Some statements about workplace writing found on the...

contents

• Introduction• Letters

- Letter layout and style - Qualities of effective letters

• Email• Employment letters and résumés

- Application letters - Résumés and CVs - Letters of acceptance and refusal

• Reports - Written and oral reports - Qualities of effective reports - Questions to ask when writing a report - Collecting information - Summarising - Format of a formal report - Style in report writing - Presenting the final report - Technical, medical and laboratory reports - Short reports

• Conference papers and journal articles• Manuals• Styles of workplace writing

- Narrative - Argument - Definition - Description - Instructions

• General conventions - Standard formats - International perspective

• Using graphics and layout in professional documents - Guidelines for using graphics - Types of graphics and when to use them - The importance of layout and design

• Summing up• Discussion questions and group activities• Comments on case studies• Websites

CHAPTER 12

Writing for the workplace

Some statements about workplace writing found on the Web

A common question asked by students in our classes is: ‘Has the Internet diminished the importance of written communication in our daily professional lives?’ We have collected a series of answers from various sources:

– Letters are easier to write because you do not need a computer to switch on, and the recipient does not need a computer to read it.

– The recipient can maintain a physical record of the letter.

– Letters are the best way of expressing our feelings, they help us express our feelings.

– Many books have been written that are a collection of a writer’s letters, but there are not many collections of writer’s emails.

– Letter writing is important as it reveals something about your personality that a machine can not.

– Reports are important to most businesses, and they are usually always printed for someone to read.

– The Internet gives us many more opportunities for publishing and reading other people’s work, this in turn gives writers more feedback, and more reasons to write.

Tobias Wolff 2010

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CLA-ARCHEE-12-0304-012.indd 318 03/04/12 7:46 PM

IntroductIonIn this chapter we explore some types of business and technical writing in detail. To write effective letters, emails, reports, papers or manuals, you need to learn some specific conventions of layout and style appropriate to organisations, but you should also continually develop your general communication and writing skills to keep pace with changing styles and increasing levels of professional development. Above all you should not lose your ability and motivation to read, and read widely all kinds of materials both online and offline. You also need to read critically, so be selective about which newspapers, magazines, books and websites you read.

LettersDespite the convenience and economy of electronic communication, in the business world thousands of letters are written each day and delivered through conventional post. The volume of ordinary mail has decreased over the years since the advent of fax and email, with the US Post Office apparently suffering because of a substantial decrease in the number of letters, but Australia Post is still profitable according to media reports.

Businesses still choose to send a letter because it is a formal communication that provides a tangible, dated record of the agreement reached or the action requested. It enables a sender to think through the message carefully before sending it, and the receiver to read through the message in privacy and arrive at conclusions without having to discuss them until they have clearly formulated their response or clarified their reaction.

The choice of a letter over another form of communication signifies formality in the new millennium. It is also an indication of a particular level of commitment and adds a truly personal touch. Committing thoughts to paper requires skill and effort, creates permanence and gives more emphasis to those thoughts and ideas. Anyone who has ever taken the time to write a letter of complaint about poor service or an unsatisfactory product will attest that, unlike angry phone calls to customer service lines, letters will always get a response. Their very tangibility (compared with phone calls or email), usually means that an organisation feels compelled to reply and acknowledge the problem or issue.

However, as with other forms of communication, the same message may be read by a number of people and interpreted in different ways. One person may become offended while another may

– Students are no longer used to meditating on writing, thinking in depth, the way they used to be.

– 14% of current US college students are functionally illiterate.

– Plato bemoaned the loss of conversation and memory because of the invention of writing during early Greek times. He was wrong. Critics of the Internet may also be wrong.

Jane Hirshfield 2010

– People will be able to share information seamlessly across devices and interact with them in a more natural way, using speech, handwriting and gestures.

Bill Gates 2000

Chapter 12 Writing for the workplace 319


simply see a terse phrase as ‘good business tactics’. Part of the challenge is to learn to write letters that will achieve your objectives.

We develop our techniques for writing effective letters by applying some of the theories of communication we present to you in this text. We also need to test them in practice with different audiences from various cultural communities. Since the world of business is global as well as local, it is important for us to consider the effects of our writing on all of those who may encounter it; those who need to deal with our request, process our order or handle our complaint. By reflecting on our practice and by keeping abreast of developments in the study of communication, we can continually adapt our communication strategies to achieve better results.

