joined food matters. A nutrition

corporation located found in Plymouth Michigan entitled “Rumi’s passion” dedicated for

gluten-free cooking. The latter depend on Rumi Sufi tradition of pureness to acquire “natural

and pure eating habits”. This company has very decisive role, especially that large number of

Americans encountered digestive illnesses. Otherwise, in nearly major American cities there

are cafeterias and restaurants allied to Rumi with particular Turkish and Iranian gastronomy

(Richards & Omidivan 525).

46

Conclusion

The writings of Ibn-al Arabi in Andalusia proved that Sufism survived in the western

shores centuries ago. Gradually, it stretched to Southern Europe, Bosnia, and Russia. In the

early19th C, colonial powers started investigating the cultural traditions of the colonized

people. Quickly, Islamic mysticism became the interest of British orientalists, who conducted

serious studies about Sufism. Of course, views differed between those who acknowledged its

relation to Islam and those who dismissed it.

Sufism emerged in America due to several elements: migrations from Asia and North

Africa, and multiculturalism there led Islamic mysticism to be accessible in U.S. American

amendments which admitted the liberty of worshiping gave Sufi path extra privileges to

infiltrate in the heart states of the nation. Moreover, the use of “the killer language” as a

universal tongue promoted for a huge production of Sufi literature in English. Furthermore,

gender equality enhanced the participation of women in the Sufi phenomenon. Lastly, the use

of TV and internet made Islamic mysticism very common for the Americans.

In Europe, the existence of Sufism can be explained in terms of the multiplicity of

several forms of Islam, which did not prevent Islamic mysticism from its spread; even the

secularized category of Muslims comprises Sufi believers. Yet, Sufis are generally classified

among the Muslim Mainstream. In addition to their association with the European society,

Sufis interacted in health care domains and education by insisting on moralities, ethics, and

meditation.

The historical events in U.S. during the sixties allowed more tolerance to Sufism. The

social and economic prosperity caused an emotional vacuum. As a result, many cultural and

religious groups started to adopt eastern ideologies in order to accomplish such ‘spiritual

hanger’. Furthermore, Transcendentalism, the literary American movement shared with

47

Sufism similar notions in which both emphasized on the union with the divine through

spiritual travel. Both ideologies call for the perfection of men through good deeds, mercy?

and gentleness. Finally, asceticism which is prominent is both dogmas neglect prosperous life.

The impact of Rumi worldwide is traceable to different translations starting from

Hommer Purgustal and Rückert. Progressively, Rumi’s works start to attracted academic

orientalists like Nicholson who translated the whole six books of the Masnavi, and promoted

for other innovative translations. Arberry, Schimmel, and Chittick are scholars whose efforts

to translate extracts from the Masnavi are of great value. Later on, Barks and Helminisky

rephrased it with an entertainment language, the selections than gained remarkable profits.

The selections of Rumi’s Masnavi by Harper Collins House of Publication introduced

for the audience an oriental Rumi. As a result, American sympathized with his religion

despite their Muslim anti- feelings. Such poems which reflect Rumi’s soul served as a bridge

to reduce the gap between both civilizations. The incredible response to Rumi’s poems returns

to three reasons: first, its aesthetic language used in the selections. Second, the need for

spiritual motivation which Rumi’s writings cover in unbelievable performance. Last, Coleman

Barks translation, which despite its interaction to foreign ideologies kept the American

perfume.

Beyond literature, Rumi has been associated to technological domains too. A play

intended to be viewed by 3D glasses contains poems of Rumi. In the entertainment centers,

reiki and tarots are denoting Rumi in their cards. While some restaurants and cafés are named

after Rumi. In medicine, therapists arranged Rumi’s poems in juxtaposition with relaxed

music to treat passion

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General Conclusion

To sum up, religions interplay and interface everywhere; they are not defined by

geographical boundaries or political creeds. This is clearly seen in Sufism in which it was

influenced in early stages by many monotheistic religions and other eastern mystical

traditions. Sooner, it becomes more dependable due to Islam and its holy book; many studies

proved that Quran contributed in the flourishment of this tradition.

