Sound Advertising

Sound Advertising: A Review of the Experimental Evidence on the Effects of Music in Commercials on

Attention, Memory, Attitudes, and Purchase Intention

David Allan, Ph.D.

Department of Marketing

Saint Joseph's University

Online Publication Date: October 23, 2007

Journal of Media Psychology, Volume 12, No. 3, Fall, 2007

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Sound Advertising

Abstract

This article reviews the empirical studies on the interaction of music and the hierarchy of

advertising effects, or specifically attention, memory, attitudes and purchase intention. The most

relevant literature is analyzed through the formation of two comprehensive tables of theories and

experiments. Music variables such as appeal, fit, melody, mood, tempo, texture, tonality, and

valence are shown to influence consumer attitude toward the ad and the brand, recall, pleasure

and arousal, and purchase intention. This review provides a summary of the results and the

foundation for future research into sound advertising.

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Sound Advertising

Introduction

It is almost impossible to turn on the radio or the television, or walk into a retail establishment

and not witness the marriage of art and commerce. Even before the days of media and malls,

music was a major force in consumer marketing. Without exception, music plays a vital role in

the interactive process of consumer behavior. The commercial uses of music in marketing

account for billions of dollars nationwide. Not surprisingly, this area of study has received

considerable attention primarily focused on the impact of music on consumer responses to

commercial advertising.

There are many stimuli, or environmental cues, that retailers use to affect consumer behavior

including music, color, scents, etc. Music is considered to be the most commonly studied

stimulus variable (Turley & Milliman, 2000). Most retailers would agree that music is one of

their most important considerations and expenses (Yalch & Spangenberg, 1993). Billions of

dollars are spent worldwide on music in the retail environment (North & Hargreaves, 1998). Past

reviews of experimental evidence in this area have included music as part of a larger review of

atmospheric effects (Lam, 2001; Turley & Milliman, 2000), and more narrowly focused on just

its effect on shopping behavior (Allan, in press).

There are also many stimuli, or executional cues, that advertisers use to affect consumer

response to commercials including music, spokespersons, animation, etc. Music is also

considered to be the most used executional cue in commercials (Yalch, 1991). Dunbar (1990,

p. 200) argued that “music makes you watch or listen [to advertising] in a different way” than

commercials without music and adds an emotional dimension to the consumer response to the

brand.

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Sound Advertising

While it should not be surprising that the effect of music on advertising has been extensively

researched, it should be surprising that a current, comprehensive, and critical review of the

literature has not been completed. Bruner (1990) provided an early collection of relevant

research involving music and advertising as part of the literature review for his “Music, Mood

and Marketing” but that is now more than a decade old. North and Hargreaves (1997) updated

the list as part of a larger chapter (“Music and Consumer Behaviour”) on the commercial and

industrial uses of music (advertising, shops and the music industry) in The Sociology of Music. T

This article then, has three purposes. First, it is a review of the most important studies

involving music and advertising beginning with the most relevant definitions (Table 1). Second,

it is a synthesis and comparison of variables and results. Third, based on what has been done and

how it has been executed, it is a foundation and facilitation for future research.

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Sound Advertising

Table 1 A Summary of Relevant Definitions_______________________________________ Definition________________________________________ Citation__________________

Fit The music’s relevance or appropriateness to the central ad message. MacInnis & Park (1991)

Indexicality The extent to which the music arouses emotion-laden memories. MacInnis & Park (1991)

Jingle Unique, novel lyrics written for a particular advertisement. Wallace (1991)

Modality A pitch-related variable that is the configuration of intervals between notes in the scale such as major and minor modes.

Kellaris & Kent (1991)

Mood A fleeting, temporary feeling state, usually not intense and not tied to a specifiable behavior.

Gardner (1985)

Music A complex chemistry of three main controllable elements (time, pitch and texture).

Bruner (1990)

Needledrop Music that is prefabricated, multipurpose, and highly conventional. Scott (1990)

Placement The position of the music in the advertisement. Brooker & Wheatley (1994)

Popular Music

Music that is “well-liked” by “ordinary people” (Shuker, 1994) that has had wide exposure and appeal but usually for a fixed period of time.

