Spanish Civil WarPart of Interwar period

Republican International Brigadiers at the Battle ofBelchite ride on a T-26 tank

Date 18 July 1936 1 April 1939(2 years, 8 months, 2 weeks and 1 day)

Location Peninsular Spain, ExtrapeninsularSpain, Spanish Morocco,Mediterranean, Spanish Guinea, NorthSea

Result Nationalist victory

End of the Second SpanishRepublicBeginning of Franco's rule

Belligerents Republican

Popular Front CNT/FAI UGT ERC / EC EG (193637) PG

Supported by

Soviet Union Mexico Foreign

Nationalist

Falange Carlists

(193637) CEDA (1936

37) Alfonsists

(193637)

Supported by

Italy Germany

Spanish Civil WarFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Spanish Civil War (Spanish: Guerra CivilEspaola)[nb 2] was fought from 17 July 1936 to 1 April1939 between the Republicans, who were loyal to thedemocratically elected Spanish Republic, and theNationalists, a rebel group led by General FranciscoFranco. The Nationalists prevailed, and Franco ruledSpain for the next 36 years, from 1939 until his death in1975. The war is often called the dress rehearsal forWorld War II.

The war began after a pronunciamiento (declaration ofopposition) by a group of generals of the SpanishRepublican Armed Forces, under the leadership of JosSanjurjo, against the elected, leftist government of theSecond Spanish Republic, at the time under theleadership of President Manuel Azaa. The rebel coupwas supported by a number of conservative groups,including the Spanish Confederation of the AutonomousRight,[nb 3] monarchists such as the religiousconservative (Catholic) Carlists, and the FascistFalange.[nb 4][7]

The coup was supported by military units in Morocco,Pamplona, Burgos, Valladolid, Cdiz, Crdoba, andSeville. However, rebelling units in important citiessuch as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Mlagawere unable to capture their objectives, and thosecities remained under the control of the government.Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided. TheNationalists, now led by General Francisco Franco, andthe Republican government fought for control of thecountry. The Nationalist forces received munitions andsoldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while theSoviet Union and Mexico intervened in support of the"Loyalist", or "Republican", side. Other countries, suchas Britain and France, operated an official policy of non-intervention, although France did send in somemunitions.

The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in thesouth and west, capturing most of Spain's northerncoastline in 1937. They also besieged Madrid and thearea to its south and west for much of the war. Capturinglarge parts of Catalonia in 1938 and 1939, the war endedwith the victory of the Nationalists and the exile ofthousands of leftist Spaniards, many of whom fled torefugee camps in southern France. Those associated with

volunteers Portugal Turkey[1][2]

Foreign volunteers

Commanders and leadersRepublican leaders

Manuel Azaa Julin Besteiro Francisco Largo

Caballero Juan Negrn Indalecio Prieto

Vicente Rojo Lluch Jos Miaja

Juan Modesto Juan Hernndez

Saravia Carlos Romero

Gimnez Buenaventura

Durruti Llus Companys Jos Antonio

Aguirre Alfonso Castelao

Nationalist leaders Jos Sanjurjo Emilio Mola

Francisco Franco Juan Yage

Miguel Cabanellas Manuel Goded

Llopis Manuel Hedilla Manuel Fal

Cond Gonzalo Queipo de

Llano Mohamed

Meziane

Strength450,000 infantry350 aircraft200 batteries(1938)[3]

600,000 infantry600 aircraft290 batteries(1938)[4]

Casualties and lossesestimated 500,000 killed[5][nb 1]

450,000 fled[6]

the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victoriousNationalists. With the establishment of a dictatorship ledby General Francisco Franco in the aftermath of the war,all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of theFranco regime.[7]

The war became notable for the passion and politicaldivision it inspired, and for the atrocities committed byboth sides. Organized purges occurred in territorycaptured by Franco's forces to consolidate the futureregime.[8] A smaller but significant number of killingstook place in areas controlled by the Republicans,normally associated with a breakdown in law andorder.[9] The extent to which Republican authoritiesconnived in Republican territory killings varied.[10][11]

Contents1 Background2 Military coup

2.1 Preparations2.2 Beginning of the coup2.3 Outcome

3 Combatants3.1 Republicans3.2 Nationalists3.3 Other factions

4 Foreign involvement4.1 Support for the Nationalists

4.1.1 Germany4.1.2 Italy4.1.3 Portugal4.1.4 Others

4.2 Support for the Republicans4.2.1 International Brigades4.2.2 Soviet Union4.2.3 Mexico4.2.4 France

5 Course of the war5.1 19365.2 1937

5.3 19385.4 1939

6 Evacuation of children7 Atrocities

7.1 Nationalists7.2 Republicans

8 Social revolution9 Art and propaganda10 Timeline11 People12 Political parties and organizations13 See also14 References

14.1 Notes14.2 Citations14.3 Bibliography and books by notedauthors

15 Further reading16 External links

16.1 Images and films16.2 Academics and governments16.3 Other16.4 Archives

BackgroundAt the end of the 19th century, the owners of large estates, called latifundia, held most of the power in aland-based oligarchy. The landowners' power was unsuccessfully challenged by the industrial and merchantsectors.[12] In 1868, popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon. In1873, Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated due to increasing politicalpressure, and the short-lived First Spanish Republic was proclaimed.[13][14] After the restoration of theBourbons in December 1874,[15] Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy.[16][17]Alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bringrepublicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute.[18] Growing resentment ofconscription and of the military culminated in the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909.[19]

Spain was neutral in the First World War. Afterwards the working class, the industrial class, and the militaryunited in hopes of removing the corrupt central government, but were unsuccessful.[20] Fears of communismgrew.[21] A military coup brought Miguel Primo de Rivera to power in 1923, and he ran Spain as a militarydictatorship.[22] Support for his regime gradually faded, and he resigned in January 1930. He was replaced

Foreshadowing the conflict: SalvadorDal's Soft Construction with BoiledBeans (Premonition of Civil War)(1936)

by General Dmaso Berenguer and then Admiral Aznar, who bothcontinued to rule by decree. There was little support for themonarchy in the major cities, and King Alfonso XIII gave in topopular pressure for the establishment of a republic and calledmunicipal elections for the 12 April 1931. The socialist and liberalrepublicans won almost all the provincial capitals and with theresignation of Aznar's government, King Alfonso XIII fled thecountry.[23] The Second Spanish Republic was formed and wouldremain in power until the culmination of the Spanish Civil War.[24]

The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcal-Zamorabecame the provisional government, with Niceto Alcal-Zamora asthe President and Head of State.[25] The republic had broad supportfrom all segments of society.[26] In May, an incident where a taxidriver was attacked outside a monarchist club sparked anti-clericalviolence throughout Madrid and south-west Spain; the government'sslow response disillusioned the right and reinforced their view that

the Republic was determined to persecute the church. In June and July the Confederacin Nacional delTrabajo called several strikes, which led to a violent incident between CNT members and the Civil Guardand a brutal crackdown by the Civil Guard and the army against the CNT in Seville; this led many workersto believe the Second Spanish Republic was just as oppressive as the monarchy and the CNT announcedtheir intention of overthrowing it via revolution.[27] Elections in June 1931 returned a large majority ofRepublicans and Socialists.[28] With the onset of the Great Depression, the government attempted to assistrural Spain by instituting an eight-hour day and giving land tenure to farm workers.[29][30] Fascism remaineda reactive threat, helped by controversial reforms to the military.[31] In December, a new reformist, liberal,and democratic constitution was declared. It included strong provisions enforcing a broad secularization ofthe Catholic country, which many moderate committed Catholics opposed.[32] In October 1931, RepublicanManuel Azaa became prime minister of a minority government.[33][34] In 1933, the right won the generalelections, largely due to the anarchists' abstention from the vote, increased right wing resentment of theincumbent government caused by an illegal decree confiscating the land of the aristocracy, the Casas Viejasincident, the socialists' (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party) dissatisfaction with the caution of Republicans andperceived brutality of Manuel Azaa and the formation of a right-wing alliance, Spanish Confederation ofAutonomous Right-wing Groups; women's newfound right to vote also contributed to this (most womenvoted for centre-right parties).