As well as achieving a business objective, we also create impressions through the letters we write. The image of a firm or a government department is shaped by the impact its correspondence creates on the public. No doubt we all know of some instances when correspondence has not achieved what it set out to communicate, but instead produced either hilarity or annoyance. There are also those times when sent letters do not arrive for some reason.

Let us first look at some of the conventions of layout and style that contribute to an attractive, effective business letter, one that is likely to create a good first impression.

Letter layout and styleA minimum requirement of effective style is that the language is clear and free from errors of spelling, punctuation and syntax. The tone should be appropriate to the topic and the situation. Choose words that the reader will understand and that convey the meaning you want to express. Using pompous and officious language is generally considered poor style, unless the profession itself expects that style.

Over the years, letter-writing techniques have tended to follow certain conventions and readers are generally very strongly influenced by what is considered traditional and accepted. Let us now examine some of the common conventions of letter format and style.

What are the elements that contribute to effective style in the example provided in Exhibit 12.1 (on page 322)? The first impression is created through the design of the letterhead and the format of the letter. You will have noticed that a formal letter is arranged in a logical sequence, with each section having an important function to perform.1 The heading may be simply the address of the sender or it may be an elaborate letterhead. All the

information necessary for the receivers to reply as required should be included.2 The date is valuable legal information, especially for letters of agreement and contract, and it also

ensures that the letter is correctly placed in sequence in the company’s filing system. It is wise to avoid writing the date in an informal style such as 8/4/06. This represents 8 April 2006 in Australia, but 4 August 2006 in the United States. An international standard for writing the date in numeric form has evolved in response to this dilemma. In the airline or shipping industries, for example, you will probably see 2006-04-08 (year, month, day) when the writers need to ensure that no confusion occurs.

3 The inside address contains the full postal address of the receiver, as well as any other information needed to ensure that the letter arrives at its intended destination.

4 An attention line directs the letter to a specific person or position in the organisation.5 The salutation indicates the tone you intend to adopt in the letter. Generally, if you know the

person, you may use their first name or another informal salutation. If you want to indicate more respect, you should use the person’s title: ‘Dear Mr Smith’, ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear Madam’. If you do not know the receiver, you should generally use the ‘Dear Sir/Madam’ style of salutation. Although this seems clumsy and old-fashioned, it is considered appropriate for business writing.

Part 3 Writing skills in professional life320


6 A reference line or subject line gives the reader advance notice of what the letter is about. It should cite any relevant reference numbers to ensure efficient handling.

7 The opening paragraph links to any previous business. It gets the attention of the reader and leads into the details.

8 The body of the letter contains the main message and the specific details presented in a clear and logical way. Short paragraphs and numbered or bulleted points help to guide the reader. The language is crafted to ensure clarity and to set a tone that is suitable to the receiver and the purpose of the letter.

9 The final paragraph usually indicates the action that should take place as a result of the letter. Many authorities suggest that you should end a letter by pointing the way ahead.

10 Your choice of signature should be in keeping with the tone of the letter. ‘Sincerely’ or ‘Yours sincerely’ are appropriate for formal letters. Closing phrases such as ‘Regards’ or ‘Kind regards’ may be used if you want to create an informal and personal tone. Notice, too, that you leave several line spaces for the signature, followed by the name and position of the writer.

11 Copies of letters are often sent to other interested parties. This can be signified as shown in Exhibit 12.1.We are not prescribing detailed rules about layout. When you join an organisation, you will

probably be shown its preferred style. However, when you need to write personal business letters, the samples we have provided will be useful.

Human emotions affect even business correspondence. Skilful writers will carefully consider the impact that their message may have on their receivers and adjust the elements of their letter to achieve the result they want. As in most communication, it is important to focus on the needs of your receiver.

Qualities of effective lettersMost letters are written in a simple and clear style so that they are easy to read and understand. It is best to keep your letters short and if possible limit them to one page. If the material is complicated, consider telephoning to discuss details or attaching additional information with the letter.

Effective letters focus on achieving an objective by helping the reader see some benefit in it and by clearly showing what action is required.

A letter that is polite and courteous will most likely leave a good impression on its readers. Occasionally a more strongly worded letter may be used to seek payment, but caution and courtesy are usually the wise options.