Shuker (1994)

Tempo A time-related variable that controls pace. Kellaris & Kent (1991)

Texture Comprised of timbre and orchestra. Kellaris & Kent (1994)

Tonality The configuration of intervals between pitches on a scale. Kellaris & Kent (1994)

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Sound Advertising

Literature Review

The review of literature is divided into two parts. The first part is a discussion of the most

cited theories and models including the terms and concepts. The second part is an analysis of the

most relevant empirical studies of the effects of music on advertising. A summary table follows

each section.

Theories and Models

Advertising and music have been investigated through many variables with a wide range of

outcomes. An analysis of these studies begins with a discussion of the most relevant theories and

models. These theories and models provide the foundation of music in advertising

experimentation and include attitude theory, classical conditioning theory, involvement theory

especially the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), and music theory.

Attitude Theory. Fishbein’s (1963) attitude theory, that a person’s attitude is a function of his

salient beliefs activated from memory at a point in time in a given situation, is the primary

consideration with all research dealing with attitude toward the ad and attitude toward the brand.

As will be apparent in the results section, many researchers have studied music’s effect on

attitude toward the brand in regard to product preference (Allen & Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982;

Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Park & Young, 1986; Pitt & Abratt, 1988; Zhu,

2005) and purchase intention (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998). Others have

also considered attitude toward the ad and product preference (Macklin, 1988; Shen et al., 2006)

and purchase intention (Morris & Boone, 1998; North et al., 2004). The music variables with

regard to attitude toward the brand and the ad that have been most studied are indexicality, or

“the extent to which the music arouses emotion-laden memories,” and fit, or “the music’s

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Sound Advertising

relevance or appropriateness to the central ad message,” and its effect on the processing of the

commercial (MacInnis & Park, 1991).

Classical Conditioning Theory. Pavlov’s classical conditioning, as it relates to advertising,

suggests that positive attitudes towards an advertised product or a conditioned stimulus, usually

the brand, might develop through its association in a commercial with stimuli that are reacted to

positively, such as music, celebrities, or color. But, research has produced conflicting results.

Gorn (1982) concluded that positive attitudes towards an advertised product, in this case colored

pens, might develop through its association in a commercial with other stimuli like music (he

used the theme from “Grease” and classical Indian music). The results of two experiments

supported the notion that the simple association between a product and another stimulus such as

music can affect product preferences as measured by product choice. Furthermore, an individual

who is in a decision-making mode when exposed to a commercial is more affected by the

information therein than an individual who is not in a decision-making mode. Many researchers

have attempted to extend Gorn’s study but have been unable to replicate his findings (Allen &

Madden, 1985; Alpert & Alpert, 1990, Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). As it stands,

classical conditioning appears to occur unreliably (Kellaris & Cox, 1989) and then only in case

of low involvement consumers.

Involvement Theory. Involvement Theory in general, and the Elaboration Likelihood Model

(ELM) in particular, have been suggested as keys to understanding how music affects responses

to advertising. Krugman (1965) defined involvement as “the number of conscious bridging

experiences, connections, or personal references per minute that a viewer makes between his or

her own life and a stimulus” (p. 356). Salmon (1986) added that “involvement, in any form,

seems to mediate both the acquisition and processing of information through activating a

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Sound Advertising

heightened state of arousal and/or greater cognitive activity in an interaction between an

individual and a stimulus” (p. 264). Petty and Cacioppo’s (1986) concept of elaboration

likelihood refers to “the likelihood one engages in issue-relevant thinking with the aim of

determining the merits of the arguments rather than the total amount of thinking per se in which

a person engages” (p. 674). ELM assumes that once an individual receives a message, processing

begins. Depending on the personal relevance of this information, the receiver will follow one of

two “routes” to persuasion: “central” and “peripheral.” When the consumer gives the message a

high degree of attention, there is high involvement and thus a central (active) processing route.

When the consumer gives the message a low degree of attention, there is low involvement and a

peripheral (passive) processing route. Petty and Cacioppo suggested that high involvement was

the result of a message with high personal relevance. Researchers that have studied involvement

with regard to advertising and music have found that it can positively affect message processing

in low involvement conditions (MacInnis & Park, 1991; Park & Young, 1986).