Events in the period following November 1933, called the "black two years," seemed to make a civil warmore likely.[35] Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republican Party (RRP) formed a government and rolledback changes made under the previous administration[36] and also granted amnesty to the collaborators ofthe unsuccessful uprising by General Jos Sanjurjo in August 1932.[37][38] Some monarchists joined with theFascist Falange Espaola to help achieve their aims.[39] Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanishcities, and militancy continued to increase,[40] reflecting a movement towards radical upheaval, rather thanpeaceful democratic means as solutions.[41]

In the last months of 1934, two government collapses brought members of the right-wing Confederation ofthe Autonomous Right (CEDA) into the government.[42][43] Farm workers' wages were cut in half, and themilitary was purged of Republican members.[43] A Popular Front alliance was organized,[43] which narrowly

won the 1936 elections.[44] Azaa led a weak minority government, but soon replaced Zamora as presidentin April.[45] Prime Minister Santiago Casares Quiroga ignored warnings of a military conspiracy involvingseveral generals, who decided that the government had to be replaced to prevent the dissolution of Spain.[46]

Military coupPreparationsIn an attempt to remove suspect generals from their posts, the Republican government sacked Franco aschief of staff and transferred him to command of the Canary Islands.[47] Manuel Goded Llopis was removedas Inspector General and was made general of the Balearic islands. Emilio Mola was moved from head ofthe Army of Africa to military commander of Pamplona in Navarre.[47] This, however, allowed Mola todirect the mainland uprising. General Jos Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation and helped reachan agreement with the Carlists.[47] Mola was chief planner and second in command.[48] Jos Antonio Primode Rivera was put in prison in mid-March in order to restrict the Falange.[47] However, government actionswere not as thorough as they might have been, and warnings by the Director of Security and other figureswere not acted upon.[49]

On 12 June, Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yage, who managed to falsely convinceCasares of his loyalty to the republic.[50] Mola began serious planning in the spring.[48] Franco was a keyplayer because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressedthe Socialist uprising of 1934.[48] He was well respected in the Army of Africa, the Spanish RepublicanArmy's toughest military force.[51] He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June, suggesting that themilitary was disloyal, but could be restrained if he were put in charge. Casares did nothing, failing to arrestor buy off Franco.[51] On 5 July, an aircraft was chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands toMorocco.[52] It arrived on 14 July.[52]

On 12 July 1936, in Madrid, members of the Falange murdered Lieutenant Jos Castilloa Socialist partymemberof the Assault Guards police force.[52] The next day, members of the Assault Guards arrested JosCalvo Sotelo, a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent parliamentary conservative.[53] Calvo Sotelowas shot by the Guards without trial.[53] The killing of Calvo Sotelo, with involvement of the police,aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government's opponents on the right.[54][nb 5] Massivereprisals followed.[53] Although the conservative Nationalist generals were already in the advanced stages ofa planned uprising, the event provided a catalyst and convenient public justification for their coup.[53] TheSocialists and Communists (led by Prieto) demanded that arms be distributed to the people before themilitary took over. The prime minister was hesitant.[53]

Beginning of the coupThe uprising's timing was fixed at 17 July, at 17:01, agreed to by the leader of the Carlists, Manuel FalCond.[55] However, the timing was changedthe men in Spanish Morocco were to rise up at 05:00, andthose in Spain itself starting exactly a day later, so that control of Spanish Morocco could be achieved andforces sent to Iberia from Morocco to coincide with the risings there.[56] The rising was intended to be a

General map of the Spanish Civil War (19361939). Initial Nationalist zone Jul

1936 Nationalist advance to Sep

1936 Nationalist advance to Oct

1937 Nationalist advance to Nov

1938 Nationalist advance to Feb

1939 Last area under Republican

control Main Nationalist centres Main Republican centres

Land battles Naval battles Bombed cities Concentration

camps Massacres

Refugee camps

swift coup d'tat, but the government retained control of most of the country.[57]

Control over Spanish Morocco was all but certain.[58] The plan was discovered in Morocco on 17 July,which prompted the conspirators to enact it immediately. Little resistance was encountered. In total, therebels shot 189 people.[59] Goded and Francoimmediately took control of the islands to whichthey were assigned.[48] On 18 July, CasaresQuiroga refused an offer of help from theConfederacin Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) andUnin General de Trabajadores (UGT), leadingthe groups to proclaim a general strikeineffect, mobilizing. They opened weapons caches,some buried since the 1934 risings.[58] Theparamilitary forces often waited to see theoutcome of militia action before either joining orsuppressing the rebellion. Quick action by eitherthe rebels or anarchist militias was often enoughto decide the fate of a town.[60] General Queipode Llano managed to secure Seville for therebels, arresting a number of other officers.[61]

OutcomeThe rebels failed to take any major cities, withthe critical exception of Seville, which provideda landing point for Franco's African troops, andthe primarily conservative and Catholic areas ofOld Castile and Len, which fell quickly.[57]Cadiz was taken for the rebels, with the help ofthe first troops from the Army of Africa.[62]

The government retained control of Mlaga,Jan, and Almera. In Madrid, the rebels werehemmed into the Montaa barracks, which fellwith considerable bloodshed. Republican leaderCasares Quiroga was replaced by Jos Giral,who ordered the distribution of weapons amongthe civilian population.[63] This facilitated thedefeat of the army insurrection in the main industrial centres, including Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia, butit allowed the anarchists to take control of Barcelona, along with large swathes of Aragon and Catalonia.[64]General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death.[65]

The Republican government ended up controlling almost all of the east coast and central area aroundMadrid, as well as Asturias, Cantabria and part of the Basque Country in the north.

Flags of the Popular Front (left) and CNT/FAI (right)

The rebels termed themselves Nacionales, normally translated as Nationalists, though the former implies"true Spaniards" rather than a pure nationalistic cause.[66] The result of the coup was a nationalist area ofcontrol containing 11 million of Spain's population of 25 million.[67] The Nationalists had secured thesupport of around half of Spain's territorial army, some 60,000 men, joined by the Army of Africa, made upof 35,000 men,[68] and a little under half of Spain's militaristic police forces, the Assault Guards, the CivilGuards, and the Carabineers.[69] Republicans controlled under half of the rifles and about a third of bothmachine guns and artillery pieces.[68][70]

The Spanish Republican Army had just 18 tanks of a sufficiently modern design, and the Republicans tookcontrol of 10.[71] Naval capacity was uneven, with the Republicans retaining a numerical advantage, butwith the Navy's top commanders and two of the most modern ships, heavy cruisers Canarias captured atthe Ferrol shipyard and Baleares, in Nationalist hands.[72] The Spanish Republican Navy suffered fromthe same problems as the armymany officers had defected or had been killed after trying to do so.[71]Two-thirds of air capability was retained by the government however, the whole of the Republican AirForce was very outdated.[73]

CombatantsThe war was cast by Republican sympathizers as a struggle between tyranny and democracy, and byNationalist supporters as between communist and anarchist "red hordes" and "Christian civilization".[74]Nationalists also claimed they were protecting the establishment and bringing security and direction to anungoverned and lawless society.[74]

Spanish politics, especially on the left, were quite fragmented, since socialists and communists supported therepublic. During the republic, anarchists had had mixed opinions, but major groups opposed the Nationalistsduring the Civil War. The Conservatives, in contrast, were united by their fervent opposition to theRepublican government and presented a more unified front.[75]

RepublicansThe Republicans received weapons andvolunteers from the Soviet Union, Mexico, theinternational Marxists movement, andInternational Brigades. Their supporters rangedfrom centrists who supported a moderatelycapitalist liberal democracy to revolutionaryanarchists. Their base was primarily secular andurban, but also included landless peasants, andwas particularly strong in industrial regions likeAsturias and Catalonia.[76]

This faction was called variously leales ("loyalists") by supporters; Republicans, the Popular Front, or thegovernment by all parties; and/or los rojos ("the reds") by their opponents.[77] Republicans were supportedby most urban workers, a large share of peasants, and much of the educated middle class.

Republican volunteers at Teruel, 1936.

Flags of the Falange (left) and Carlist Traditionalist Requets(right)

Republican troops at Guadalajara,1937

The conservative, strongly Catholic Basque country, along with Galicia and the more left-leaning Catalonia,sought autonomy, or even independence, from the central government of Madrid. The Republicangovernment allowed for the possibility of self-government for the two regions,[78] whose forces weregathered under the People's Republican Army (Ejrcito Popular Republicano, or EPR), which wasreorganized into mixed brigades after October 1936.[79]

A few well-known people fought on the Republican side, such as English novelist George Orwell andCanadian physician and medical innovator Norman Bethune.