All good communication is conscious of cultural differences. Use conventional English language and be mindful that translation may distort your message.

emaILThere is a temptation to believe that email messages are casual and informal communications, and for personal correspondence that may be true. However, for all workplace correspondence, fairly formal conventions for letter-writing should apply. Many organisations filter email messages to ensure an overall quality in correspondence; if you consider that your supervisor may read each email you write, you may be more concerned about maintaining an appropriate writing style.

The messages should be concise and accurate. Be careful of spelling and grammar. Re-read and revise before you press the send button. Put yourself in the receiver’s position and imagine how you would feel as you read the email as part of a busy working day.



SYDNEY EXPORT ASSOCIATION 1 29 Jones Street Telephone: +61 2 5555 5555

se a

ULTIMO NSW 2006 Fax: +61 2 5555 5556 ABN: 66 999 444 555

15 January 2011 2

Adel Fabric Co. 315 Simms AvenueWOODVALE NSW 2004

Attention: Mr R. Alan 4

Dear John, 5

Reference: Tokyo Fabric Consignment No. 3543 6

As we discussed at our last meeting, I am pleased to confirm that Sunli & Ken Textiles 7in Tokyo are interested in your woollen fabrics. They found the sample range both very attractive and of high quality. However, at this stage they would like to import a small consignment and test the reaction within their own market.

The following is a list of their preferences from the samples provided: 8

1 The heavy loop pile weave No. AH71 is particularly attractive in view of their winters. The complete range of green and cream fabrics is required but not the dark grey or the black. They believed that the fabric’s texture was more effectively presented in the lighter colours.

2 In the tweed range No. AL86, they were more interested in the blues, browns and beiges, once again because the feeling was that the texture was better complemented by some colours than others.

3 With the more finely woven fabrics, both AX70 and AY56, the full colour range was no problem. The sample range was effectively presented in all the shades.

Would you please confirm the availability of the above stock as soon as possible. When 9they have reached a decision about the exact nature of the consignment, we will complete order forms and forward them to your office.

Sincerely, 10

Peter HokkaidoExport Representative

Copy: Sunli & Ken Textiles 11

Exhibit 12.1 Example of a business letter



Restrict each email to one topic and clearly indicate that topic in the subject line. Also be careful to direct emails to the correct destination and only to the appropriate receivers.

Workplace email etiquette does not recommend forwarding chain messages or jokes, as what may seem humorous to you may offend others. It is also a wise idea to restrict your personal use of the organisation’s email or Internet system. Please see Chapter 5 for further details about what is appropriate and inappropriate in electronic mail.

empLoyment Letters and résumésAfter weeks of searching, you have discovered the perfect job advertised in the morning newspaper or on one of the many career websites. You would certainly like to be the successful candidate. Will your application do you justice?

This scene takes place hundreds of times each week, and each time the writer analyses the results of his or her efforts and finally sends it, hoping that it has been so well designed that an interview will be granted.

The prospective employer, on the other hand, will take a very short time to read that application. In a matter of minutes a decision will be made on whether to read the attached curriculum vitae (CV) or résumé, or commit the application to the growing pile of rejects. A few more minutes will determine the lucky few who will be offered interviews.

Application lettersThe application letter rarely secures a job, but it is the applicant’s first opportunity to impress the employer with his or her skills and professional competence. It is really a sales letter and its goal is to present the applicant in the best possible light, so that the employer will feel that this applicant is just right for the position.

An applicant needs to consider not only the impression the letter is likely to create, but also whether it adequately conveys interest in and aptitude for the position. The letter’s main purpose is to accompany the CV and to supplement it with a personal message that brings the details to life and results in being asked to come for an interview.

Even if you are applying for a number of similar positions, the letter and the CV should be especially tailored to suit the specific requirements of each position. Every element of the job advertisement should be addressed in the letter by explaining how your qualifications and experience meet the criteria that have been specified. You should call attention to the relevant items that detail that experience.

Perhaps you are trying to find an internship and are writing to a number of organisations that have not advertised specific jobs. You will find that you need to be highly persuasive as these letters are not a particularly effective approach to securing employment. We believe, however, that they can succeed if you follow up with a personal visit or telephone call to present yourself and request an interview.