Music theory. The idea that music has the potential to enhance attention (stimulate awareness)

and memory (recall) has been widely speculated and researched (Adorno 1941, 1976; Bartlett &

Snelus, 1980; Bower & Bolton, 1969; Galizio & Hendrick, 1972; Hecker, 1984; Macklin, 1988;

Rothschild, 1987; Rubin, 1977; Schulkind et al., 1999; Wallace, 1994).

Macklin (1988) found that messages that were sung in a produced, original jingle that

sounded like a nursery rhyme produced the same recall from children as spoken messages.

Bartlett and Snelus (1980) found that cued recall of lyrics of popular songs from 1921 (“When

Francis Dances With Me”) to 1974 (“Morning Has Broken”) was higher in response to melodies

than in response to titles. Schulkind, Hennis, and Rubin (1999) observed a correlation between

music, emotion and autobiographical, long-term memory of older adults and songs from their

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Sound Advertising

youth when testing the Top 20 from 1935 (“On Treasure Island”) to 1994 (“That’s The Way

Love Goes”). Some researchers have also observed the enhancement of recall by music. Rubin

(1977) found that recall of information is improved when cued with the melody of a well known

song (“Star Spangled Banner”). Wallace (1994) found that the melody of a song (using three

ballads from “The Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore) could facilitate recall

of text by providing it with musical structure for learning and remembering. Serafine, Crowder,

and Repp (1984), Serafine, Davidson, Crowder, and Repp (1986), and Crowder, Serafine and

Repp (1990) suggested an integration effect where the melody or text of a song (using folksongs

from Erdei) is better recalled with original text than with different text. These results suggest that

music in ads has the potential to stimulate emotion, attention and recall but not all studies

support this theory. Galizio and Hendrick (1972) did not observe that memory for verbal

information was enhanced by presenting the information in the form of a song (the musical

accompaniment of a guitar). A summary of the most cited theories and models including terms

and concepts can be seen in Table 2.

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Sound Advertising

Table 2 A Summary of Relevant Theories and Models ___________________________ Theory____________________________________________________ __Citation________________

Attitude Theory

Suggests that beliefs are the only mediators of attitude formation and change and that a person’s attitude is a function of salient beliefs at a particular moment.

Fishbein(1963)

ClassicalConditioning

The process of behavior modification by which a subject (dog) comes to respond in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus (bell) that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus (food) that elicits the desired response.

Pavlov (1927)

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Assumes that once an individual receives a message, processing begins. When the consumer gives the message a high degree of attention because it is relevant there is high involvement and thus a central (active) processing route. When the consumer gives the message a low degree of attention because it is not relevant, there is low involvement and a peripheral (passive) processing route.

Petty &Cacioppo (1986)

Hierarchy of Advertising Effects

The processes of attending to a commercial, learning and remembering its content, developing attitudes, and generating conative [tendency to move towards] responses occur in a sequential causal chain.

Thorson et al. (1992)

Involvement The number of conscious bridging experiences, connections, or personal references per minute that a viewer makes between his or her own life and a stimulus.

Krugman (1965)

Music Theory

The recall of information is improved when cued with the melody of a well known song. The melody of a song can facilitate recall in certain environments. There is a correlation between music, emotion and memory.

Rubin (1977)Wallace (1994)Schulkind et al. (1999)

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Sound Advertising

Variables

While the amount of consumer behavior theories and models used in the investigation and

explanation of music’s effect on advertising may be relatively few, the variables have been many

and varied. The following is a summary of the most widely observed independent and dependent

variables including a continuum, followed by a comprehensive review of the results of the

interaction of these variables.

Independent Variables. The impact of music on advertising has been observed with a variety

of behaviors when mediated either individually or through the interaction of certain variables.

Music appeal (like or dislike) has been observed in relation to product preferences (Allen &

Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). The effect of music

arousal or mood (a temporary feeling or state) was studied with purchase intention (Alpert &

Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al., 2005; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). Music fit has been observed in

relation to message processing (MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006).

