Lagapa, Fatima Q. MAED 2 EnglishEnglish 103 ( 8:00-10:00/ Fri.-Sat.)Advance Speech and Public Speaking

Lesson No.1The Principles in Teaching the Sound System of a Language

Learning a second or a foreign language is more than learning a description of it. It is developing the ability to use the language on habit level. This is true of not only second language learning but also of first language learning. Fundamentally, all language learning involves the processes of listening, speaking, reading and writing. These processes involve both linguistic and psychological aspects. This leads us to understand that all language learning is based on certain well-defined principles derived from linguistic science as well as psychological science. In the following paras, these principles have been discussed.GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING the Sound System of a Language(Principles Derived from the Linguistic Science)

The modern approach to all language learning and teaching is the scientific one and is based on sound linguistic principles. The principles discussed below in no way claim finality : they are subject to change in the light of new facts exposed by linguists and language users. These principles are general principles and are applicable to English language.

Principle 1. Give Priority to Sounds: The sounds of English should receive priority. Sounds should be given their due place in the scheme of teaching. Sounds should not be presented in isolation. They should appear in proper expressions and sentences spoken with the intonation and rhythm which would be used by a native speaker.

Principle 2. Present Language in Basic Sentence Patterns:Present, and have the students memorize, basic sentence patterns used in day to day conversation. From small utterances the students can easily pass on to longer sentences. In case of learning mother-tongue, the students memory span can retain much longer sentences than those of a foreign language. The facility thus gained in a foreign language enables the learners expand the grasp of the language material in respect of sounds and vocabulary items.

Principle 3. Language Patterns as Habits.Real language ability is at the habit level. It does not just mean knowing about the language. Make language patterns as habit through intensive pattern practice in variety of situations. The students must be taught to use language patterns and sentence constructions with appropriate vocabulary at normal speed for communication. In fact the habitual use of the most frequently used patterns and items of language, should take precedence over the mere accumulation of words.

Principle 4. Imitation.Imitation is an important principle of language learning. No leaner by himself ever invented language. Good speech is the result of imitating good models. The model should be intelligible. Imitation followed by intensive practice helps in the mastery of the language system.

Principle5.Controlled Vocabulary.Vocabulary should be kept under control. Vocabulary should be taught and practised only in the context of real situations. This way, meaning will be clarified and reinforced.

Principle 6. Graded Patterns:To teach a language is to impart a new system of complex habits, and habits are acquired slowly. (R.Lado) So, language patterns should be taught gradually, in cumulative graded steps. This means, the teacher should go on adding each new element or pattern to previous ones. New patterns of language should be introduced and practised with vocabulary that students already know.

Principle 7. Selection and Gradation:Selection of the language material to be taught is the first requisite of good teaching. Selection should be done in respect of grammatical items and vocabulary and structures.

Selection of language itemsshould involvefrequency(how often a certain item or word is used)range(in what different contexts a word or an item can be used)coverage(how many different meanings a word or an item can convey)availability(how far an item is convenient to teach)learnability(how far an item is easy to learn)teachability(how far and item is easy to teach - in the social context)

Gradation of the language materialmeans placing the language items in an order. Grading involvesgroupingandsequence.Groupingconcerns (i) the system of language, and (ii) its structures. Grouping the system of language means what sounds, words, phrases and meanings are to be taught.Thus we have:(i)Phonetic grouping,i.e.grouping according to sounds. For example, words having the same sound are placed in the one group as,cat, bat, mat, pat, fat, sat; it, bit, fit, hit, kit, it,etc.

(ii)Lexical grouping,i.e.,grouping according to lexical situations.Example:school, teacher, headmaster, peon, class-room, library.All these words are grouped around school.

(iii)Grammatical grouping,i.e.,grouping according to similar patterns as, my book/ his book, (pattern grouping): in the room, in the corner/ in the class/in the garden, etc. (phrase grouping)

(iv)Semantic grouping,i.e.,grouping according to meaning.Example:school, college, university; bicycle, rickshaw, car,tonga, train, aeroplane,etc,.