NationalistsThe Nationalists (nacionales)also called "insurgents","rebels", or, by opponents, "Franquists" or "fascists"fearednational fragmentation and opposed the separatist movements.They were chiefly defined by their anti-communism, whichgalvanized diverse or opposed movements like falangists andmonarchists. Their leaders had a generally wealthier, moreconservative, monarchist, landowning background.[80]

The Nationalist side included the Carlists andAlfonsist monarchists, Spanish nationalists,the fascist Falange, and most conservativesand monarchist liberals. Virtually allNationalist groups had strong Catholicconvictions and supported the native Spanishclergy.[80] The Nationals included themajority of the Catholic clergy andpractitioners (outside of the Basque region),important elements of the army, most large landowners, and many businessmen.[74]

One of the rightists' principal motives was to confront the anti-clericalism of the Republican regime and to defend the Church,[80]which had been targeted by opponents, including Republicans, whoblamed the institution for the country's ills. On the other hand, theChurch was against the Republicans' liberal principles, which werefortified by the Spanish Constitution of 1931.[81] Prior to the war, inthe Asturias uprising of 1934, religious buildings were burnt and atleast 100 clergy, religious civilians, and police were killed byrevolutionaries.[82][83]

Franco had brought in the mercenaries of Spain's colonial Army ofAfrica and reduced the miners to submission by heavy artilleryattacks and bombing raids. The Spanish Foreign Legion committed atrocitiesmany women and childrenwere killed, and the army carried out summary execution of leftists. The repression in the aftermath wasbrutal. In Asturias, prisoners were tortured.[84] Franco believed that he was justified in the brutal use oftroops against Spanish civilians. Historian Paul Preston said, "Unmoved by the fact that the central symbolof rightist values was the reconquest of Spain from the Moors, Franco did not hesitate to ship Moorishmercenaries to fight in Asturias, the only part of Spain where the crescent had never flown. He saw nocontradiction about using the Moors, because he regarded left-wing workers with the same racialist

contempt he possessed towards the tribesmen of the Rif".[85]

Articles 24 and 26 of the 1931 constitution had banned the Jesuits. This proscription deeply offended manywithin the conservative fold. The revolution in the Republican zone at the outset of the war, in which 7,000clergy and thousands of lay people were killed, deepened Catholic support for the Nationalists.[86][87]

The Moroccan Regulares joined the rebellion and played a significant role in the civil war. In a 2009 newsstory, Reuters reported, "About 136,000 Moroccan fighters fought for the Generalissimo's Army of Africa,the feared vanguard of a force that, ironically, Franco portrayed as a Christian crusade against godlesscommunists".[88]

Other factionsCatalan and Basque nationalists were not univocal. Left-wing Catalan nationalists sided with theRepublicans, while Conservative Catalan nationalists were far less vocal in supporting the government dueto anti-clericalism and confiscations occurring in areas within its control. Basque nationalists, heralded bythe conservative Basque Nationalist Party, were mildly supportive of the Republican government, eventhough some in Navarre sided with the uprising for the same reasons influencing conservative Catalans.Notwithstanding religious matters, Basque nationalists, who were for the most part Catholic, generally sidedwith the Republicans.[89]

Foreign involvementThe Spanish Civil War seized the fears and hopes of the world, including not just diplomats and politicians,but intellectuals, religious leaders, and labor unions, as well. Opinion divided three ways. The right and theCatholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism. On the left, includinglabor unions, students and intellectuals, the war represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism.Antiwar and pacifist sentiment was strong in many countries, leading to warnings that the Civil War had thepotential of escalating into a second world war.[90] In retrospect, however, the Spanish Civil War was not aprelude to the Second World War, but rather an indicator of the growing instability encompassing the wholeof Europe.[91]

The Civil War involved large numbers of non-Spanish citizens who participated in combat and advisorypositions. Germany sent a Luftwaffe unit and modern warplanes. Italy sent 100,000 men. Britain and Franceled a bloc of 27 nations that promised an embargo on all arms to Spain. The United States unofficially wentalong. Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union also signed on officially, but blatantly ignored the embargo. Theattempted suppression of imported materials was largely ineffective, however, and France especially wasaccused of allowing large shipments to Republican troops.[92] The clandestine actions of the variousEuropean powers were, at the time, considered to be risking another "Great War", alarming antiwar elementsacross the world.[93]

The League of Nations' reaction to the war was slightly biased against communism,[94] and insufficient tocontain the massive importation by fighting factions of arms and other war resources. Although a Non-Intervention Committee was formed, its policies accomplished little, and its directives were ineffective.[95]The official Spanish Government of Juan Negrn was gradually abandoned within the organization duringthis period.[96]

Members of the Condor Legion

Support for the NationalistsGermany

German involvement began days after fighting broke out in July1936. Adolf Hitler quickly sent in powerful air and armoredunits to assist the Nationalists. The war provided combatexperience with the latest technology for the German military.However, the intervention also posed the risk of escalating into aworld war for which Hitler was not ready. He therefore limitedhis aid, and instead encouraged Benito Mussolini to send inlarge Italian units.[97]

Nazi actions included the formation of the multitasking CondorLegion, while German efforts to move the Army of Africa tomainland Spain proved successful in the war's early stages.[98]German operations slowly expanded to include strike targets, most notably and controversially thebombing of Guernica which, on 26 April 1937, killed 200 to 300 civilians.[99]

German involvement was further manifested through undertakings such as Operation Ursula, a U-boatundertaking, and contributions from the Kriegsmarine. The Legion spearheaded many Nationalist victories,particularly in aerial combat,[100] while Spain further provided a proving ground for German tank tactics.The training German units provided to Nationalist forces would prove valuable. By the War's end, perhaps56,000 Nationalist soldiers, encompassing infantry, artillery, aerial and naval forces, had been trained byGerman detachments.[98]

A total of approximately 16,000 German citizens fought in the war, including approximately 300 killed,[101]though no more than 10,000 participated at any one time. German aid to the Nationalists amounted toapproximately 43,000,000 ($215,000,000) in 1939 prices,[101][nb 6] 15.5% of which was used for salariesand expenses and 21.9% for direct delivery of supplies to Spain, while 62.6% was expended on the CondorLegion.[101] In total, Germany provided the Nationalists with 600 planes and 200 tanks.[102]

Italy

After Francisco Franco's request and encouragement by Hitler, Benito Mussolini joined the war. While theconquest of Ethiopia made Italy confident in its power, a Spanish ally would nonetheless help secure Italiancontrol of the Mediterranean.[103] The Royal Italian Navy (Regia Marina) played a substantial role in theMediterranean blockade, and ultimately Italy supplied machine guns, artillery, aircraft, tankettes, theLegionary Air Force (Italian: Aviazione Legionaria), and the Corps of Volunteer Troops (Italian: CorpoTruppe Volontarie, or CTV) to the Nationalist cause.[104] The Italian CTV would, at its peak, supply theNationalists with 50,000 men.[104] Italian warships took part in breaking the Republican navy's blockade ofNationalist-held Spanish Morocco and took part in naval bombardment of Republican-held Malaga,Valencia, and Barcelona.[105] In total, Italy provided the Nationalists with 660 planes, 150 tanks, 800artillery pieces, 10,000 machine guns, and 240,000 rifles.[106]

Portugal

The Etkar Andr battalion of theInternational Brigades.

The Estado Novo regime of Portuguese Prime Minister Antnio de Oliveira Salazar played an important rolein supplying Franco's forces with ammunition and logistical help.[107] Despite its discreet direct militaryinvolvement restrained to a somewhat "semi-official" endorsement, by its authoritarian regime, of avolunteer force of up to 20,000,[108][109] so-called "Viriatos" for the whole duration of the conflict,Portugal was instrumental in providing the Nationalists with organizational skills and reassurance from theIberian neighbour to Franco and his allies that no interference would hinder the supply traffic directed to theNationalist cause.[110]

Others

The United Kingdom maintained a position of strong neutrality. It refused to allow arms shipments and sentwarships to try to stop shipments. It became a crime to volunteer to fight in Spain, but about 4,000 wentanyway. Intellectuals strongly favoured the Republicans. Many visited, hoping to find authenticity and anti-fascism. They had little impact on the government, and could not shake the strong public mood forpeace.[111] The Labour Party was split, with its Catholic element favouring the Nationalists. It finally voicedsome support to Loyalists.[112]

Romanian volunteers were led by Ion I Moa, deputy-leader of the Legion of the Archangel Michael (or IronGuard), whose group of seven Legionaries visited Spain in December 1936 to ally their movement with theNationalists.[113]

Despite the Irish government's prohibition against participating in the war, around 600 Irishmen, followersof Irish political activist Eoin O'Duffy, known as the "Irish Brigade", went to Spain to fight alongsideFranco.[108]

Support for the RepublicansInternational Brigades

Many non-Spaniards, often affiliated with radical communist orsocialist entities, joined the International Brigades, believingthat the Spanish Republic was a front line in the war againstfascism. The units represented the largest foreign contingent ofthose fighting for the Republicans. Roughly 40,000 foreignnationals fought with the Brigades, though no more than 18,000were entered into the conflict at any given time. They claimed torepresent 53 nations.[114]

Significant numbers of volunteers originated in France (10,000),Germany and Austria (5,000), and Italy (3,350). More than 1,000 each came from the Soviet Union, theUnited States, the United Kingdom, Poland, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Canada.[114] The ThlmannBattalion, a group of Germans, and the Garibaldi Battalion, a group of Italians, distinguished their unitsduring the Siege of Madrid. Americans fought in units such as the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, whileCanadians joined the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion.[115]

Over 500 Romanians fought on the Republican side, including Romanian Communist Party members PetreBoril and Valter Roman.[116] About 80 volunteers from Ireland formed the Connolly Column, which wasimmortalized by Irish folk singer Christy Moore in the song "Viva la Quinta Brigada." Some Chinese joined

Polish volunteers in the InternationalBrigades

British Battalion banner

the Brigades, and the majority of them eventually returned to China,while some went to prison or French refugee camps, and a handfulremained in Spain.[117]

Soviet Union

Though General Secretary Joseph Stalin had signed the Non-Intervention Agreement, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republicscontravened the League of Nations embargo by providing materialassistance to the Republican forces, becoming their only source ofmajor weapons. Unlike Hitler and Mussolini, Stalin tried to do thiscovertly.[118] In total, estimates of material provided by the USSR tothe Republicans vary between 634 and 806 planes, 331 and 362tanks, and 1,034 and 1,895 artillery pieces.[119]