Different types of music placements/treatments (vocals, instrumentals, jingles, etc.) and recall

have been researched (Allan, 2006a; Roehm, 2001; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991). Music

presence has positively affected product preference and purchase attention when interacting with

attitude (Macklin, 1988; Morris & Boone, 1998; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Park & Young, 1986;

Wheatley & Brooker, 1994) and recall (Macklin, 1988; Olsen, 1995; Wheatley & Brooker,

1994). Finally, music tempo (speed or pace), texture (timbre and orchestration), modality

(intervals between notes), and tonality (intervals between pitches in a scale) have been shown to

have the potential to enhance pleasure and arousal resulting in a greater purchase intention

(Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris & Kent, 1991, 1994; Kellaris & Rice, 1993).

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Sound Advertising

Dependent Variables. When mediated with the above variables, the effect of music in

advertising on a variety of consumer responses has also been observed. Attitude toward the ad

can be positively influenced by the presence of music (Macklin, 1988; Morris & Boone, 1998;

North et. al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006). Perception of ad time can be decreased by arousing music

(Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). Attitude toward the brand can be improved by appealing music (Allen

& Madden, 1985; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Kellaris &

Rice, 1993; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998; Park & Young, 1986; Pitt & Abratt,

1988; Zhu, 2005). Brand recall can be increased by personally relevant and significant music

(Allan, 2006a; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris et. al., 1993; Macklin, 1988; MacInnis &

Park, 1991; North et al., 2004; Olsen, 1995; Roehm, 2001; Shen et al., 2006; Wallace, 1991,

1994; Yalch, 1991; Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). Music attitude can be positively affected by

tempo (Kellaris & Rice, 1993; Kellaris & Kent, 1994). Pleasure/arousal can be affected by not

only the tempo but the tonality and texture of the music (Kellaris & Kent, 1994). Finally,

purchase intention can be affected by interaction of music and mood (Alpert & Alpert, 1990;

Alpert et al., 2005; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris & Kent, 1991; Morris & Boone, 1998;

North et al., 2004). A continuum of dependent variables and the corresponding independent

variables that have been observed can be seen in Figure 1.

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Sound Advertising

Figure 1DV/IV Continuum

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Attitude Toward →→ → Ad→ →→ Attitude Toward→→ Brand→→→ Pleasure/→ → → Purchase the Ad Time the Brand Recall Arousal Intention

Music fit Music arousal Music appeal Music fit Music tempo Music fit Music presence Music melody Music texture Music melody

Music presence Music tonality Music modalityMusic tempo Music mood

Music placementMusic presence

Music tempo

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Sound Advertising

Results

Much has been learned about music and advertising since it was first used in commercials in

the early days of radio. Through a survey and analysis of experimental literature and a content

analyses of experimental results and their theoretical underpinnings, a better understanding of the

interaction of independent and dependent variables or more conversationally, how music affects

the processing of the ad, and how much it is being used in advertising, has been achieved. What

follows is a discussion of the results.

Attitude Toward the Ad

Shimp (1981) argued that attitude toward the ad (ATTA) is an important mediator when a

consumer makes a choice. Since then, music’s potential to affect the consumer’s ad attitude has

received some attention with conflicting results. The presence of music was shown to affect how

a viewer feels when looking at print ads (Morris & Boone, 1998). Musical fit resulted in a better

attitude toward the ad (North et al., 2004; Shen & Chen, 2006). Brooker and Wheatley (1994),

however, reported no effect of music placement on attitude toward the ad. Likewise, Macklin

(1988) reported no effect of music presence on attitude toward the ad with children.

Ad Time

It has been argued that, under some circumstances, there is a disparity between objective time

and perceived time of the ad and that the latter is affected by external stimuli like music (Kellaris

& Mantel, 1994; 1996). While not a lot of attention has been given to perceived ad time, it is still

worth mentioning. Arousal was found to moderate the influence of stimulus congruity on

perceived time such that congruity contributed positively to retrospective duration estimates

among subjects exposed to soothing (versus arousing) music (Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). The

implications of objective time versus perceived time involve the potential benefits to the

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Sound Advertising

advertiser of increasing memory for the ad while reducing its length (60-second versus 30-

second commercial).