(v)Structure grouping,i.e.,grouping in the structures means how the selected items fit one into the other-the sounds into the words, the words into phrases, the phrases into the clauses and sentences, and the sentences into the context.

Sequencemeanswhatcomesafter what.Sequence should be there in the arrangement of sounds (phonetic sequence), phrases (grammatical sequence) words (lexical sequence) and in meaning (semantic sequence). Sequence of structures implies direction, expansion, variation and length of the structures.

Principle 8. TheOral Way.Experts believe that the oral way is the surest way to language learning. Prof. Kittson rightly observes,. Learning to speak a language is always the shortest road to learning to read and write it. Prof Palmer also writes,. We should refrain from reading and writing any given material until we have learnt to use its spoken form.

Principle 9. Priorities of Language Skills:Listening (with understanding), speaking, reading and writing are the four fundamental skills. Listening and speaking areprimaryskills, while reading and writing aresecondaryskills.Readingand writing are reinforcement skills. They reinforce what has been learnt through understanding and speaking. In fact, understanding and speaking speed up the reading process. Writing should be introduced after reading.

Principle 10. Multiple Line of Approach:The term multiple line implies that one is to proceed simultaneously from many different points towards the one and the same end. We should reject nothing except the useless material and should selected judiciously and without prejudice all that is likely to help in our work. In teaching a language, it implies attacking the problem from all fronts. Say, for example, there is a lesson on Holidays in the text book. The teacher can have a number of language activities connected with the topic such as oral drill, reading, sentence writing, composition, grammar, translation, language exercises etc.

Principle 11. Language Habit through Language Using:A language is best learnt through use in different contexts and situations. Prof. Eugene A. Nida rightly observes, Language learning means plunging headlong into a series of completely different experiences. It means exposing oneself to situations where the use of language is required. Another expert expresses a similar opinion by saying: Learning a language means forming new habits through intensive practice in tearing and speaking. The emphasis should always be on language in actual use.

Principle 12 Spiral Approach.The spiral approach to language learning should be followed. Previously taught vocabulary and structures should be reintroduced in subsequent units whenever logical or possible. This is spiral approach.

Principle 13. Use Mother-tongue Sparingly. The mother-tongue should be sparingly and judiciously used during teaching English. Of course, at the early stage, some explanations will have to be given in pupils mother tongue. It is important that students do not use their mother-tongue in the classroom.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING ENGLISH

It will not be out of place to list down certain principles which have been derived from the science of psychology.Principle 1. Motivation.Motivation is an important factor in language learning, particularly in learning a second language. It creates interest as well as the need to learn the language in hand. If the need for the language we use is felt, it is learnt easily. Pupils interest can be aroused in a number of ways, and language learning can be made increasingly interesting and attractive. It can be done with the help of pictures, charts, models, flash cards, black board sketches and similar other visual devices. The use of tape-recorder can be most effective in the teaching of pronunciation. The aim is to have the students maximally exposed to the target language in variety of contexts and situations, not in isolation. The teacher should prompt connections, feedback and correct errors, if any. The rule isteach, test, reteach, retest.The teacher should make continual and significant use of language material in class-room situations. Palmer suggests the following six factors which lead to motivate and create interest among children:(i) The limitation of bewilderment,that is, minimum of confusion;(ii) The sense of progress achieved;(iii) Competitions;(iv) Game-like exercises;(v) The right relation between teacher and student; and(vi) Variety.

Principle 2. Immediate Correction.Do make corrections. Corrections make all the difference. They help in improving pupils responses. But remember, when corrections are made, they should be made immediately. Moreover, the corrections should be made in such a way as will bring about learning and not frustration or discouragement.

Principle 3. ReinforcementImmediate reinforcement is an important principle. It has been experimentally proved that reinforcement of correct responses helps in better learning. The student should be told his response is correct immediately after it is given by him.

