‘‘Something Something wicked this way wicked this way

comes’ comes’ MacbethMacbeth and the and the

performance of ‘evil’ performance of ‘evil’

MacbethMacbeth, dir. Rupert Goold, , dir. Rupert Goold, 20102010

Goold’s film ends with Macbeth and Goold’s film ends with Macbeth and Lady Macbeth descending into hell.Lady Macbeth descending into hell.

Is a belief in the supernatural Is a belief in the supernatural necessary in order to appreciate the necessary in order to appreciate the play?play?

‘‘Theatre of cruelty’Theatre of cruelty’ French theatre practitioner Antonin Artaud (1896-French theatre practitioner Antonin Artaud (1896-

1948) advocated a ‘theatre of cruelty’ in which 1948) advocated a ‘theatre of cruelty’ in which ‘metaphysics must be made to enter the mind through ‘metaphysics must be made to enter the mind through the body’ (1993: 77).the body’ (1993: 77).

Artaud proposed a theatre rich in physical, dream-like Artaud proposed a theatre rich in physical, dream-like imagery: ‘a theatre where violent physical images imagery: ‘a theatre where violent physical images pulverise, mesmerise the audience’s sensibilities’ pulverise, mesmerise the audience’s sensibilities’ (1993: 63).(1993: 63).

For Artaud, theatre was a place for an audience to For Artaud, theatre was a place for an audience to vent its inner ‘cruelty’: ‘its taste for crime, its erotic vent its inner ‘cruelty’: ‘its taste for crime, its erotic obsessions, its savageness, its fantasies’ (1993: 70-1).obsessions, its savageness, its fantasies’ (1993: 70-1).

‘‘We are not free and the sky can still fall on our heads. We are not free and the sky can still fall on our heads. And above all else, theatre is made to teach us this.’ And above all else, theatre is made to teach us this.’ (1993: 60)(1993: 60)

MacbethMacbeth and evil and evil It is an idea about the transcendent nature of It is an idea about the transcendent nature of

‘evil’ which underpins most traditional readings ‘evil’ which underpins most traditional readings of of MacbethMacbeth..

In 1959, for example, Irving Ribner argued that:In 1959, for example, Irving Ribner argued that: ‘‘MacbethMacbeth is in many ways Shakespeare’s maturest is in many ways Shakespeare’s maturest

and most daring experiment in tragedy, for in this and most daring experiment in tragedy, for in this play he set himself to describe the operation of evil in play he set himself to describe the operation of evil in all its manifestations: to define its very nature, to all its manifestations: to define its very nature, to depict its seduction of man, and to show its effect depict its seduction of man, and to show its effect upon all of the planes of creation once it has been upon all of the planes of creation once it has been unleashed by one man’s sinful moral choice.’ (1959: unleashed by one man’s sinful moral choice.’ (1959: 147)147)

An evil play?An evil play? The The MacbethMacbeth myth: myth:

Charles Macklin’s production, 1772 – audience riots (due in part Charles Macklin’s production, 1772 – audience riots (due in part to rivalry with Garrick) .to rivalry with Garrick) .

New York, 1849: Englishman William Charles Macready and New York, 1849: Englishman William Charles Macready and American Edwin Forrest play in rival productions. Riots involved American Edwin Forrest play in rival productions. Riots involved an estimated 20,000 people, and resulted in 30 fatalities and an estimated 20,000 people, and resulted in 30 fatalities and many more injuries.many more injuries.

When Constantin Stanislavski mounted a production at the When Constantin Stanislavski mounted a production at the Moscow Art Theatre, his prompter was found dead during a Moscow Art Theatre, his prompter was found dead during a performance.performance.

Bad luck surrounded Laurence Olivier’s 1937 production at the Bad luck surrounded Laurence Olivier’s 1937 production at the Old Vic (not least the death of actress Lilian Baylis, due to play Old Vic (not least the death of actress Lilian Baylis, due to play Lady Macbeth).Lady Macbeth).

Actor Harold Norman, playing Macbeth, was stabbed to death for Actor Harold Norman, playing Macbeth, was stabbed to death for real at the Oldham Rep in 1947. (Dickson 2009: 217)real at the Oldham Rep in 1947. (Dickson 2009: 217)

Of course, there are rational explanations for the ‘curse’.Of course, there are rational explanations for the ‘curse’.