Attitude Toward the Brand

Mitchell and Olson (1981) argued that a consumer’s attitude or “internal evaluation” of a

brand has always been an important consideration in marketing research. It is not surprising then,

that a considerable amount of investigation into music’s effect on attitude toward the brand

(ATTB) has been undertaken with a variety of variables and results. Gorn (1982) observed that

hearing liked or disliked music can affect product preferences but his results were never

replicated (Allen & Madden, 1985; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). The presence of

music (Blondie’s “Tide Is High”) had a facilitative effect on brand attitude (shampoo and their

functional performance) in the low involvement condition and a distracting effect for those in the

cognitive involvement condition (Park & Young, 1986). Music presence was also shown to have

either no effects (Morris & Boone, 1998) or negative effects (Shen et al., 2006) on attitude

depending on its fit. As to how the process of attitude change toward the brand occurs, it has

been suggested that it might be a belief-based rather than an affect-based change (Middlestadt et

al., 1994). Brooker and Wheatley (1994) reported no effect of placement on attitude toward the

brand. Macklin (1988) reported no effect of the presence of music on attitude toward the brand

with children.

Brand Recall

Recall of the brand is obviously a primary consideration in the evaluation of the effectiveness

of music in advertising. When the music fit, the message processing of the ad was enhanced

(MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004). Different music treatments (original and altered

vocals, instrumentals, jingles, silence) did affect recall differently under varied conditions (Allan,

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Sound Advertising

2006a; Olsen, 1995: Roehm, 2001; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991). The presence or absence

of music was shown to be both attention-getting (Park & Young, 1988) and distracting

(Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). The placement (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994) or the presence of

music (Macklin, 1988) was not observed to affect recall. Musical fit, however, was shown to

stimulate better recall of brands (North et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006).

Pleasure and Arousal

It has been argued that music is an especially powerful stimulus for affecting moods (Bruner,

1990). Thus, it is maybe a bit surprising that music’s potential to affect moods primarily through

pleasure and arousal garnered a significant amount of attention in the 1990’s but not much since.

During that time, it was observed that arousing music was found to produce greater degrees of

mood enhancement thus positively affecting purchase intention (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Alpert et

al., 2005; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996; Morris & Boone, 1998). Music tempo (fast) was shown to

have positive effects on behavioral intent (Kellaris & Kent, 1991).

Purchase Intention

Since purchase intention or conation was first defined as “behavior directed toward action”

(Shanteau & Ptacek, 1983, p. 149), it has been one of the most difficult advertising effects to

research but arguably the most important. With regard to purchase intention and music, the

results varied with some observing significant effects (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al., 2005;

Kellaris & Kent, 1991) and some observing no significant effects (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994;

Morris & Boone, 1998). The placement of music was shown to invite attention to the message

and motivating consumers to process the message and facilitate the potential to purchase

(Brooker & Wheatley, 1994). The combination of music with silence also has been shown to be

attention-getting resulting in the enhancement of purchase intention (Olsen, 1995). The effect of

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music tempo was shown to have had contradictory results with some reporting a passive effect

on purchase intention (Kellaris & Kent, 1991), and some reporting no effect (Brooker &

Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998).

Content Analyses

Only a few studies have dealt with the amount of commercials on television and radio with

music. Stewart and Furse (1986, p. 160) found music featured in slightly more than 40% of 1000

television commercials they studied, but that only 12% of those used lyrics to directly convey the

advertising message. Similar frequencies were obtained in a follow-up study (Stewart & Koslow,

1989, p. 29). Appelbaum and Halliburton (1993) analyzed international commercials and found

music in 89% of their sample (p. 237). Allan (2006b) analyzed commercials in prime-time

television and reported that 86% of the unique ads contained some type of music. A summary of

the most relevant qualitative and quantitative studies on the effects of music on advertising can

be seen in Table 3.

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Table 3 Summary of Relevant Effectual Research Involving Advertising and Music___________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________

Table 3

Gorn 1982 244 undergraduates

Music appeal Brand attitude Hearing liked or disliked music while being exposed to a product can directly affect product preferences.