Stalin also created Section X of the Soviet Union military to head theweapons shipment operation, called Operation X. Despite Stalin'sinterest in aiding the Republicans, the quality of arms wasinconsistent.[120][121] On one hand, many of the rifles and field gunsprovided were old, obsolete or otherwise of limited use. On the otherhand, the T-26 and BT-5 tanks were modern and effective incombat.[120] The Soviet Union supplied aircraft that were in currentservice with their own forces, but the aircraft provided by Germany to the Nationalists proved superior bythe end of the war.[121]

The process of shipping arms from Russia to Spain was extremely slow. Many shipments were lost orarrived only partially matching what had been authorized.[122] Stalin ordered shipbuilders to include falsedecks in the original designs of ships and, while at sea, Soviet captains employed deceptive flags and paintschemes to evade detection by the Nationalists.[123]

The Republic paid for Soviet arms with official Bank of Spain gold reserves. This would later be thefrequent subject of Franquist propaganda, under the term "Moscow Gold". The cost of the Soviet Unionarms was more than the value of Spain's gold reserves, the fourth-largest in the world, estimated at US $500million (1936 prices), 176 tonnes of which was transferred through France.[124]

The USSR sent a number of military advisers to Spain (2,000[125]3,000[126]),[127] and, while Soviet troopswere fewer than 500 men at a time, Soviet volunteers often operated Soviet-made tanks and aircraft,particularly at the beginning of the war.[114] In addition, the Soviet Union directed Communist partiesaround the world to organize and recruit the International Brigades.

Another significant Soviet involvement was the activity of the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs(NKVD) inside the Republican rearguard. Communist figures including Vittorio Vidali ("ComandanteContreras"), Iosif Grigulevich, Mikhail Koltsov and, most prominently, Alexander Orlov led operations thatincluded the murders of Catalan anti-stalinist Communist politician Andreu Nin[128] and independent left-wing activist Jos Robles.[129] Also, the shooting down in December 1936 of the French aircraft in whichthe delegate of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Georges Henny, carried to Franceextensive documentation on the Paracuellos massacres was a NKVD-led operation.[130]

Mexico

See also es:exilio republicano espaol (Mxico).

Unlike the United States and major Latin American governments, such as the ABC Powers and Peru, theMexican government supported the Republicans.[131][132] Mexico refused to follow the French-British non-intervention proposals,[131] furnishing $2,000,000 in aid and material assistance, which included 20,000rifles and 20 million cartridges.[131]

Mexico's most important contributions to the Spanish Republic was its diplomatic help, as well as thesanctuary the nation arranged for Republican refugees, including Spanish intellectuals and orphaned childrenfrom Republican families. Some 50,000 took refuge, primarily in Mexico City, accompanied by$300 million in various treasures still owned by the Left.[133]

France

Fearing it might spark a civil war inside France, the leftist "Popular Front" government in France did notsend direct support to the Republicans. French Prime Minister Lon Blum was sympathetic to therepublic,[134] fearing that the success of Nationalist forces in Spain would result in the creation of an allystate of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy (largely surrounding France).[134] Right-wing politicians opposedany aid and attacked the Blum government.[135] In July 1936, British officials convinced Blum not to sendarms to the Republicans and, on 27 July, the French government declared that it would not send military aid,technology or forces to assist the Republican forces.[136] However, Blum made clear that France reservedthe right to provide aid should it wish to the Republic:

We could have delivered arms to the Spanish Government [Republicans], a legitimategovernment... We have not done so, in order not to give an excuse to those who would betempted to send arms to the rebels [Nationalists]. Blum, 1936.[137]

On 1 August 1936, a pro-Republican rally of 20,000 people confronted Blum, demanding that he sendaircraft to the Republicans, at the same time as right-wing politicians attacked Blum for supporting theRepublic and being responsible for provoking Italian intervention on the side of Franco.[137] Germanyinformed the French ambassador in Berlin that Germany would hold France responsible if it supported "themanoeuvres of Moscow" by supporting the Republicans.[138] On 21 August 1936, France signed the Non-Intervention Agreement.[138]

However, the Blum government provided aircraft to the Republicans through covert means with Potez 54bomber aircraft, Dewoitine aircraft, and Loire 46 fighter aircraft being sent from 7 August 1936 toDecember of that year to Republican forces.[139] The French also sent pilots and engineers to theRepublicans.[140] Also, until 8 September 1936, aircraft could freely pass from France into Spain if theywere bought in other countries.[141]

Even after covert support by France to the Republicans ended in December 1936, the possibility of Frenchintervention against the Nationalists remained a serious possibility throughout the war. German intelligencereported to Franco and the Nationalists that the French military was engaging in open discussions about

Map showing Spain in September 1936: Area under Nationalist control Area under Republican control

Attack on Nationalist position nearMadrid, Somosierra, 1936

intervention in the war through French military intervention in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.[142] In1938, Franco feared an immediate French intervention against a potential Nationalist victory in Spainthrough French occupation of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, and Spanish Morocco.[143]

Course of the war1936A large air and sealift of Nationalist troops in Spanish Moroccowas organized to the southwest of Spain.[144] Coup leaderSanjurjo was killed in a plane crash on 20 July,[145][146] leavingan effective command split between Mola in the North andFranco in the South.[48] This period also saw the worst actionsof the so-called "Red" and "White" "Terrors" in Spain.[147][148]On 21 July, the fifth day of the rebellion, the Nationalistscaptured the central Spanish naval base, located in Ferrol innorthwestern Spain.[149]

A rebel force under Colonel Beorlegui Canet, sent by GeneralMola and Colonel Esteban Garcia, undertook the Campaign ofGipuzkoa from July to September. The capture of Gipuzkoaisolated the Republican provinces in the north. On 5 September,after heavy fighting, the force took Irn, closing the Frenchborder to the Republicans.[150] On 15 September, San Sebastin,home to a divided Republican force of anarchists and Basquenationalists, was taken by Nationalist soldiers.[110] The Nationaliststhen advanced toward their capital, Bilbao, but were halted byRepublican militias on the border of Biscay at the end of September.

The Republican government under Giral resigned on 4 September,unable to cope with the situation, and was replaced by a mostlySocialist organization under Largo Caballero.[151] The newleadership began to unify central command in the republicanzone.[152] On the Nationalist side, Franco was chosen as chiefmilitary commander at a meeting of ranking generals at Salamancaon 21 September, now called by the title Generalsimo.[48][153]

Franco won another victory on 27 September when his troops relieved the Alczar in Toledo,[153] which hadbeen held by a Nationalist garrison under Colonel Moscardo since the beginning of the rebellion, resistingthousands of Republican troops, who completely surrounded the isolated building. Two days after relievingthe siege, Franco proclaimed himself Caudillo ("chieftain"), while forcibly unifying the various and diversefalangist, Royalist, and other elements within the Nationalist cause.[151] The diversion to Toledo gaveMadrid time to prepare a defense, but was hailed as a major propaganda victory and personal success forFranco.[154] A similar dramatic success for the Nationalist occurred on 17 October, when troops comingfrom Galicia relieved the besieged town of Oviedo, in Northern Spain.

Map showing Spain in October 1937: Area under Nationalist control Area under Republican control

Ruins of Guernica.

In October, the Francoist troops launched a major offensive toward Madrid,[155] reaching it in earlyNovember and launching a major assault on the city on 8 November.[156] The Republican government wasforced to shift from Madrid to Valencia, outside the combat zone, on 6 November.[157] However, theNationalists' attack on the capital was repulsed in fierce fighting between 8 and 23 November. A contributoryfactor in the successful Republican defense was the arrival of the International Brigades, though only anapproximate 3,000 foreign volunteers participated in the battle.[158] Having failed to take the capital, Francobombarded it from the air and, in the following two years, mounted several offensives to try to encircleMadrid. The battle of the Corunna Road, a Nationalist offensive to the northwest, pushed Republican forcesback, but failed to isolate Madrid. The battle lasted into January.[159]

1937With his ranks swelled by Italian troops and Spanish colonialsoldiers from Morocco, Franco made another attempt to captureMadrid in January and February 1937, but was againunsuccessful. The Battle of Mlaga started in mid-January, andthis Nationalist offensive in Spain's southeast would turn into adisaster for the Republicans, who were poorly organised andarmed. The city was taken by Franco on 8 February.[160] Theconsolidation of various militias into the Republican Army hadstarted in December 1936.[161] The main Nationalist advance tocross the Jarama river and cut the supply of Madrid by theValencia road, termed the Battle of Jarama, led to heavycasualties (6,00020,000) on both sides. The operation's mainobjective was not met, though Nationalists gained a modestamount of territory.[162]