Language and the Language and the uncannyuncanny

When the witches claim to perform ‘a deed without a name’ When the witches claim to perform ‘a deed without a name’ (4.1.65), they unsettle our faith in the possibility of explaining (4.1.65), they unsettle our faith in the possibility of explaining and articulating the unknown.and articulating the unknown.

This sense that the most terrifying aspects of existence This sense that the most terrifying aspects of existence transcend language (an idea shared by Artaud) manifests itself transcend language (an idea shared by Artaud) manifests itself throughout the play:throughout the play: ‘‘Speak, if you can. What are you?’ (Macbeth, 1.3.45)Speak, if you can. What are you?’ (Macbeth, 1.3.45) ‘‘Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more. … Speak, I charge Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more. … Speak, I charge

you.’ (Macbeth, 1.3.68,76)you.’ (Macbeth, 1.3.68,76) ‘‘O horror, horror, horror! O horror, horror, horror!

Tongue nor heart cannot conceive nor name thee.’ (Macduff, Tongue nor heart cannot conceive nor name thee.’ (Macduff, 2.3.62-3)2.3.62-3)

‘…‘…I have wordsI have wordsThat would be howled out in the desert airThat would be howled out in the desert airWhere hearing should not latch them.’ (Ross, 4.3.194-6)Where hearing should not latch them.’ (Ross, 4.3.194-6)

‘…‘…the grief that does not speakthe grief that does not speakWhispers the o’erfraught heart and bids it break.’ (Malcolm, Whispers the o’erfraught heart and bids it break.’ (Malcolm, 4.3.210-11)4.3.210-11)

‘‘I think, but dare not speak.’ (Doctor, 5.1.76)I think, but dare not speak.’ (Doctor, 5.1.76)

Inverted prayerInverted prayer To an audience with faith in the power of words To an audience with faith in the power of words

to solicit the supernatural (for good or for evil), to solicit the supernatural (for good or for evil), the language of the play is highly-charged:the language of the play is highly-charged:

LADY MACBETH.LADY MACBETH. …Come, you spirits …Come, you spiritsThat tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,And fill me from the crown to the toe top-fullAnd fill me from the crown to the toe top-fullOf direst cruelty. … Come to my woman’s breasts,Of direst cruelty. … Come to my woman’s breasts,And take my milk for gall, you murd’ring ministers,And take my milk for gall, you murd’ring ministers,Wherever in your sightless substancesWherever in your sightless substancesYou wait on nature’s mischief. (1.5.39-49)You wait on nature’s mischief. (1.5.39-49)

Inverted prayerInverted prayer As he contemplates his future crimes, Macbeth’s As he contemplates his future crimes, Macbeth’s

couplets tend to foreground the play’s cosmology couplets tend to foreground the play’s cosmology of heaven and hell, as well as taking on the form of heaven and hell, as well as taking on the form of inverted prayer:of inverted prayer:

Stars, hide your fires,Stars, hide your fires,Let not light see my black and deep desires. (1.4.50-1)Let not light see my black and deep desires. (1.4.50-1)

I go, and it is done. The bell invites me.I go, and it is done. The bell invites me.Hear it not, Duncan; for it is a knellHear it not, Duncan; for it is a knellThat summons thee to heaven or to hell. (2.1.62-4)That summons thee to heaven or to hell. (2.1.62-4)

It is concluded. Banquo, thy soul’s flight,It is concluded. Banquo, thy soul’s flight,If it find heaven, must find it out to-night. (3.1.142-3)If it find heaven, must find it out to-night. (3.1.142-3)

Inverted prayerInverted prayer It is perhaps this perversion of It is perhaps this perversion of

religious speech which renders religious speech which renders Macbeth unable to recourse to prayer:Macbeth unable to recourse to prayer:

MACBETH. MACBETH. …I could not say ‘Amen’…I could not say ‘Amen’When they did say ‘God bless us.’ When they did say ‘God bless us.’ …I had most need of blessing, and ‘Amen’…I had most need of blessing, and ‘Amen’Stuck in my throat. (2.2.26-31)Stuck in my throat. (2.2.26-31)

WitchesWitches Of course, the most famous uses of inverted Of course, the most famous uses of inverted

prayer in the play are in the witches’ incantations:prayer in the play are in the witches’ incantations:

Fair is foul, and foul is fair,Fair is foul, and foul is fair,Hover through the fog and filthy air. (1.1.10-11)Hover through the fog and filthy air. (1.1.10-11)

Double, double, toil and trouble,Double, double, toil and trouble,Fire burn, and cauldron bubble. (4.1.21-1)Fire burn, and cauldron bubble. (4.1.21-1)

Their power to command forces beyond human Their power to command forces beyond human comprehension is a key aspect of the play’s comprehension is a key aspect of the play’s mythology.mythology.

