Sourabh r Sherawat Viii-c

8/10/2019 Sourabh r Sherawat Viii-c

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Earthquake

An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release

of energy in the Earth'scrustthat creates seismic waves. The seismicity,seismism or seismic

activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a

period of time.

Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers. The moment

magnitudeis the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5

are reported for the entire globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude

5 reported by national seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local

magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter magnitude scale. These two scales are

numerically similar over their range of validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are

mostly almost imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause serious

damage over larger areas, depending on their depth. The largest earthquakes in historic

times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, although there is no limit to the possiblemagnitude. The most recent large earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or larger was a 9.0

magnitude earthquake in Japan in 2011(as of March 2014), and it was the largest

Japanese earthquake since records began. Intensity of shaking is measured on the

modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the more damage to structures it

causes, all else being equal.[1]
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Earthquakes and volcanic activity

Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and arecaused there, both bytectonicfaults and themovement of magmain volcanoes. Such earthquakes

can serve as an early warningof volcaniceruptions, asduring the Mount St. Helenseruption of1980.[18]Earthquake swarms can serve as markers forthe location of the flowing magma throughout thevolcanoes. These swarms can be recorded by

seismometers and tiltmeters(a device that measuresground slope) and used as sensors to predict imminentor upcoming eruptions.[19]
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Rupture dynamics

A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on thefault surface, a process known as nucleation. The scale of thenucleation zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as therupture dimensions of the smallest earthquakes, suggesting that it

is smaller than 100 m while other evidence, such as a slowcomponent revealed by low-frequency spectra of someearthquakes, suggest that it is larger. The possibility that thenucleation involves some sort of preparation process is supportedby the observation that about 40% of earthquakes are preceded byforeshocks. Once the rupture has initiated it begins to propagate

along the fault surface. The mechanics of this process are poorlyunderstood, partly because it is difficult to recreate the high slidingvelocities in a laboratory. Also the effects of strong ground motionmake it very difficult to record information close to a nucleationzone.[20]
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Landslides and avalanches

Landslides became a symbol of thedevastation the 2001 El Salvadorearthquakesleft, killing hundreds in its wake.

Earthquakes, along with severe storms,volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, andwildfires, can produce slope instability leadingto landslides, a major geological hazard.Landslide danger may persist while emergencypersonnel are attempting rescue.[51]
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Tectonic plates

Apie chartcomparing theseismic

momentrelease for the largest earthquakes

from 1906 to 2005 compared to all other

earthquakes for the same period

The megathrust earthquake was unusually

large ingeographicaland geologicalextent. An estimated 1,600 kilometres(1,000mi) offault surfaceslipped (or

ruptured) about 15 metres (50ft) along

thesubductionzone where theIndian

Plateslides (or subducts) under theoverridingBurma Plate. The slip did not

happen instantaneously but took place in

two phases over a period of several

minutes:
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Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about 400kilometres (250 mi) long and 100 kilometres (60 mi) wide, located 30 kilometres (19 mi) beneaththe sea bedthe largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The ruptureproceeded at a speed of about 2.8 kilometres per second (1.7 miles per second) (10,000 km/h or6,200 mph), beginning off the coast of Acehand proceeding north-westerly over a period of about100 seconds.

A pause of about another 100 seconds took place before the rupture continued northwardstowards the Andamanand Nicobar Islands. However, the northern rupture occurred more slowly

than in the south, at about 2.1 km/s (1.3 mi/s) (7,500 km/h or 4,700 mph), continuing northforanother five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction to strike-slip(the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions).

The Indian Plateispart of the great Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Oceanand Bay of Bengal, and is driftingnorth-east at an average of 6 centimetres per year (2.4inches peryear). The India Plate meets the Burma Plate(which is considered a portion of the greatEurasianPlate) at the Sunda Trench.At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, whichcarries the Nicobar Islands, theAndaman Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks

deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressuredrive volatilesout of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying platecausing partial meltingand the formation ofmagma. The rising magma intrudes into the crustabove and exits the Earth's crust through volcanoesin the form of a volcanic arc. The volcanicactivity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the Eurasian Platehas created the SundaArc.
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Tsunamis

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquakewas an underseamegathrust earthquakethat occurred at

00:58:53 UTCon Sunday, 26 December 2004, with an epicentreoff the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia.

The quake itself is known by the scientific communityas the SumatraAndaman earthquake.[6][7]The

resulting tsunamiwas given various names, including the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, South Asian

tsunami, Indonesian tsunami, the Christmas tsunamiand theBoxing Daytsunami.[8]

The earthquake was caused when the Indian Plate was subductedby the Burma Plate and triggered a

series of devastating tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing

230,000 people in 14 countries, and inundating coastal communities with waves up to 30 metres (100 ft)high.[9]It was one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. Indonesia was the hardest-hit

country, followed by Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand.