A similar Nationalist offensive, the Battle of Guadalajara, was amore significant defeat for Franco and his armies. It proved the only publicised Republican victory of thewar. Italian troops and blitzkrieg tactics were used by Franco, and while many strategists blamed the latterfor the rightists' defeat, the Germans believed it was the former at fault for the Nationalists' 5,000 casualtiesand loss of valuable equipment.[163] The German strategists successfully argued that the Nationalists neededto concentrate on vulnerable areas first.[164]

The "War in the North" began in mid-March,[165] with Biscay asa first target.[166] The Basques suffered most from the lack of asuitable air force.[167] On 26 April, the Condor Legion bombedthe town of Guernica, killing 200-300. The destruction had asignificant effect on international opinion.[168] The Basquesretreated.[169]

April and May saw infighting among Republican groups inCatalonia. The dispute was between an ultimately victoriousgovernment Communist forces and the anarchist CNT. Thedisturbance pleased Nationalist command, but little was done toexploit Republican divisions.[170] After the fall of Guernica, the

Map showing Spain in July 1938: Area under Nationalist control Area under Republican control

Republican government began to fight back with increasing effectiveness. In July, it made a move torecapture Segovia, forcing Franco to delay his advance on the Bilbao front, but for only two weeks. Asimilar Republican attack on Huesca failed similarly.[171]

Mola, Franco's second-in-command, was killed on 3 June.[172] In early July, despite the earlier fall in June ofBilbao, the government launched a strong counter-offensive to the west of Madrid, focusing on Brunete. TheBattle of Brunete, however, was a significant defeat for the Republic, which lost many of its mostaccomplished troops. The offensive led to an advance of 50 square kilometres (19 sq mi), and left 25,000Republican casualties.[173]

A Republican offensive against Zaragoza was also a failure. Despite having land and aerial advantages, theBattle of Belchite resulted in an advance of only 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) and the loss of much equipment.[174]Franco invaded Aragn in August and took the city of Santander.[175] With the surrender of the Republicanarmy in the Basque territory came the Santoa Agreement.[176] Gijn finally fell in late October.[177] Francohad effectively won in the north. At November's end, with Franco's troops closing in on Valencia, thegovernment had to move again, this time to Barcelona.[178]

1938The Battle of Teruel was an important confrontation. The city,which had formerly belonged to the Nationalists, was conqueredby Republicans in January. The Francoist troops launched anoffensive and recovered the city by 22 February, but Franco wasforced to rely heavily on German and Italian air support.[179]

On 7 March, Nationalists launched the Aragon Offensive and,by 14 April, they had pushed through to the Mediterranean,cutting the Republican-held portion of Spain in two. TheRepublican government attempted to sue for peace in May,[180]but Franco demanded unconditional surrender, and the warraged on. In July, the Nationalist army pressed southward fromTeruel and south along the coast toward the capital of theRepublic at Valencia, but was halted in heavy fighting along theXYZ Line, a system of fortifications defending Valencia.[181]

The Republican government then launched an all-out campaign to reconnect their territory in the Battle ofthe Ebro, from 24 July until 26 November.[182] The campaign was unsuccessful, and was undermined by theFranco-British appeasement of Hitler in Munich. The agreement with Britain effectively destroyedRepublican morale by ending hope of an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers.[183] The retreat from theEbro all but determined the final outcome of the war.[182] Eight days before the new year, Franco threwmassive forces into an invasion of Catalonia.[184]

1939

Map showing Spain in February 1939: Area under Nationalist control Area under Republican control

Franco declares the end of the war.However, small pockets ofRepublicans fight on.

Franco's troops conquered Catalonia in a whirlwind campaign during the first two months of 1939.Tarragona fell on 15 January,[185] followed by Barcelona on 26 January[186] and Girona on 2 February.[187]On 27 February, the United Kingdom and France recognized theFranco regime.[188]

Only Madrid and a fewother strongholdsremained for theRepublican forces. On 5March 1939, theRepublican army, led bythe colonel SegismundoCasado and the politicianJulin Besteiro, roseagainst the primeminister Juan Negrin andformed a military juntawith the Council ofNational Defense(Consejo Nacional de Defensa or CND) to negotiate a peace deal.Negrin fled to France on 6 March, but the Communist troops aroundMadrid rose against the junta, starting a brief civil war within thecivil war. Casado defeated them, and began peace negotiations withthe Nationalists, but Francisco Franco only accepted anunconditional surrender.

On 26 March, the Nationalists started a general offensive, on 28 March the Nationalists occupied Madridand, by 31 March, they controlled all the Spanish territory.[189] Franco proclaimed victory in a radio speechaired on 1 April, when the last of the Republican forces surrendered.

After the end of the war, there were harsh reprisals against Franco's former enemies.[190] Thousands ofRepublicans were imprisoned and at least 30,000 executed.[191] Other calculations of these deaths rangefrom 50,000[192] to 200,000, depending on which killings are included. Many others were put to forcedlabour, building railways, drying out swamps, and digging canals.[192]

Hundreds of thousands of Republicans fled abroad, with some 500,000 fleeing to France.[193] Refugees wereconfined in internment camps of the French Third Republic, such as Camp Gurs or Camp Vernet, where12,000 Republicans were housed in squalid conditions. In his capacity as consul in Paris, Chilean poet andpolitician Pablo Neruda organized the immigration to Chile of 2,200 Republican exiles in France using theship SS Winnipeg.[194]

Of the 17,000 refugees housed in Gurs, farmers and others who could not find relations in France wereencouraged by the Third Republic, in agreement with the Franquist government, to return to Spain. Thegreat majority did so and were turned over to the Franquist authorities in Irn.[195] From there, they weretransferred to the Miranda de Ebro camp for "purification" according to the Law of PoliticalResponsibilities. After the proclamation by Marshal Philippe Ptain of the Vichy regime, the refugeesbecame political prisoners, and the French police attempted to round up those who had been liberated from

Children preparing for evacuation, some giving theRepublican salute. The Republicans showed a raisedfist whereas the Nationalists gave the Romansalute.[197]

the camp. Along with other "undesirable" people, the Spaniards were sent to the Drancy internment campbefore being deported to Nazi Germany. About 5,000 Spaniards died in the Mauthausen concentrationcamp.[195]

After the official end of the war, guerrilla warfare was waged on an irregular basis by the Spanish Maquiswell into the 1950s, gradually reduced by military defeats and scant support from the exhausted population.In 1944, a group of republican veterans, who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis, invadedthe Val d'Aran in northwest Catalonia, but were defeated after 10 days.[196]

Evacuation of childrenThe Republicans oversaw the evacuation of 30,00035,000 children from their zone,[198] starting withBasque areas, from which 20,000 were evacuated. Theirdestinations included the United Kingdom[199] and theUSSR, and many other locations in Europe, along withMexico.[198] On May 21, 1937, around 4,000 Basquechildren were taken to the UK on the aging steamship SSHabana from the Spanish port of Santurtzi. This wasagainst initial opposition from both the government andcharitable groups, who saw the removal of children fromtheir native country as potentially harmful. On arrivaltwo days later in Southampton, the children weredispersed all over England, with over 200 childrenaccommodated in Wales.[200] The upper age limit wasinitially set at 12, but raised to 15.[201] By mid-September, all of los nios, as they became known, had found homes with families. Most were repatriated toSpain after the war, but some 250 still remained in Britain by the end of the Second World War in 1945.[202]

AtrocitiesDeath totals remain debated. British historian Antony Beevor wrote in his history of the Civil War thatFranco's ensuing "white terror" resulted in the deaths of 200,000 people and that the "red terror" killed38,000.[203] Julius Ruiz contends that, "Although the figures remain disputed, a minimum of 37,843executions were carried out in the Republican zone, with a maximum of 150,000 executions (including50,000 after the war) in Nationalist Spain".[204]

In 2008 a Spanish judge, Baltasar Garzn, opened an investigation into the executions and disappearances of114,266 people between 17 July 1936 and December 1951. (Garzn has since been indicted for violating a1977 amnesty law through his actions.) Among the executions investigated was that of the poet anddramatist Federico Garca Lorca.[5] Mention of his death was forbidden during Franco's regime.[205]

The view of historians, including Helen Graham,[206] Paul Preston,[207] Antony Beevor,[208] GabrielJackson[209] and Hugh Thomas,[210] is that the mass executions behind the Nationalists lines were organizedand approved by the Nationalists rebel authorities, while the executions behind the Republican lines werethe result of the breakdown of the Republican state and anarchy:

Spanish Civil War grave sites.Location of known burial places.Colors refer to the type ofintervention that has been carried out.Green: No Interventions Undertakenso far. White: Missing grave. Yellow:Transferred to the Valle de los Cados.Red: Fully or Partially Exhumed.Blue star: Valle de los Cados.Source: Ministry of Justice of Spain(http://mapadefosas.mjusticia.es)

Nationalist SM.81 aircraft bomb Madrid inlate November 1936.