The next clip is from Orson Welles’ The next clip is from Orson Welles’ MacbethMacbeth (1948).(1948).

WitchesWitches Are the witches human or inhuman? Are the witches human or inhuman?

On the one hand, there is something of the ‘village witch’ On the one hand, there is something of the ‘village witch’ about their petty concerns in 1.3 (the first witch’s vendetta about their petty concerns in 1.3 (the first witch’s vendetta against a mean-spirited sailor’s wife, for example).against a mean-spirited sailor’s wife, for example).

On the other, Banquo suggests that they ‘look not like th’ On the other, Banquo suggests that they ‘look not like th’ inhabitants o’ th’ earth’ (1.3.39) and that ‘The earth hath inhabitants o’ th’ earth’ (1.3.39) and that ‘The earth hath bubbles, as the water has, / And these are of them’ (1.3.77-8).bubbles, as the water has, / And these are of them’ (1.3.77-8).

Do the witches control, or merely foresee, the future?Do the witches control, or merely foresee, the future? Shakespeare’s source, Holinshed’s Shakespeare’s source, Holinshed’s ChroniclesChronicles, is also , is also

ambiguous: ambiguous: ‘…‘…the common opinion was, that these women were either the the common opinion was, that these women were either the

weird sisters, that is (as ye would say) the goddesses of weird sisters, that is (as ye would say) the goddesses of destiny, or else some nymphs or fairies, endued with destiny, or else some nymphs or fairies, endued with knowledge of prophecy by their necromantical science, knowledge of prophecy by their necromantical science, because everything came to pass as they had spoken.’ because everything came to pass as they had spoken.’

A feminist readingA feminist reading Peter Stallybrass discusses the ‘social utility’ Peter Stallybrass discusses the ‘social utility’

of witchcraft beliefs, arguing that beliefs in of witchcraft beliefs, arguing that beliefs in the ‘unnatural’ ‘imply and legitimate their the ‘unnatural’ ‘imply and legitimate their opposite, the “natural”’ (2005: 190):opposite, the “natural”’ (2005: 190): ‘‘Witchcraft accusations are a way of reaffirming a Witchcraft accusations are a way of reaffirming a

particular order against outsiders, or of attacking particular order against outsiders, or of attacking an internal rival, or of attacking “deviance”. an internal rival, or of attacking “deviance”. Witchcraft in Witchcraft in MacbethMacbeth… is not simply a reflection … is not simply a reflection of a pre-given order of things: rather, it is a of a pre-given order of things: rather, it is a particular working upon, and legitimation of, the particular working upon, and legitimation of, the hegemony of patriarchy.’ (2005: 190)hegemony of patriarchy.’ (2005: 190)

North Berwick witchcraft trials, 1590 (and North Berwick witchcraft trials, 1590 (and others)others)

Lady Macbeth and the Lady Macbeth and the witches witches

Shakespeare sets up several parallels between Shakespeare sets up several parallels between the witches and the character of Lady Macbeth:the witches and the character of Lady Macbeth: They mirror each other structurally in Act 1: 1.1, 1.3, They mirror each other structurally in Act 1: 1.1, 1.3,

1.5 and 1.7 are private, female-dominated scenes, 1.5 and 1.7 are private, female-dominated scenes, alternating with public, male-dominated ones.alternating with public, male-dominated ones.

Both are figured as dangerous androgynes: the Both are figured as dangerous androgynes: the ‘unsexed’ Lady Macbeth and the ‘bearded’ witches;‘unsexed’ Lady Macbeth and the ‘bearded’ witches;

Both are associated with infanticide: Lady Macbeth Both are associated with infanticide: Lady Macbeth imagines dashing out the brains of her child (1.7.54-imagines dashing out the brains of her child (1.7.54-9), while the witches’ potion includes a ‘Finger of 9), while the witches’ potion includes a ‘Finger of birth-strangled babe’ (4.1.30).birth-strangled babe’ (4.1.30).

Against this, one might contrast the passive, Against this, one might contrast the passive, motherly Lady Macduff (4.2).motherly Lady Macduff (4.2).