Similarities between Christian mysticism and Islamic mysticism are noticeable,

especially in terms of divinity, and the unity with the beloved. However, distortion in Jesus

religion made its mystical path less reliable if compared by Islamic one, since believers treat

Jesus himself as a deity. Yet, their principles are still accepted, because Christianity retained

somehow its Semitic roots.

The Sufi ideology has been subject to various judgements. Emphasizing on

eschatology and theosophical matters led many critics to accuse Islamic mysticism by

paganism. Moreover, those local orders with shaky beliefs contributed negatively to the

dogma. However, its attempt to develop a perfect man is often glazed.

The western tendency to Sufism can be understood from a literary point of view too,

the various translations of Sufi literature made Islamic mysticism accessible to the whole

world in variety of languages. Goethe, Emerson, and Fitzgerald exposed to the western public

an oriental civilization through examining spirituality with target techniques. Efforts to

introduce another culture for the audience denied the fact which purports that reading a work

in a foreign language is less significant.

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Sufi literature in general for both realms of the sphere played crucial role in serving

instructive lessons and providing moralities. Hence, its mystical compositions allowed

additional interpretations for metaphysical texts, and opened a window on Islamic art and

culture. Furthermore, its different forms concerning rhymes and verse orders added a

beautiful touch to this genre and made it pleasant for readers.

From medieval period, Sufism was the core of Moorish culture, later on; it extended

to southern Europe and stagnated after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. With the coming

of colonialism, Sufism returned to be significant, especially with the scholarship conducted by

British orientalists. The study in fact investigates the culture and the origin of third world

countries.

In America, Sufism appeared due to several factors: the existence of multi ethnic and

multi-cultural groups afforded a sympathetic view to Islamic mysticism. The globalization

process and the supremacy of English language permitted the production of Sufi literature in

target languages. Furthermore, gender equality enhanced the participation of women in the

Sufi phenomenon. Lastly, the use of mass media and social made Sufism available in different

parts of USA.

Remarkably, oriental Sufism and American transcendentalism shared identical

characteristics. Transcendental ideology while intensifying the ideas of perfection and the

relation between God and man, Transcendentalism came in touch with thoughts of the Sufis.

During the sixties, the social and economic opulence that America survived, initiated a

spiritual crises. As a result, many cultural and religious groups accepted eastern spirituality

and anti- materialism in order to fulfill this emptiness.

Rumi’s influence was identified through several versions and translations, starting

from German poets like Hommer Purgustal and Rückert. Progressively, Rumi works begin to

50

attract academic orientalists like Nicholson, Reedhouse, Schimmel and Chittick .The Masnavi

quickly gained a lot of acknowledgements, especially with Barks and Helminisky versions

which reformulated it into more amusement jargon, the selections than gained remarkable

profits.

After Barks publication of the Essential Rumi, Rumi was introduced for the first time

to the American audience as Muslim mystic. His popularity canonized him not only in

cultural context, but also offered a tolerant view to Islam later on. The astonishing reception

of Rumi’s poems returns to three reasons: first, its aesthetic techniques used in the selections.

Second, the need for mystical inspiration, the last is frequently embodied in almost Rumi’s

poetry. Finally, Barks version, which promoted enjoyable compositions with the “sense of

humor but generally kept the American perfume.

The phenomenon of Rumi has been allied also to medical domains. Physicians used

Rumi poems with a calm music as healing against anxiety, cards used in reiki and tarot games

referred to Rumi. In high- tech arena, plays are interdentally formed to be viewed with 3D

glasses; these operas comprise poems of Rumi. Not surprisingly, restaurants and teashops are

named after Rumi.

To conclude, Rumi despite his Islamic and oriental origins gained fame in U.S. The

spiritual thirst that America suffered from, allowed the Sufi literature to fulfill this spectrum.

By doing so, it represented Islam in a Well-dressed way, in which it re-tainted its false image

in the west, and decreased the so called Islamophobia in USA, mainly after the attacks of the

twin towering.

51

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