Though there was much wanton killing in rebel Spain, the idea of the limpieza, the "cleaningup", of the country from the evils which had overtaken it, was a disciplined policy of the newauthorities and a part of their programme of regeneration. In republican Spain, most of thekilling was the consequence of anarchy, the outcome of a national breakdown, and not the workof the state, even though some political parties in some cities abetted the enormities, and eventhough some of those responsible ultimately rose to positions of authority. Hugh Thomas[210]

NationalistsNationalist atrocities, which authorities frequently ordered toeradicate any trace of "leftism" in Spain, were common. The notionof a limpieza (cleansing) formed an essential part of the rebelstrategy, and the process began immediately after an area had beencaptured.[211] According to historian Paul Preston, the minimumnumber of those executed by the rebels is 130,000,[212] and is likelyto have been far higher, with other historians placing the figure at200,000 dead.[213] The violence was carried out in the rebel zone bythe military, the Civil Guard and the Falange in the name of theregime.[214]

Many such acts were committed by reactionary groups during thefirst weeks of the war.[214] This included the execution of schoolteachers,[215] because the efforts of the Second Spanish Republic topromote laicism and displace the Church from schools by closingreligious educational institutions were considered by the Nationalistsas an attack on the Roman Catholic Church. Extensive killings ofcivilians were carried out in the cities captured by theNationalists,[216] along with the execution of unwanted individuals.These included non-combatants such as trade-unionists, PopularFront politicians, suspected Freemasons, Basque, Catalan,Andalusian, and Galician Nationalists, Republican intellectuals,relatives of known Republicans, and those suspected of votingfor the Popular Front.[214][217][218][219][220]

Nationalist forces massacred civilians in Seville, where some8,000 people were shot; 10,000 were killed in Cordoba; 6,00012,000 were killed in Badajoz.[221] In Granada, where working-class neighborhoods were hit with artillery and right-wingsquads were given free rein to kill governmentsympathizers,[222] at least 2,000 people were murdered.[215] InFebruary 1937, over 7,000 were killed after the capture ofMlaga.[223] When Bilbao was conquered, thousands of peoplewere sent to prison. There were fewer executions than usual, however, because of the effect Guernica left onNationalists' reputations internationally.[224] The numbers killed as the columns of the Army of Africa

Bombing in Barcelona, 1938.

"Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus byCommunist militiamen. The photograph inthe London Daily Mail had the caption"Spanish Reds' war on religion".[232]

devastated and pillaged their way between Seville and Madrid are particularly difficult to calculate.[225]

Nationalists also murdered Catholic clerics. In one particularincident, following the capture of Bilbao, they took hundreds ofpeople, including 16 priests who had served as chaplains for theRepublican forces, to the countryside or graveyards andmurdered them.[226][227]

Franco's forces also persecuted Protestants, including murdering20 Protestant ministers.[228] Franco's forces were determined toremove the "Protestant heresy" from Spain.[229] The Nationalistsalso persecuted Basques, as they strove to eradicate Basqueculture.[175] According to Basque sources, some 22,000 Basqueswere murdered by Nationalists immediately after the CivilWar.[230]

The Nationalist side conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory, carried out mainly by theLuftwaffe volunteers of the Condor Legion and the Italian air force volunteers of the Corpo TruppeVolontarie: Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Guernica, Durango, and other cities were attacked. The Bombingof Guernica was among the most controversial.[231]

RepublicansAccording to the Nationalists, an estimated 55,000 civilians diedin Republican-held territories. This is considered excessive byAntony Beevor. However, it was much less than the half amillion claimed during the war.[234] The deaths would form theprevailing outside opinion of the republic up until the bombingof Guernica.[234]

The Republican government was anticlerical, and supportersattacked and murdered Roman Catholic clergy in reaction to thenews of military revolt.[227] In his 1961 book, Spanisharchbishop Antonio Montero Moreno, who at the time wasdirector of the journal Ecclesia, wrote that 6,832 were killedduring the war, including 4,184 priests, 2,365 monks and friars,and 283 nuns, in addition to 13 bishops, a figure accepted byhistorians, including Beevor.[228][235][236] Some sources claimthat by the conflict's end, 20 percent of the nation's clergy hadbeen killed,[237] [nb 7] The "Execution" of the Sacred Heart ofJesus by Communist militiamen at Cerro de los ngeles nearMadrid, on 7 August 1936, was the most infamous of widespread desecration of religious property.[238] Indioceses where the Republicans had general control, a large proportion often a majority of secular priestswere killed.[239]

The Puente Nuevo bridge. BothNationalists and Republicans are claimedto have thrown prisoners from the bridge totheir deaths in the canyon.[233]

Like clergy, civilians were executed in Republican territories. Some civilians were executed as suspectedFalangists.[240] Others died in acts of revenge after Republicans heard of massacres carried out in theNationalist zone.[241] Air raids committed against Republican cities were another driving factor.[242]Shopkeepers and industrialists were shot if they didn't sympathize with the Republicans, and were usuallyspared if they did.[243] Fake justice was sought through a commission, known in Russia as checas.[240]

As pressure mounted with the increasing success of theNationalists, many civilians were executed by councils andtribunals controlled by competing Communist and anarchistgroups.[240] Some members of the latter were executed bySoviet-advised communist functionaries in Catalonia,[233] asrecounted by George Orwell's description of the purges inBarcelona in 1937 in Homage to Catalonia, which followed aperiod of increasing tension between competing elements of theCatalan political scene. Some individuals fled to friendlyembassies, which would house up to 8,500 people during thewar.[241]

In the Andalusian town of Ronda, 512 suspected Nationalistswere executed in the first month of the war.[233] CommunistSantiago Carrillo Solares was accused of the killing ofNationalists in the Paracuellos massacre near Paracuellos delJarama.[244] Pro-Soviet Communists committed numerous atrocities against fellow Republicans, includingother Marxists: Andr Marty, known as the Butcher of Albacete, was responsible for the deaths of some 500members of the International Brigades.[245] Andreu Nin, leader of the POUM (Workers' Party of MarxistUnification), and many other prominent POUM members, were murdered by the Communists, with the helpof the USSR's NKVD.[246]

Thirty-eight thousand people were killed in the Republican zone during the war, 17,000 of whom were killedin Madrid or Catalonia within a month of the coup. Whilst the Communists were forthright in their supportof extrajudicial killings, much of the Republican side was appalled by the murders.[247] Azaa came close toresigning.[241] He, alongside other members of Parliament and a great number of other local officials,attempted to prevent Nationalist supporters being lynched. Some of those in positions of power intervenedpersonally to stop the killings.[247]

Social revolutionIn the anarchist-controlled areas, Aragn and Catalonia, in addition to the temporary military success, therewas a vast social revolution in which the workers and peasants collectivised land and industry and set upcouncils parallel to the paralyzed Republican government.[248] This revolution was opposed by the Soviet-supported communists who, perhaps surprisingly, campaigned against the loss of civil property rights.[248]

As the war progressed, the government and the communists were able to exploit their access to Soviet armsto restore government control over the war effort, through diplomacy and force.[246] Anarchists and theWorkers' Party of Marxist Unification (Partido Obrero de Unificacin Marxista, POUM) were integratedinto the regular army, albeit with resistance. The POUM was outlawed and falsely denounced as an

Women at the Siege of the Alczarin Toledo, 1936

instrument of the fascists.[246] In the May Days of 1937, many thousands of anarchist and communistRepublican soldiers fought for control of strategic points in Barcelona.[170]

The pre-war Falange was a small party of some 30,00040,000 members.[249] It also called for a socialrevolution that would have seen Spanish society transformed by National Syndicalism.[250] Following theexecution of its leader, Jos Antonio Primo de Rivera, by the Republicans, the party swelled in size toseveral hundred thousand members.[251] The leadership of the Falange suffered 60% casualties in the earlydays of the civil war, and the party was transformed by new members and rising new leaders, called camisasnuevas ("new shirts"), who were less interested in the revolutionaryaspects of National Syndicalism.[252] Subsequently, Franco united allrightist parties into the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and the NationalSyndicalist Offensive Juntas (Spanish: Falange EspaolaTradicionalista de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista, FET yde las JONS).[253]

The 1930s also saw Spain become a focus for pacifist organizations,including the Fellowship of Reconciliation, the War Resisters League,and the War Resisters' International. Many people including, as they arenow called, the "insumisos" ("defiant ones", conscientious objectors)argued and worked for non-violent strategies. Prominent Spanishpacifists, such as Amparo Poch y Gascn and Jos Brocca, supportedthe Republicans. Brocca argued that Spanish pacifists had no alternativebut to make a stand against fascism. He put this stand into practice byvarious means, including organizing agricultural workers to maintainfood supplies, and through humanitarian work with war refugees.[nb 8]

Art and propagandaThroughout the course of the Spanish Civil War, people all over the world were exposed to the goings-onand effects of it on its people not only through standard art, but also through propaganda. Motion pictures,posters, radio programs, and leaflets are a few examples of this media art that was so influential during thewar. Produced by both fascists and republicans, propaganda allowed Spaniards a way to spread awarenessabout their war all over the world. In a film co-produced by famous early-twentieth century authors such asErnest Hemingway and Lillian Hellman, video footage was used as a way to advertise Spains need formilitary and monetary aid. This film, The Spanish Earth, premiered in dwellings all over America in July,1937. This was an influential film during this time period because it was one of few pieces of propagandathat was created from a Spanish Republican point of view. It exposed the hardships of Spanish civiliansduring the war, captured footage of battles from the republicans front, and uncovered the immoralities thrustupon the Spanish people by the fascists. By promoting this film, as well as other forms of propaganda, tointernational audiences, Spain was able to gather more military allies as well as monetary donations tosupport their battered homeland. After the war, even in the present-day, not only propaganda, but also allforms of art created during and after the war, serve as reminders of the Spanish Civil War. They not onlyallow audiences to recall the horrors of the war, but also serve as a reminder of how much Spain hasovercome and accomplished since this time.