Lady MacbethLady Macbeth Lady Macbeth assumes a male role in Lady Macbeth assumes a male role in

policing her husband’s masculinity:policing her husband’s masculinity: ‘‘When you durst do it, then you were a When you durst do it, then you were a

man’ (1.7.49)man’ (1.7.49) ‘‘Are you a man?’ (3.4.57)Are you a man?’ (3.4.57) ‘‘What, quite unmanned in folly?’ (3.4.72)What, quite unmanned in folly?’ (3.4.72) Macbeth recognises her masculinity when Macbeth recognises her masculinity when

he tells her, ‘thy undaunted mettle should he tells her, ‘thy undaunted mettle should compose / Nothing but males’ (1.7.73-4).compose / Nothing but males’ (1.7.73-4).

Lady MacbethLady Macbeth Lisa Jardine analyses Lady Macbeth in Lisa Jardine analyses Lady Macbeth in

light of light of Hic Mulier: or the Man-WomanHic Mulier: or the Man-Woman (1620), a Jacobean condemnation of (1620), a Jacobean condemnation of ‘masculine’ women. ‘masculine’ women.

Arguing that the drama of the early Arguing that the drama of the early modern period was ‘full of set-piece modern period was ‘full of set-piece denunciations of the “not-woman” in her denunciations of the “not-woman” in her many forms’, Jardine identifies Lady many forms’, Jardine identifies Lady Macbeth as the archetype of Jacobean Macbeth as the archetype of Jacobean drama’s ‘not-woman’ (1983: 93, 97-8).drama’s ‘not-woman’ (1983: 93, 97-8).

The politics of The politics of MacbethMacbeth One can read One can read MacbethMacbeth as an intensely conservative as an intensely conservative

political drama:political drama: Performed only months after the 1605 Gunpowder Plot, it Performed only months after the 1605 Gunpowder Plot, it

demonstrates the terrible consequences of regicide;demonstrates the terrible consequences of regicide; It serves to legitimate James’s authority by presenting his rule It serves to legitimate James’s authority by presenting his rule

as supernaturally-foretold: Banquo was his ancestor, and the as supernaturally-foretold: Banquo was his ancestor, and the procession of ‘eight Kings’ in 4.1 illustrates his royal lineage procession of ‘eight Kings’ in 4.1 illustrates his royal lineage (conveniently omitting his politically-awkward mother, Mary (conveniently omitting his politically-awkward mother, Mary Queen of Scots).Queen of Scots).

The divinely-appointed King’s ability to heal scrofula with ‘holy The divinely-appointed King’s ability to heal scrofula with ‘holy prayers’ is narrated in a (completely unnecessary) passage in prayers’ is narrated in a (completely unnecessary) passage in Act 4 (4.3.141-60). James is known to have participated in such Act 4 (4.3.141-60). James is known to have participated in such ceremonies himself.ceremonies himself.

See the opening sequence of Trevor Nunn’s See the opening sequence of Trevor Nunn’s MacbethMacbeth (1978)…(1978)…

Mythologising ‘evil’Mythologising ‘evil’MACBETH. MACBETH. …Besides, this Duncan…Besides, this Duncan

Hath borne his faculties so meek, hath beenHath borne his faculties so meek, hath beenSo clear in his great office, that his virtuesSo clear in his great office, that his virtuesWill plead like angels, trumpet-tongued againstWill plead like angels, trumpet-tongued againstThe deep damnation of his taking-off. (1.7.16-20)The deep damnation of his taking-off. (1.7.16-20)

OLD MAN.OLD MAN. ’Tis unnatural, ’Tis unnatural,Even like the deed that’s done. On Tuesday lastEven like the deed that’s done. On Tuesday lastA falcon, tow’ring in her pride of place,A falcon, tow’ring in her pride of place,Was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed. (2.4.10-13)Was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed. (2.4.10-13)

DOCTOR. DOCTOR. Foul whisp’rings are abroad. Unnatural deedsFoul whisp’rings are abroad. Unnatural deedsDo breed unnatural troubles. (5.1.68-9)Do breed unnatural troubles. (5.1.68-9)

Association of witches with natural disorder: Association of witches with natural disorder: thunder, lightning, fog, filthy air.thunder, lightning, fog, filthy air.