With a magnitudeof Mw9.19.3, it is the third-largest earthquakeever recorded on aseismograph. The

earthquake had the longest duration of faulting ever observed, between 8.3 and 10 minutes. It caused the

entire planet to vibrate as much as 1 centimetre (0.4 inches)[10]and triggered other earthquakes as far

away as Alaska.[11]Its epicentre was between Simeulueand mainland Indonesia.[12]The plight of

the affected people and countriesprompted a worldwidehumanitarian response. In all, the worldwidecommunity donated more than $14 billion (2004 US$) in humanitarian aid. [13]
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1. The energy released on the Earth's surface only (ME, whichis the seismic potential for damage) by the 2004 Indian Oceanearthquake and tsunami was estimated at 1.11017joules,[26]or 26 megatons of TNT. This energy is equivalent to over1500 times that of the Hiroshima atomic bomb, but less than that of Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon everdetonated. However, the totalworkdone MW(and thus energy) by this quake was 4.010

22joules(4.01029ergs),[27]thevast majority underground. This is over 360,000 times more than its ME, equivalent to 9,600 gigatons ofTNTequivalent(550 million times that of Hiroshima) or about 370 years of energy use in the United Statesat 2005 levels of1.081020J.

2. The only recorded earthquakes with a larger MWwere the 1960 Chileanand 1964 Alaskanquakes, with 2.51023joules

(250 ZJ) and 7.51022joules (75 ZJ) respectively.[28]

3. The earthquake generated a seismic oscillation of the Earth's surface of up to 2030 cm (812 in), equivalent to the effect

of the tidal forcescaused by the Sunand Moon. The shock waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet; as faraway as the U.S. state of Oklahoma, where vertical movements of 3 mm (0.12 in) were recorded. By February 2005, theearthquake's effects were still detectable as a 20 m (0.02 mm; 0.0008 in) complex harmonic oscillation of the Earth'ssurface, which gradually diminished and merged with the incessant free oscillation of the Earth more than 4 months afterthe earthquake.[29]

4. Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquakegenerated remarkable seismic groundmotions around the globe, particularly due to huge Rayleigh (surface) elastic wavesthat exceeded 1 cm (0.4 in) in verticalamplitude everywhere on Earth. The record section plot below displays vertical displacements of the Earth's surfacerecorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time (since theearthquake initiation) on the horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cmscale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicenter in degrees. Theearliest, lower amplitude, signalis that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes about 22 minutes to reach the otherside of the planet (the antipode; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves thatreach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (withthe closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region afterabout 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the200 minute mark. This aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances, but is dwarfedby the mainshock.
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1. Vertical-component ground motions recorded by the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network.

2. The shift of mass and the massive release of energy very slightly altered the Earth's rotation. The exactamount is not yet known, but theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a dayby 2.68 microseconds, due to a decrease in the oblatenessof the Earth.[30]It also caused theEarth tominutely "wobble" on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1 in) in the direction of 145 eastlongitude,[31]or perhapsby up to 5 or 6 cm (2.0 or 2.4 in).[32]However, because of tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a dayincreases at an average of 15sper year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lostquickly. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobbleof the Earth, which in some cases can be up to 15 m(50 ft), will eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake.

3. More spectacularly, there was 10 m (33 ft) movement laterally and 45 m (1316 ft) vertically along thefault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is onthe Burma Plate(the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have moved south-west by up to36 m (120 ft), but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found themovement to be about 20 cm (8 in).[33]Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastalareas may have been moved to below sea level. The Andaman and Nicobar Islandsappear to haveshifted south-west by around 1.25 m (4 ft 1 in) and to have sunk by 1 m (3 ft 3 in). [34]

4. In February 2005, the Royal Navyvessel HMS Scottsurveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone,

which varies in depth between 1,000 and 5,000 m (550and 2,730 fathoms; 3,300 and 16,400 ft). Thesurvey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam sonarsystem, revealed that the earthquake hadmade a huge impact on the topography of the seabed. 1,500-metre-high (5,000 ft) thrust ridges createdby previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating landslidesseveral kilometerswide. One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some 100 m high and 2 km long (300 ft by1.25 mi). The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs ofrock, each weighing millions of tons, as far as 10 km (6 mi) across the seabed. An oceanic trenchseveralkilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsecondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblate_spheroidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsecondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_wobblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_wobblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_wobblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_wobblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunda_Platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunda_Platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Scott_(H131)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Scott_(H131)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landslidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landslidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landslidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Scott_(H131)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Scott_(H131)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Scott_(H131)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andaman_and_Nicobar_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunda_Platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunda_Platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunda_Platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_wobblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsecondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunamihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblate_spheroidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsecond


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Tsunami characteristics

NOAA's tsunami travel time (TTT) map for the 2004 Indian Oceantsunami. The TTT map calculates the first-arrival travel times of

the tsunami, following their generation at the earthquake

epicenter. Note that the maps do not provide the height or the

strength of the wave, only the arrival times. The number tags

represent hours after the initial event. Map contours represent 1-

hour intervals. Red indicates 1-4 hour arrival times, Yellowindicates 5-6 hour arrival times, Green indicates 7-14 hour arrival

times, and Blue indicates 15-21 hour arrival times. Maps were

generated from earthquake epicenters in the NGDC Global

Historical Tsunami Database using NGDC 2-Minute Gridded

Global Relief Data bathymetry. The map was created through

models based on quality-controlled source data, and an

integration of many data sets together.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2004IndianOceanTsunami.jpg