Leading works of sculpture include Alberto Snchez Prez's El pueblo espaol tiene un camino que conducea una estrella maqueta ("The Spanish People Have a Path that Leads to a Star"), a 12.5m monolithconstructed out of plaster representing the struggle for a socialist utopia;[254] Julio Gonzlez's La

Montserrat, an anti-war work which shares its title with a mountain near Barcelona, is created from a sheetof iron which has been hammered and welded to create a peasant mother carrying a small child in one armand a sickle in the other. and Alexander Calder's Fuente de mercurio (Mercury Fountain) a protest work bythe American against the Nationalist forced control of Almade'n and the mercury mines there.[255]

As to other works of art, Pablo Picasso painted Guernica in 1937, taking inspiration from the bombing ofGuernica. Guernica, like many important Republican masterpieces, was featured at the 1937 InternationalExhibition in Paris. The work's size (11 ft by 25.6 ft) grabbed much attention and casted the horrors of themounting Spanish civil unrest into a global spotlight.[256] The painting has since been herald as an anti-warwork and a symbol of peace in the 20th century.[257] Joan Mir created El Segador (The Reaper, formallytitled El campesino cataln en rebelda (Catalan peasant in revolt), which spans some 18 feet by 12 feet[258]and depicted a peasant brandishing a sickle in the air, to which Mir commented that "The sickle is not acommunist symbol. It is the reapers symbol, the tool of his work, and, when his freedom is threatened, hisweapon."[257] This work, featured at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris, was shipped back to theSpanish Republic's capital in Valencia following the Exhibition, but has since gone missing or has beendestroyed.[258]

TimelineSpanish Civil War Timeline

Date Event1868 Overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon1873 Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicates throne ending the short-lived First Spanish Republic1874 (December) Restoration of the Bourbons1909 Tragic Week in Barcelona1923 Military coup brings Miguel Primo de Rivera to power1930 (January) Miguel Primo de Rivera resigns1931 Spanish Constitution that included articles 24 and 26 which banned Jesuits1931 (April 12) Municipal elections, King Alfonso XIII abdicates, Second Spanish Republic is formedwith Niceto Alcala-Zamora as President and Head of State1931 (June) Elections return large majority of Republicans and Socialists1931 (October) Republican Manuel Azana becomes prime minister of a minority government1931 (December) New reformist, liberal, and democratic constitution is declared1932 (August) Unsuccessful uprising by General Jos Sanjurjo1933 Beginning of the "black two years"1934 Asturias uprising1936 (April) Popular Front alliance wins election and Azana replaces Zamora as president1936 (June 12) Prime Minister Casares Quiroga meets General Joan Yague1936 (July 5) Aircraft chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco1936 (July 12) Lieutenant Jose Castillo is murdered1936 (July 13) Jose Calvo Sotelo is arrested

1936 (July 14) Franco arrives in Morocco1936 (July 17) Military coup gains control over Spanish Morocco1936 (July 17) Official beginning of the war1936 (July 20) Coup leader Sanjurjo is killed in a plane crash1936 (July 21) Nationalists capture the central Spanish naval base1936 (August 7) "Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen at Cerro de losAngeles in Getafe1936 (September 4) The Republican government under Giral resigns, and are replaced by mostly Socialistorganization under Largo Caballero1936 (September 5) Nationalists take Irun1936 (September 15) Nationalists take San Sebastian1936 (September 21) Franco chosen as chief military commander at Salamanca1936 (September 27) Franco's troops relieve the Alcazar in Toledo1936 (September 29) Franco proclaims himself Caudillo1936 (October 17) Nationalists from Galicia relieve the besieged town of Oviedo1936 (November) Bombing of Madrid1936 (November 8) Franco launches major assault on Madrid that is unsuccessful1936 (November 6) Republican government is forced to move to Valencia from Madrid1937 Nationalists capture most of Spain's northern coastline1937 (February 6) Battle of Jarama begins1937 (February 8) Malaga falls to Franco's forces1937 (March) War in the North begins1937 (March 8) Battle of Guadalajara begins1937 (April 26) Bombing of Guernica1937 (May 21) 4,000 Basque children taken to the UK1937 (June 3) Mola, Franco's second-in-command, is killed1937 (July) Republicans move to recapture Segovia1937 (July 6) Battle of Brunete begins1937 (August) Franco invades Aragon and takes the city of Santander1937 (August 24) Battle of Belchite begins1937 (October) Gijon falls to Franco's troops1937 (November) Republican government forced to move to Barcelona from Valencia1938 Nationalists capture large parts of Catalonia1938 (January) Battle of Teruel, conquered by Republicans1938 (February 22) Franco recovers Teruel1938 (March 7) Nationalists launch the Aragon Offensive1938 (March 16) Bombing of Barcelona1938 (May) Republican sue for peace, Franco demands unconditional surrender1938 (July 24) Battle of the Ebro begins

1938 (December 24) Franco throws massive force into invasion of Catalonia1939 Beginning of General Francisco Franco's rule1939 (January 15) Tarragona falls to Franco1939 (January 26) Barcelona falls to Franco1939 (February 2) Girona falls to Franco1939 (February 27) UK and France recognize the Franco regime1939 (March 6) Prime minister Juan Negrin flees to France1939 (March 28) Nationalists occupy Madrid1939 (March 31) Nationalists control all Spanish territory1939 (April 1) Last Republican forces surrender1939 (April 1) Official ending of the war1975 Ending of General Francisco Franco's rule

People

Figures identified with the Republican side

Politicians or military

Manuel Azaa (Republican)Santiago Carrillo (Communist)Valentin Gonzlez ("El Campesino")(Communist)Dolores Ibarruri ("La Pasionaria")(Communist)Francisco Largo Caballero (Socialist)Diego Martnez Barrio (Republican)Juan Negrn (Socialist)Andrs Nin (Communist)Indalecio Prieto (Socialist)Buenaventura Durruti (Anarchist)

Others identified with the Republican side(including volunteers)

W. H. Auden (poet)Robert Capa (photojournalist)Pablo Casals (cellist, conductor)Federico Garca Lorca (poet, dramatist -assassinated)

Figures identified with the Nationalist side

Military

Milln Astray (Spain)Francisco Franco (Spain)Miguel Cabanellas (Spain)Jos Sanjurjo (Spain)Emilio Mola (Spain)Gonzalo Queipo de Llano (Spain)Juan Yage (Spain)Hugo Sperrle (Germany)Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma (Germany)Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen (Germany)Mario Roatta (Italy)Ettore Bastico (Italy)

Non-military

Pedro Muoz Seca (playwright - assassinated)Ramn Serrano Ser (politician)

Egon Erwin Kisch (writer, journalist)Pablo Picasso (painter, sculptor)Rafael Alberti (poet)Ernest Hemingway (author, journalist)John Dos Passos (novelist)Jose Robles (academic, activist)Laurie Lee (poet, novelist, screenwriter)George Orwell (novelist, journalist)Luis Buuel (filmmaker)Miguel Hernandez (poet)Pablo Neruda (poet)ikica Jovanovi panac (Socialist)

Political parties and organizations

The Popular Front (Republican) Supporters of the Popular Front(Republican) Nationalists (Francoist)

The Popular Front was an electoralalliance formed between various left-wing and centrist parties for electionsto the Cortes in 1936, in which thealliance won a majority of seats.

UR (Unin Republicana -Republican Union): Led byDiego Martnez Barrio, formedin 1934 by members of thePRR, who had resigned inobjection to AlejandroLerroux's coalition with theCEDA. It drew its main supportfrom skilled workers andprogressive businessmen.IR (Izquierda Republicana -Republican Left): Led byformer Prime Minister ManuelAzaa after his RepublicanAction party merged withSantiago Casares Quiroga's

Unin Militar RepublicanaAntifascista (RepublicanAnti-fascist Military Union):Formed by military officers inopposition to the UninMilitar Espaola.Anarchist groups. Theanarchists boycotted the 1936Cortes election and initiallyopposed the Popular Frontgovernment, but joined duringthe Civil War when LargoCaballero became PrimeMinister.

CNT (ConfederacinNacional del Trabajo -NationalConfederation ofLabour): Theconfederation ofanarcho-syndicalist

Virtually all Nationalist groups hadvery strong Roman Catholicconvictions and supported the nativeSpanish clergy.