Allen & Madden (1985)

60 undergraduates Music appeal Brand attitude Hearing liked or disliked music while being exposed to a product did not directly affect product preferences.

Park & Young (1986)

120 women Music presence/absence,Involvement(high/low)(TV ads)

Brand attitude/information Music had a facilitative effect on brand attitude for subjects in the low involvement condition and a distracting effect for those in the cognitive involvement condition.

Sewall & Sarel (1986)

200 mall shoppers/832 radio ads

Music background Brand recall Background music had no significant effect

Pitt & Abratt (1988)

172 undergraduate students

Music appeal Brand attitude Hearing liked or disliked music while being exposed to a product did not directly affect product preferences.

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(continued)________________________________________________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results___________________________ Macklin (1988)

75 preschoolers Music backgroundPresence

Ad attitudeBrand attitudeBrand recall

Music did not enhance outcomes.

Stout & Leckenby (1988)

1498 mall shoppers/50 TV ads

Musictempo; mode;volume;presence

Cognitive/Affective responses

Music had only minor effects.

Kellaris & Cox (1989)

302 undergraduates

Music appeal Brand attitude No evidence that product preferences can be conditioned through a single exposure to appealing or unappealing music. (Classical Conditioning)

Alpert & Alpert (1990)

48 undergraduate students

Music MoodPurchase intention

Music had a significant effect on moods and purchase intention.

Kellaris & Kent (1991)

180 undergraduates

Music tempo/modality

Music evaluationPurchase intention

Tempo and Modality influenced arousal and intent.

MacInnis & Park (1991)

178 undergraduate women

Music fit/indexicality(TV ads)

Message processing Indexicality and fit affect the processing of both high- and low-involvement consumers, influencing message- and non-message-based processing.

Table 3

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(continued)____________________________________________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results_______________________ Wallace (1991)

120 subjects Music placement-Sung/spoken words(jingles/ballads)

Brand recall Music provides a retrieval cue.Music acts as a frame which the text is tightly fit.

Yalch (1991) 103 undergraduates

Music placement- slogans with and without music(jingles)

Brand recall Music enhances memory for advertising slogans when the slogans were incorporated into an advertisement in the form of a jingle or song.

Kellaris & Rice (1993)

52 undergraduates Music tempo,Loudness,Gender

Music responses Gender moderates the influence of loudness resulting in females responding more positively to music at lower volumes

Kellaris et. al. (1993)

231 undergraduates

Music-message fit,Attention-gaining value

Brand recall/Recognition of brand name and messages

Increasing audience attention to music enhances message reception when the music evokes message-congruent thoughts.

Table 3

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_________________________________________ (continued)__________________________________________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results_____________________

Table 3

Brooker & Wheatley (1994)

100 participants Music tempo/placement(radio ads)

Ad attitudes Brand attitudesPurchase intentionBrand recall

Tempo had effects on perception of music but no effect on DV’s.Placement had a stronger effect on DV’s.

Kellaris & Kent (1994)

288 undergraduates

Music tempo/Tonality/Texture

Pleasure/Arousal Tempo affected pleasure and arousal.Tonality affected pleasure and surprise.Texture moderated tempo and tonality on pleasure.

Middlestadt et al. (1994)

97 undergraduates Music presence Brand attitude Belief-based change

Wallace (1994)

64 undergraduates Music melody Brand recall Text is better recalled when it is heard as a song rather than as speech, provided the music repeats so that it is easily learned.

Wheatley & Brooker (1994)

144 undergraduate students and their parents

Music presence/absence Spokespersons (radio ads)

Brand recall Cognitive response

Music hindered message recall and did not enhance attention.

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(continued)_________________________________________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________

Table 3

Olsen (1995) 144 undergraduate students

Music presence/absence (music/silence)

Brand recall/ attribute importance

Silence effectively increases listener retention of ad information especially when the highlighted information was the last item of a series.

Kellaris & Mantel (1996)

85 undergraduate students

Music arousal/ congruity(radio ads)

Ad time Arousal was found to moderate the influence of stimulus congruity on perceived time such that congruity contributed positively to retrospective duration estimates among subjects exposed to soothing (versus arousing) music.