Principle 4. Frequent Review.An important psychological principle is the principle of frequent review. Frequent review and re-entry of the same material is necessary for retention. During the process of reviewing, variations in material should be essentially be introduced and practiced.

Principle 5. Correct Responses.It is an important psychological principle that classroom activities should strengthen the language skills. The techniques used by the teacher of English should encourage the maximum rate of correct responses. This will give children the feeling of success, achievement and assured progress.

Principle 6. Practice in Everyday Situations.A language is best learnt when its need is felt in everyday situations. So, English should be practiced in every day situations with which children can easily identify.In short, the children, their environment and their experiences, should be the starting point. Let them recall (and, they should be helped, if they fail) something familiar which is related to or contrasts with a new language item to be learnt.These are, then, some of the basic principles of language learning and teaching. These principles are in no way dictative: they are only suggestive.

Remember then.(i)Teach the language, not about the language.(ii)Teach the language, not its written system (at the start).(iii)Teach the language, as it is, not as any one thinks it to be.(iv)Teach the language, not its literature.(v)Teach the language as it is now, not in term of its history.(vi)Teach the language as a skill, not as an intellectual task.(vii)Teach the language in varied, interesting situations.(viii)Give maximum exposure.(ix) Give vocabulary its due place.(x)Use mother-tongue as a tool, not a medium.(xi)Immediately reinforce correct response.

Lagapa, Fatima Q. MAED 2 EnglishEnglish 103 ( 8:00-10:00/ Fri.-Sat.)Advance Speech and Public Speaking

Lesson No. 2The Speech Mechanism

Our interest in learning this speech production is that how different articulators such as tongue, lips, jaw and otherspeech organs are involved in making sound. Speech can be defined as waves of air pressure created by airflow pressed out of the lungs and going out through the mouth and nasalcavities. The air passes through the vocal folds (chords) via the path from the lungs through the vocal tract,vibrating the mat different frequencies. A simplified diagramof human vocal system is given below. Some of the mainarticulators and their functions are also explained.

1) The Vocal tractHaving passed through the larynx, the air willundergo further changes as it makes its way upwards towards the mouth. The air passages above the larynx are known as the vocal tract. The vocal tract can be divided into the oral tract (the mouth and pharynx), and the nasal tract (within thenose). On average, the total length ofthe vocal tract (from the larynx to the lips/nostrils) is some 17 cm. (in men). Theupper cavities of the pharynx, mouth and nose are called the resonating cavities. The parts of the vocal tract that canbe used to form sounds are calledarticulators. The latter can be subdivided into active (those that move, e.g.tongue) and passive (those that are fixed, e.g. hard palate). Most sounds are produced with at least one active and passive articulator. When an articulator interacts withanother, its said to articulate with it. For instance, in the production of the sound /b/,the lower lip articulates with the upper lip.

2) The PharynxThe pharynx is a funnel-shaped muscle tube of8-12cm in length. It stretches from the larynx and the passage between the pharynx and thestomach, past the epiglottis and the root of the tongue, tothe area in the rear ofthe velum. A muscle keeps the passage between the pharynx andthe stomach closed except when swallowing.

3) The GlottisThe Glottis (or epiglottal fold) isa leaf-like cartilage which is attached to the anterior (forward) part of thethyroid cartilage, and to the root of thetongue. Its primary function is to cover the entrance to the larynx during swallowing, thus preventing food from entering the trachea. As theepiglottis is joined with theroot ofthe tongue, the whole can be drawn back and down towards the wall of the pharynx in the production of special sounds(for instance, Arabicpharyngeal sounds).