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The sudden vertical rise of the seabedby several metres during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water,resulting in a tsunami that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean. A tsunami that causes damage far away from its source issometimescalled a teletsunamiand is much more likely to be produced by vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontalmotion.[38]

The tsunami, like all others, behaved very differently in deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, tsunamiwaves form only a small hump, barely noticeable and harmless, which generally travels at a very high speed of 500 to1,000 km/h (310 to 620 mph); in shallow water near coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres per hourbut, in doing so, forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh found evidence that the wavereached a height of 24 metres (80 ft)when coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline, rising to 30 metres (100 ft)in some areas when traveling inland.[9]

Radarsatellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in deep water: at two hours after the earthquake, the maximumheight was 60 centimetres (2 ft). These are the first such observations ever made. Unfortunately these observations couldnot be used to provide a warning, since the satellites were not built for that purpose and the data took hours toanalyze.[39][40]

According to Tad Murty, vice-president of the Tsunami Society, the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent toabout five megatonsof TNT(20 petajoules). This is more than twice the total explosive energy used during all of World WarII (including the two atomic bombs) but still a couple of orders of magnitudeless than the energy released in the earthquakeitself. In many places the waves reached as far as 2 km (1.2 mi) inland.[41]
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Because the 1,600 km (1,000 mi) fault affected

by the earthquake was in a nearly north-south

orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami

waves was in an east-west

direction. Bangladesh, which lies at the northern

end of the Bay of Bengal, had very few casualties

despite being a low-lying country relatively near

the epicenter. It also benefited from the fact that

the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the

northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the

energy of the water displacements in that region.

Coasts that have a landmass between them and

the tsunami's location of origin are usually safe;

however, tsunami waves can

sometimes diffractaround such landmasses.

Thus, the state of Keralawas hit by the tsunami

despite being on the western coast ofIndia, and

the western coast of Sri Lanka suffered

substantial impacts. Distance alone was no

guarantee of safety, as Somaliawas hit harder

than Bangladesh despite being much farther

away.

Because of the distances involved, the tsunami

took anywhere from fifteen minutes to sevenhours to reach the coastlines.[42][43]The northern

regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were

hit very quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east

coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two

hours later. Thailand was struck about two hours

later despite being closer to the epicentre,

because the tsunami traveled more slowly in the

shallowAndaman Seaoff its western coast.
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Countries affected

The earthquake and resulting tsunami

affected many countries in Southeast Asia

and beyond, includingIndonesia, Sri

Lanka,India,Thailand,

theMaldives,Somalia,Myanmar,Malaysia,Se

ychellesand others. Many other countries,especially Australia and those in Europe, had

large numbers of citizens traveling in theregion on holiday.Swedenlost 543 citizens in

the disaster, whileGermanyhad 539 identified

victims.
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Environmental impactBeyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean

earthquake has caused an enormous environmental

impact that will affect the region for many years to

come. It has been reported that severe damage has

been inflicted onecosystemssuch asmangroves,coral

reefs, forests, coastalwetlands, vegetation,

sanddunesandrockformations, animal and

plantbiodiversityandgroundwater. In addition, the

spread of solid and liquid waste and industrial

chemicals,water pollutionand the destruction

ofsewagecollectors and treatment plants threaten the

environment even further, in untold ways. The

environmental impact will take a long time and

significant resources to assess.[95]
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According to specialists, the main effect is being caused by poisoning of the freshwatersupplies and thesoil by saltwaterinfiltration and deposit of a salt layer over arable land. It has been reported that in theMaldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are completely without fresh waterand could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities wereinvaded by sea, sand and earth; and aquiferswere invaded through porous rock. Salted-over soil becomessterile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes the death of plants andimportant soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice, mango and banana plantations in Sri Lanka weredestroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover. On the island's east coast, the tsunamicontaminated wells on whichmany villagers relied for drinking water. The Colombo-based InternationalWater Management Institutemonitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recoveredto pre-tsunami drinking water quality one and a half years after the event.[96]IWMIdeveloped protocolsfor cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the WorldHealth Organizationas part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.[97]

The United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) is working with governments of the region in orderto determine the severity of the ecological impact and how to address it.[98]UNEP has decided toearmark a US$1,000,000 emergency fund and to establish aTask Force to respond to requests fortechnical assistance from countries affected by the tsunami.[99]In response to a request from

the Maldivian Government, the Australian Government sent ecological experts to help restore marineenvironments and coral reefsthe lifeblood of Maldivian tourism. Much of the ecological expertise hasbeen rendered from work with the Great Barrier Reef, in Australia's northeastern waters.
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Sourabh r Sherawat Viii-c

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