Morris & Boone (1998)

90 undergraduates Music presence/absence(print ads)

Emotional responseBrand attitudePurchase Intention

Music affected emotional response of print ads. No effect on brand attitude or purchase intention.

Roehm (2001) 48 MBA students/44 community people

Music placement versus vocals(radio ads)

Brand recall Instrumentals produced greater recall of the message if the individuals knew the song. Vocals produced greater recall of the lyrics if the individuals did not know the song.

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(continued)____________________________________________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________

North et. al. (2004)

162 participants Music/voice fit Attitude toward the adBrand recall Purchase Intention

Musical fit resulted in better recall of products, brands, and claims, attitude toward the ad, and purchase intention.Voice fit resulted in better recall of claims, attitude toward the ad, and purchase intention.

Alpert et. al. (2005)

75 undergraduate students

Music mood Purchase intention When music is used to evoke emotions congruent with the symbolic meaning of product purchase, the likelihood of purchasing is enhanced.

Zhu, Rui & Meyers-Levy, Joan (2005)

77/109 undergraduates

Music meanings(embodied/referential)

Brand attitude Intensive processors are sensitive to music meanings.

Shen & Chen (2006)

130 students Music fit Ad attitude When the music does not fit (music incongruity) it can have an adverse effect on attitudes toward the ad.

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Future Research

It’s been over twenty years since Hecker (1984, p. 7) called music “the catalyst of

advertising.” He suggested that “researchers can better understand and use this magic if they

understand that music is too important to be wasted on amorphous, irrelevant, or inappropriate

goals.” While much has been done, there is still great “potential for real research into music’s

effectiveness” (Dunbar, 1990). Bruner (1990, p. 102) reinforced in his review of literature that

the relevant body of research was indeed still “meager” and North and Hargreaves (1997, p. 282)

concluded that the “field is [still] under-investigated.” A number of the studies reviewed have

suggested additional research that either has not been undertaken or needs additional

investigation. These include more collaboration between the private and academic sectors, a

longitudinal study on the amount of music in advertising, more attention to the effect of music on

brand image, the use of different experimental environments, and finally a richer investigation of

the effect of music fit and indexicality on advertising.

Advertisers and Academics

Alpert and Alpert (1991, p. 236) called for more “cooperative efforts between academic

researchers and industry practitioners applying musical theories to advertising executioners.”

Too often the efforts remain separate with the industry findings unavailable. Joint efforts would

benefit both parties to better understand “when and why music works in advertising” (p. 236).

Many advertisers use popular music in their advertising especially The Gap and Old Navy. The

Gap primarily uses original lyrics with Old Navy utilizing altered lyrics. Since they are both

owned by the same parent company, it would be beneficial to not only conduct an academically-

based effectual study as well as to correlate the findings with sales results during the campaign.

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At the very least, private research should be made available to the academic community to verify

the results and provide a practical basis for the use of music in advertising.

Advertising and Popular Music

It is clear that there is a need to more consistently quantify and trend the use of music,

especially popular music, in advertising. Stewart and Furse (1986, p. 160) lamented the absence

of its systematic measurement and set out to provide such documentation. In a later report,

Stewart, Farmer, and Stannard (1990) recommended that additional research was needed in this

area. Nonetheless, only Appelbaum and Halliburton (1993) and Allan (2006b) heeded this

recommendation by analyzing international commercials. A longitudinal investigation of the

amount of music in advertising, especially popular music, should be conducted to track its

proliferation and progression.

Since the use of popular music in advertising continues to prosper, more needs to also be

known about the effects. In fact, Kellaris and Kent (1991, p. 248) suggested further study into the

effects of musical components on the processing of verbal material (e.g., song lyrics, advertising

messages). More needs to be done with popular music and altered lyrics (e.g. eBay, Old Navy).

This could include more diverse demographics and “the role of listener characteristics in shaping

responses to music (Kellaris & Kent, 1994, p. 397). Additionally, while comparisons have been

made between some placements/treatments (vocals/instrumentals, etc.), a larger study needs to

be done comparing all possible treatments (vocals, instrumentals, jingles, altered vocals, and a

control treatment of silence). Also apparent is the need for further research into the role of

background music (Alpert & Alpert, 1990, p. 130). It is also clear that we need further

“investigations of advertisements with songs that represent varied styles of popular music”

(Roehm, 2001, p. 57).