4) The VelumThe velum is a thin sheet composed of muscle fibres, tissue, blood vessels,nerves, and glands. Its main function is toseparate the nasal cavity from the oralcavity (the mouth). If the velum is raised, it presses against the posterior (back) wall ofthe pharynx, and prevents air from going through the nose. This is knownas velic closure , and occurs in the production of so calledoral sounds. If the velum is lowered, air passes through both the nose and mouth. Ifa lowered velum is combinedwith an obstruction at some point in the oral cavity, the resultant sound is nasal. Sounds which are pronounced with simultaneous oral and nasal articulation are saidto be orinasal. It has to be said that many people do not fully raise their velum in the production of oral sounds, which means there is some escapeof air through the nasal cavity. Speakers who habituallyleave the velumtoo much downproduce what is known as nasalized speech, which is commonly called a nasal twang. This type ofnasalized speech can also be heard when people have a cold, for instance. If one is unable to make an effective closure because the soft palateitself is defective or because an abnormal opening in theroof of the mouth gives access to thenasal cavity(as is the case for instance in people with a cleft palate), there will be an over all nasalization of the vowels and thefailure to pronounce, for instance, /b/, /g/, /d/.Sounds like /g/ or /k/, whereby the back ofthe tongue is in contact withthe lower side of the velum are calledvelar consonants.

5) The TongueThe tongue is the most mobile articulator(with the tip, for instance, being capable of movements of up to 9 times per second) and can take up an almost limitless number ofpositions, both vertically andlaterally. The versatility ofthe tongue can also be felt during eating as its main physical function is to move the food around in the mouth and pharynx during chewingand swallowing. The tongue is theprincipal agent in the formation of vowelsounds. The various parts of the tongue are(from back to front):root back (the part facing the soft palate) front (opposite the hard palate) blade (the part facingthe teeth-ridge) tip(apex). The edges of thetongue are called the rims. In the production of vowels, the tongue tipusually remains low behind the lower teeth.

6) The Teeth and LipsThe teeth, particularly the various upper teethare very important for the production of many consonants, like the initial sounds in the English words this(/DIs/)and thing (/TIN/).The lips which are fleshy folds consisting of tissue, blood vessels, glands, nerves and muscle assist in the formation ofboth vowels and consonants. For vowels, for instance, it is important to knowwhether they are rounded(e.g. /u:/ in doom) or spread (e.g. /i:/in heed). They can also bepressed together they produced bilabial sounds (e.g. /p/, /b/), or the lowerlip can articulate with theupper teeth, resulting inlabiodental sounds (e.g. /f/,/v/).Only the lower teeth and lip can move since they are attached to the lower jaw (or mandible). The latter is connected to the skull through ajoint, located justbefore the entranceto the ear. You can easily feel the hinge movement if you hold a finger near the forward part of the outer opening of the earwhile raising and loweringyour jaw.

7) The NoseThe nose, or nasal cavity,is divided into two cavities i.e. the nostrils - bya central bone, known as theseptum. The roof of the nasal cavity isvery narrow, whereas the flooris smooth and relativelywide. The sidewalls are extremely irregular. At the back, the nasal cavity leads intothe nasopharynx (see above), which, as we have seen, can be shut offfrom the oropharynx by means of the velum.The main biological functions of the nose are the humidification and heating of the air during respiration. In addition, it actsas a filter.

8) LarynxSound is generated in the larynx, and that is where pitch and volume are manipulated. The strength of expiration from thelungs also contributes to loudness. Fine manipulation of the larynx is used to generate asource sound with a particular fundamental frequency, or pitch. This source sound is altered as it travelsthrough the vocal tract configured differently based on the position of the tongue, lips, mouth and pharynx. The process of altering a source sound as itpasses through the filter of the vocal tract creates the many different vowel and consonant sounds of the world's languages as well as the tone.

Lagapa, Fatima Q. MAED 2 EnglishEnglish 103 ( 8:00-10:00/ Fri.-Sat.)Advance Speech and Public Speaking

Lesson No.3-AThe International Phonetic Alphabet vs. The Roman Alphabet

OriginThe IPA was first published in 1888 by the Association Phontique Internationale (International Phonetic Association), a group of French language teachers founded by Paul Passy. The aim of the organisation was to devise a system for transcribing the sounds of speech which was independent of any particular language and applicable to all languages.A phonetic script for English created in 1847 by Isaac Pitman and Henry Ellis was used as a model for the IPA.Uses The IPA is used in dictionaries to indicate the pronunciation of words. The IPA has often been used as a basis for creating new writing systems for previously unwritten languages. The IPA is used in some foreign language text books and phrase books to transcribe the sounds of languages which are written with non-latin alphabets. It is also used by non-native speakers of English when learning to speak English.