Unin Militar Espaola(Spanish Military Union) - aconservative politicalorganisation of officers in thearmed forces, includingoutspoken critics of theRepublic like FranciscoFranco. Formed in 1934, theUME secretly courted fascistItaly from its inception. Afterthe electoral victory of thePopular Front, it beganplotting a coup withmonarchist and fascist groupsin Spain. In the run-up to theCivil War, it was led byEmilio Mola and Jos

Political parties and organizations in the Spanish Civil War

Galician independence partyand the Radical SocialistRepublican Party (PRRS). Itdrew its support from skilledworkers, small businessmen,and civil servants. Azaa ledthe Popular Front and becamepresident of Spain. The IRformed the bulk of the firstgovernment after the PopularFront victory with members ofthe UR and the ERC.

ERC (EsquerraRepublicana deCatalunya - RepublicanLeft of Catalonia): TheCatalan faction ofAzaa's Republicans, ledby Llus Companys.

PSOE (Partido SocialistaObrero Espaol - SpanishSocialist Workers' Party):Formed in 1879, its alliancewith Accin Republicana inmunicipal elections in 1931saw a landslide victory that ledto the King's abdication and thecreation of the SecondRepublic. The two parties wonthe subsequent general election,but the PSOE left the coalitionin 1933. At the time of the CivilWar, the PSOE was splitbetween a right wing underIndalecio Prieto and JuanNegrn, and a left wing underLargo Caballero. Following thePopular Front victory, it wasthe second largest party in theCortes, after the CEDA. It

trade unions.FAI (FederacinAnarquista Ibrica -Iberian AnarchistFederation): Thefederation of anarchistgroups, very active inthe Republican militias.Mujeres Libres (FreeWomen): The anarchistfeminist organisation.FIJL (FederacinIbrica de JuventudesLibertarias - IberianFederation ofLibertarian Youth)

Basque separatists.PNV (PartidoNacionalista Vasco -Basque NationalistParty): A CatholicChristian Democratparty under JosAntonio Aguirre, whichcampaigned for greaterautonomy orindependence for theBasque region. Heldseats in the Cortes andsupported the PopularFront governmentbefore and during theCivil War. Put itsreligious disagreementwith the Popular Frontaside for a promisedBasque autonomy.ANV (AccinNacionalista Vasca -Basque Nationalist

Sanjurjo, and latterly Franco.Alfonsist Monarchist -supported the restoration ofAlfonso XIII. Many armyofficers, aristocrats, andlandowners were Alfonsine,but there was little popularsupport.

Renovacin Espaola(Spanish Restoration)- the main Alfonsinepolitical party.Accin Espaola(Spanish Action) - anintegral nationalistparty led by Jos CalvoSotelo, formed in 1933around a journal of thesame name edited bypolitical theorist andjournalist Ramiro deMaeztu.

BloqueNacional(NationalBlock) - themilitiamovementfounded byCalvo Sotelo.

Carlist Monarchist -supported Alfonso Carlos I deBorbn y Austria-Este's claimto the Spanish throne and sawthe Alfonsine line as havingbeen weakened by Liberalism.After Alfonso Carlos diedwithout issue, the Carlists split- some supporting Carlos'appointed regent, Francisco-

supported the ministries ofAzaa and Quiroga, but did notactively participate until theCivil War began. It hadmajority support amongst urbanmanual workers.

UGT (Unin Generalde Trabajadores -General Union ofWorkers): The socialisttrade union. The UGTwas formally linked tothe PSOE, and the bulkof the union followedCaballero.Federacion deJuventudes Socialistas(Federation of SocialistYouth)

PSUC (Partit SocialistaUnificat de Catalunya -Unified Socialist Party ofCatalonia): An alliance ofvarious socialist parties inCatalonia, formed in thesummer of 1936, controlled bythe PCE.JSU (Juventudes SocialistasUnificadas - Unified SocialistYouth): Militant youth groupformed by the merger of theSocialist and the Communistyouth groups. Its leader,Santiago Carrillo, came fromthe Socialist Youth, but hadsecretly joined the CommunistYouth prior to merger, and thegroup was soon dominated bythe PCE.PCE (Partido Comunista de

Action): A leftistSocialist party, which atthe same timecampaigned forindependence of theBasque region.STV (Solidaridad deTrabajadores Vascos -Basque Workers'Solidarity): A tradeunion in the Basqueregion, with a Catholicclerical traditioncombined withmoderate socialisttendencies.

SRI (Socorro RojoInternacional - InternationalRed Aid): Communistorganization allied with theComintern that providedconsiderable aid to Republicancivilians and soldiers.International Brigades: pro-Republican military unitsmade up of anti-fascistSocialist, Communist andanarchist volunteers fromdifferent countries.

Xavier de Borbn-Parma,others supporting AlfonsoXIII or the Falange. TheCarlists were clerical hard-liners led by the aristocracy,with a populist base amongstthe farmers and rural workersof Navarre providing themilitia.

ComuninTradicionalista(TraditionalistCommunion) - theCarlist political party

Requets(Volunteers) -militiamovement.Pelayos -militant youthmovement,named afterPelayo ofAsturias.Margaritas -women'smovement,named afterMargarita deBorbn-Parma,wife of CarlistpretenderCharles VII(1868-1909).

Falange (Phalanx):FE (Falange Espaolade las JONS) - createdby a merger in 1934 oftwo fascistorganisations, Primo de

Espaa - Communist Party ofSpain): Led by Jos Daz in theCivil War, it had been a minorparty during the early years ofthe Republic, but came todominate the Popular Frontafter Negrn became PrimeMinister.POUM (Partido Obrero deUnificacin Marxista -Worker's Party of MarxistUnification): An anti-Stalinistrevolutionary communist partyof former Trotskyists formed in1935 by Andreu Nin.

JCI (JuventudComunista Ibrica -Iberian CommunistYouth): the POUM'syouth movement.

PS (Partido Sindicalista -Syndicalist Party): a moderatesplinter group of CNT.

Rivera's Falange(Phalanx), founded in1933, and RamiroLedesma's Juntas deOfensiva Nacional-Sindicalista(Assemblies ofNational-SyndicalistOffensive), founded in1931. It became a massmovement when it wasjoined by members ofAccin Popular and byAccin Catlica, led byRamn Serrano Ser.

OJE(OrganizacinJuvenilEspaola) -militant youthmovement.SeccinFemenina(FeminineSection) -women'smovement inlabour of SocialAid.

Falange EspaolaTradicionalista y delas JONS - created by amerger in 1937 of theFE and the Carlistparty, bringing theremaining political andmilitia components ofthe Nationalist sideunder Franco's ultimateauthority.

CEDA - coalition partyfounded by Jos Mara Gil-Robles y Quiones whoseideology ranged fromChristian democracy toconservative. Although theysupported Franco's rebellion,the party was dissolved in1937, after most members andmilitants joined FE and Gil-Robles went to exile.

See alsoList of foreign ships wrecked or lost in the Spanish Civil WarCatholicism in the Second Spanish RepublicGuernica (painting)The Falling SoldierForeign involvement in the Spanish Civil WarList of war films and TV specials#Spanish Civil War (19361939)List of foreign correspondents in the Spanish Civil WarList of surviving veterans of the Spanish Civil WarList of non-participants who died defending their freedom of consciencePolish volunteers in the Spanish Civil WarJewish volunteers in the Spanish Civil WarEuropean Civil WarSpain in World War IISS CantabriaPacifism in SpainSpanish Republican Armed ForcesArt and culture in Francoist Spain

ReferencesNotes

1. ^ The number of casualties is disputed; estimates generally suggest that between 500,000 and 1 million people werekilled. Over the years, historians kept lowering the death figures and modern research concludes that 500,000 deaths

is the correct figure. Thomas Barria-Norton, The Spanish Civil War (2001), pp. xviii & 899901, inclusive.2. ^ Also known as The Crusade among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War among Carlists, and The Rebellion or

Uprising among Republicans.3. ^ Known in Spanish as Confederacin Espaola de Derechas Autnomas (CEDA).4. ^ Known in Spanish as the Falange Espaola de las JONS.5. ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 196198, 309: Conds was a close personal friend of Castillo. His squad had originally sought

to arrest Gil Robles as a reprisal for Castillo's murder, but Robles was not at home, so they went to the house ofCalvo Sotelo. Thomas concludes that Conds intended to arrest Calvo Sotelo, and that Cuenca acted on his owninitiative, though he acknowledges other sources that dispute this finding.

6. ^ Westwell (2004) gives a figure of 500 million Reichmarks.7. ^ Since Beevor (2006). p. 82. suggests 7,000 members of some 115,000 clergy were killed, the proportion could well

be lower.8. ^ See variously: Bennett, Scott, Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America,

19151963, Syracuse NY, Syracuse University Press, 2003; Prasad, Devi, War is A Crime Against Humanity: TheStory of War Resisters' International, London, WRI, 2005. Also see Hunter, Allan, White Corpsucles in Europe,Chicago, Willett, Clark & Co., 1939; and Brown, H. Runham, Spain: A Challenge to Pacifism, London, TheFinsbury Press, 1937.

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