Mythologising ‘evil’Mythologising ‘evil’ Clergyman Robert Bolton, preaching in 1621: Clergyman Robert Bolton, preaching in 1621:

‘‘Take sovereignty from the face of the earth, and you turn it Take sovereignty from the face of the earth, and you turn it into a cockpit. Men would become cut-throats and cannibals into a cockpit. Men would become cut-throats and cannibals one unto another. Murder, adulteries, incests, rapes, one unto another. Murder, adulteries, incests, rapes, robberies, perjuries, witchcrafts, blasphemies, all kinds of robberies, perjuries, witchcrafts, blasphemies, all kinds of villainies, outrages, and savage cruelty, would overflow all villainies, outrages, and savage cruelty, would overflow all countries. We should have a very hell upon earth, and the countries. We should have a very hell upon earth, and the face of it covered with blood, as it was once with water.’face of it covered with blood, as it was once with water.’

James I’s ideology of Absolutism, says Alan Sinfield, James I’s ideology of Absolutism, says Alan Sinfield, ‘…‘…represented the English state as a pyramid, any represented the English state as a pyramid, any

disturbance of which would produce general disaster. … This disturbance of which would produce general disaster. … This system was said to be “natural” and ordained by “God”; it system was said to be “natural” and ordained by “God”; it was “good,” and disruptions of it were “evil.”’ (1992: 96)was “good,” and disruptions of it were “evil.”’ (1992: 96)

Legitimate violenceLegitimate violence ‘‘It is often said that It is often said that MacbethMacbeth is about is about

“evil”, but we might draw a more “evil”, but we might draw a more careful distinction: between the careful distinction: between the violence which the State considers violence which the State considers legitimate and that which it does not.’ legitimate and that which it does not.’ (Sinfield 1992: 95)(Sinfield 1992: 95)

Think about the following clip from Think about the following clip from the TV series the TV series 2424, as framed by Fox , as framed by Fox News…News…

Legitimate violenceLegitimate violence

CAPTAIN. CAPTAIN. …brave Macbeth – well he deserves …brave Macbeth – well he deserves that name! – that name! – Disdaining fortune, with his brandished steelDisdaining fortune, with his brandished steelWhich smoked with bloody execution,Which smoked with bloody execution,Like valour’s minion Like valour’s minion Carved out his passage till he faced the slave,Carved out his passage till he faced the slave,Which ne’er shook hands nor bade farewell to Which ne’er shook hands nor bade farewell to himhimTill he unseamed him from the nave to th’ chops,Till he unseamed him from the nave to th’ chops,And fixed his head upon our battlements.And fixed his head upon our battlements.

DUNCAN. DUNCAN. O valiant cousin, worthy gentleman! O valiant cousin, worthy gentleman! (1.2.16-24)(1.2.16-24)

Legitimate violenceLegitimate violence Macbeth’s illegitimate violence is punished, Macbeth’s illegitimate violence is punished,

finally, by another embodiment of the legitimate finally, by another embodiment of the legitimate order of violence from which he transgressed – order of violence from which he transgressed – the severing of his own head by Macduff.the severing of his own head by Macduff.

Final parallel between Duncan/Macbeth and Final parallel between Duncan/Macbeth and Malcolm/Macduff…Malcolm/Macduff…

Note Macduff’s willingness to legitimate Note Macduff’s willingness to legitimate Malcolm’s (feigned) ‘black and deep desires’ in Malcolm’s (feigned) ‘black and deep desires’ in Act 4 (‘take upon you what is yours’; 4.3.71).Act 4 (‘take upon you what is yours’; 4.3.71).

Modern productions which set Modern productions which set MacbethMacbeth in the in the world of gang warfare tend to emphasise this world of gang warfare tend to emphasise this aspect of the play. See Penny Woolcock’s aspect of the play. See Penny Woolcock’s Macbeth on the EstateMacbeth on the Estate (1997)… (1997)…

Duncan in HolinshedDuncan in Holinshed The Prologue to The Prologue to Macbeth on the EstateMacbeth on the Estate echoes echoes

Holinshed:Holinshed:

MACDUFF.MACDUFF. But in time, Duncan grew fat, slack – and many But in time, Duncan grew fat, slack – and many misruled men took occasion thereof to trouble peace with misruled men took occasion thereof to trouble peace with seditious commotion. (film)seditious commotion. (film)

Holinshed: ‘The beginning of Duncane’s reign was Holinshed: ‘The beginning of Duncane’s reign was very quiet and peaceable, without any notable very quiet and peaceable, without any notable trouble; but after it was perceived how negligent he trouble; but after it was perceived how negligent he was in punishing offenders, many misruled persons was in punishing offenders, many misruled persons took occasion thereof to trouble the peace and quiet took occasion thereof to trouble the peace and quiet state of the common-wealth, by seditious state of the common-wealth, by seditious commotions which had their beginnings in this wise.’commotions which had their beginnings in this wise.’