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Finally, McChesney (2001) called popular music and advertising the “bankruptcy of culture”

and Burns (1996) called it “disturbing and even shocking.” Advertisers who use it consider it a

“marriage of art and commerce” and Allan (2005) suggested that the combination of popular

music and advertising creates “a new cultural product.” Clearly, more attention needs to be given

to the social and ethical implications of the use of popular music and advertising. This can be

done as part of a longitudinal study.

Brand Image

Stout and Lechenby (1988, p. 223) called for more research into “the contribution made by

music to brand image.” It is clear that many advertisers are using music to create an image (e.g.,

iPod). What is not so clear is music’s effectiveness or the implications for the music and/or

artists (e.g., U2). A related area of consideration is the use of music in the imaging of a brand as

a distribution channel (e.g., Starbucks). Each of these areas of research is certainly

underdeveloped and warrants further investigation. Additionally, some popular music and artists

are actually being exposed and “branded” through advertising (e.g., Modest Mouse) and

placement in television shows (e.g., Grey’s Anatomy). The effects of advertising and media on

popular music could also be investigated.

Environments

Scott (1990, p. 234) argued that “we must not let our methods drive our theories but must

instead design our methods in a way that can encompass whatever theory seems articulate

enough to fully describe the phenomenon.” Studies need to be conducted under more realistic

viewing and listening conditions. Bruner (1990) agreed and called for the raising of “level of

experimental sophistication” (p. 100). Far too many studies continue to be done in isolated lab

environments. One possible idea would be to observe and survey customers in The Gap or Old

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Navy when their respective advertisements are played in the store. Additionally, due to their

growing distribution of music, Starbucks provides a potentially effective field experiment

location.

Fit and Indexicality

More studies need to further investigate fit (a person’s perception of the music’s relevance)

and indexicality (a person’s emotion-laden memories). This research can be expanded to look at

various genres and eras of music with special attention given to the personal relevance of the

music/effect of processing (ELM). Additionally, more focus needs to be given to “the study of

executional cues and their processing implications for high- and low-involvement consumers’ ad

processing” (MacInnis & Park, 1991, p. 172). It may be that music can influence a person’s

involvement with advertising due to some conceptualization of involvement (Zaichkowsky,

1986) such as personal, object, or situational characteristics. A great deal of contemporary

advertising utilizes classic rock music evidently targeted towards 25-54 males, yet some

teenagers are also listening to this genre of music from the 1970s. It may certainly be involving

to both demographics with much different indexicality, not to mention fit. Further investigation

must be conducted to determine the consequences.

Conclusion

So is your advertising sound if you use sound in advertising? The research suggests that music

is more likely to positively than negatively affect the consumer’s response to your advertising.

That’s the easy part but not very helpful to an agency trying to advise an advertiser on whether or

not to use music and what music to use. The use of music in general, and the type of music in

particular, must be carefully chosen with the target audience and the desired outcome driving the

selection. It is clear from this review that music has been shown to both positively and negatively

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stimulate a variety of responses including attention, mood, attitude, and purchase intention. The

stimulation of these responses is different based on various characteristics of the music itself

including its appeal, presence, tempo, background or foreground, etc. In the case of its appeal,

different genres of music from different eras affect different demographics of consumers

differently. So it’s complicated. What we do know from this overview of research on music and

advertising is that, when used effectively, it can be effective. That “sounds” rather trite but it’s

true. An advertiser should not just use any music in a commercial just for the sake of using

music. It should be carefully chosen and tested to predict its potential to stimulate a positive

response for the brand and/or the ad with the ultimate goal of branding and purchase. There is a

substantial amount of research out there to guide the advertiser and this review provides the

foundation for that process. There is also much research that needs to be done and this review

also provides direction and motivation.

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Correspondence should be sent to:

David Allan, Ph.D.

Department of Marketing

Saint Joseph's University

5600 City Avenue

Philadelphia, PA 19131

phone: 610-660-1637

e-mail: dallan@sju.edu

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