Where symbols appear in pairs, the one on the right represents a voiced consonant, while the one on the left is unvoiced. Shaded areas denote articulations judged to be impossible.

Lagapa, Fatima Q. MAED 2 EnglishEnglish 103 ( 8:00-10:00/ Fri.-Sat.)Advance Speech and Public Speaking

Lesson No.3-BThe Roman Alphabet

OriginThe Latin (or, as it is also called, Roman) alphabet appeared in the 7th century BC as an adaptation of the Etruscan alphabet to the Latin language. The Etruscans themselves borrowed their alphabet from the Greek colonists in Italy; the origin of theGreek alphabetis traced through Phoenician scripts to the North Semitic alphabet, which was already in use in Syria and Palestine during the 12th c. BC.There was a common spread opinion, shared even by some contemporary scholars, that the Latin characters were derived directly from the Greek ones. This hypothesis rested on the evident correspondence between the Latin alphabet and the Chalcidian variety of the western group of Greek scripts used at Cumae in Campania, southern Italy. It seems, anyway, inconsistent, because the name of the letters are clearly of Etruscan and not of Greek origin (a, be, ce, deetc. and notalpha, betha, gamma,deltaetc.) and because of the specific representation in the most ancient documents of the [f] sound by the combination FH, which was peculiar to the Etruscan writing system.The earliest inscription in Latin characters, dating from the 7th century BC, was made on golden brooch known as Praeneste Fibula (preserved now in theMuseo Preistorico Etnografico Luigi Pigoriniin Rome). It is written from right to left and reads:MANIOS:MED:FHEFHAKED:NUMASIOI(in Classical Latin:Manius me fecit Numerio)Manius made me for Numerius.Another inscription, dating from the end of the 7th or the beginning of the 6th century BC, was engraved on a small pillar (cippus) found in the Roman Forum. It is written vertically on the four faces of the pillar in bustrophedon style. Another inscription, probably of the 6th century BC, was discovered near the Quirinal Hill in Rome. It is known as the Duenos Vase and like the Praeneste Fibula is also written from right to left. These inscriptions are generally considered to be the oldest extant examples of the Latin alphabet.Originally the Latin alphabet consisted of the following 21 letters:A B C D E F Z H I K L M N O P Q R S T V XAbout 250 BC the letter Z was dropped because in the Latin of this period there was not a specific sound that would require its usage. On the other hand, a new letter, G, made by adding a bar to the lower end of C, was placed in the position of Z. After the 1st century BC, when the Greek-speaking world was incorporated into theorbis Romanum, a large number of Greek words penetrated the Latin language. At the time of Cicero and Caesar the symbols Y and Z were introduced from the contemporary Greek alphabet and were placed at the end of the alphabet. Their usage was initially restricted to transliterate Greek words only, as the popular Latin name for Y i graeca suggests (this name is preserved in modern Frenchi grecqueand modern Spanishi griega, for instance), and thay do not appear in ordinary Latin inscriptions. Thus, at the beginning of the Christian era the Latin script had 23 letters:A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y ZThree new letters were permanently added to the alphabet during the Middle Ages. The semivocal pronunciation of I and V before vowels like [j] and [w] became clearly consonantic [dJ] and [v] respectively and this change was reflected in the writing. For long time there was a practice among the scribes to write I and V with some modifications like J and U, though they used them interchangeably for either the vowel or the consonant sound. At last this practice was conventionalized, so that U and I were written for the vowels and V and J for the consonants. Before the establishing of this conventionalization Spanish and French introduced an unpronounceable h at the beginning of words whose first letter v, followed by a vowel, was to be read [u], and in this manner there was formed a syllable and the reading of [u] and not of [v] assured; this usage is still preserved in the modern orthography,cf. Sp.huevo