Duncan in HolinshedDuncan in Holinshed In Shakespeare’s source, in fact, Duncan and In Shakespeare’s source, in fact, Duncan and

Macbeth are not so very different from one Macbeth are not so very different from one another:another: ‘‘Makbeth, after the departure thus of Duncane’s sons, Makbeth, after the departure thus of Duncane’s sons,

used great liberality towards the nobles of the realm, used great liberality towards the nobles of the realm, thereby to win their favour; and when he saw that no thereby to win their favour; and when he saw that no man went about to trouble him, he set his whole man went about to trouble him, he set his whole intention to maintain justice, and to punish all intention to maintain justice, and to punish all enormities and abuses which had chanced through the enormities and abuses which had chanced through the feeble and slothful administration of Duncane.’ feeble and slothful administration of Duncane.’

Holinshed goes on to report that Macbeth ruled Holinshed goes on to report that Macbeth ruled with justice for 10 years before becoming with justice for 10 years before becoming tyrannical.tyrannical.

The witches: heroines of The witches: heroines of the piece?the piece?

‘‘The witches are the heroines of the piece, however little The witches are the heroines of the piece, however little the play itself recognises the fact, and however much the the play itself recognises the fact, and however much the critics may have set out to defame them. It is they who, by critics may have set out to defame them. It is they who, by releasing ambitious thoughts in Macbeth, expose a releasing ambitious thoughts in Macbeth, expose a reverence for hierarchical social order for what it is, as the reverence for hierarchical social order for what it is, as the pious self-deception of a society based on routine pious self-deception of a society based on routine oppression and incessant warfare. … The witches are exiles oppression and incessant warfare. … The witches are exiles from that violent order, inhabiting their own sisterly from that violent order, inhabiting their own sisterly community on its shadowy borderlands, refusing all truck community on its shadowy borderlands, refusing all truck with its tribal bickerings and military honours. … their with its tribal bickerings and military honours. … their words to Macbeth catalyse this region of otherness and words to Macbeth catalyse this region of otherness and desire within himself, so that by the end of the play it has desire within himself, so that by the end of the play it has flooded up within him to shatter and engulf his previously flooded up within him to shatter and engulf his previously assured identity.’ (Eagleton 1986: 2)assured identity.’ (Eagleton 1986: 2)

See the ending of Roman Polanski’s film version of See the ending of Roman Polanski’s film version of MacbethMacbeth (1971)… (1971)…

ReferencesReferences Artaud, Antonin (1993) Artaud, Antonin (1993) The Theatre and its DoubleThe Theatre and its Double, ,

translated by Victor Corti, London: Calder.translated by Victor Corti, London: Calder. Dickson, Andrew (2009) Dickson, Andrew (2009) The Rough Guide to ShakespeareThe Rough Guide to Shakespeare, ,

London: Penguin.London: Penguin. Eagleton, Terry (1986) Eagleton, Terry (1986) William ShakespeareWilliam Shakespeare, Oxford: , Oxford:

Blackwell.Blackwell. Jardine, Lisa (1983) Jardine, Lisa (1983) Still Harping on Daughters,Still Harping on Daughters, Women and Women and

Drama in the Age of ShakespeareDrama in the Age of Shakespeare, Brighton: Harvester Press., Brighton: Harvester Press. Ribner, Irving (1959) ‘Ribner, Irving (1959) ‘MacbethMacbeth: The Pattern of Idea and : The Pattern of Idea and

Action’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 10:2, 147-59. Action’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 10:2, 147-59. Sinfield, Alan (1992) Sinfield, Alan (1992) Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the

Politics of Dissident ReadingPolitics of Dissident Reading, Berkeley, CA: University of , Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.California Press.

Stallybrass, Peter (2005) ‘Stallybrass, Peter (2005) ‘MacbethMacbeth and witchcraft’ in John and witchcraft’ in John Russell Brown [ed.] Russell Brown [ed.] Focus on MacbethFocus on Macbeth, London: Routledge, , London: Routledge, 189-209.189-209.