Application letters must present your most professional face. Employers will be highly critical of spelling errors and flawed use of language. The visual aspects of the letter and CV also give an indication of your personality and work habits, so take care with every aspect.

Wherever possible, a letter of application should be addressed to a specific person in the organisation. A telephone call is often all that is needed to discover the name of the person to whom the letter should be addressed. Don’t forget to check the spelling and the correct title – Ms, Mrs, Mr or Dr.

An example of a letter of application follows in Exhibit 12.2.



16 Vine StreetNARWON QLD 4060Telephone: 07 5555 6666

14 June 2011

Mr G. Sanders, ManagerHighland Regional Development Pty LtdGPO Box 160CANBERRA ACT 2601

Dear Mr Sanders,

Application for Position of Town Planner

I am applying for the above position, which was advertised in the Weekend Australian on Saturday, 4 June 2011.

I believe that my background, experience and educational qualifications, which are described in the enclosed résumé, make me suitable for consideration for this position. The advertisement specified the need for a graduate in town planning with experience in specialised areas of design and supervision. I have recently graduated from Queensland University with a Masters degree in town planning. I have also been employed with the Bainsworth County Council for the last three years and I have had the opportunity to learn a wide range of specialised duties in investigation and design as well as supervise a team of drafters.

My thesis for the Masters degree focused on subterranean spaces. I chose this field because it enabled me to develop a full range of design skills and gave me experience in the requirements of architectural design and engineering and their effect on town planning. Through my work with local government bodies, I have acquired a keen interest in the need for new visions of town planning to meet demographic change.

I was able to publish several papers based on my Masters research and have presented two at international conferences on town planning.

I am more than willing to relocate and would be most interested in an opportunity to discuss my application in an interview.

Yours sincerely

Natalie Proust

Exhibit 12.2 Example of a letter of application



Résumés and CVsThe other important part of the application for employment is the personal résumé or curriculum vitae. The résumé is a concise summary of a person’s experience and qualifications. To help a reader quickly review the contents, it uses appropriate headings to show educational qualifications, experience, relevant activities and other information.

A résumé is a portrait of the professional you, so you need to make sure that it shows you in the best light. Every résumé should be tailored carefully to suit each job for which you are applying. For example, if you have had many casual jobs while studying, you may choose to group them according to the skills they developed, or expand on only those that show some responsibility or relevance to the prospective job. Listing every job you have held distracts attention from those relevant to the application.

Generally, provide details of duties, responsibilities and achievements, since this information lets prospective employers know what you have already accomplished and therefore what skills you possess. Information that shows an applicant’s interests or positions of responsibility in voluntary organisations may also create a good impression. It is not necessary to reveal your gender, nationality or age.

Applicants should ask work associates or other responsible people to act as referees for them. Choose those who can speak well about your abilities and interests. List their names, positions, addresses, telephone numbers and email addresses on your résumé. Be sure to let them know each time you apply for a position so that they are prepared to discuss your application. In your first few jobs, including your casual jobs, it is also a wise idea to ask your supervisor to provide you with a letter of reference. Most managers are only too happy to help young staff advance and will endorse your achievements for future employers.

As your experience builds, your résumés will expand and change. You should develop a simple one-page résumé and also an extended résumé so that you have an up-to-date version should you need one immediately. Always maintain an up-to-date personal data folder as well, regardless of whether you are currently seeking employment. Keep a list of all the roles and positions you have been in, the tasks you performed and your achievements. List the training programs you have attended. Many human resource developers recommend that you keep a personal portfolio where you not only list your progress, but also reflect on your development. A number of professions are now competency-focused, so you may choose to investigate the models they have set out for you to document your professional competence. Be ruthlessly thorough in managing your own career portfolio.

As you advance in your career, your résumé will be adapted for various functions, both within the organisation and externally. When firms are bidding for contracts, they frequently need to list the staff who will be working on the project so that prospective clients can verify their qualifications. You may be applying for recognition by your professional association and your résumé will highlight those aspects of your experience that are relevant to that organisation. Each résumé will be different, but they all serve the same function. Think of a résumé as a marketing document for yourself, presenting your skills and abilities to prospective employers. We have provided an example of a simple résumé in Exhibit 12.3. For more advanced résumés, we suggest that you consult the many career websites and books for a wide range of ways to present your credentials for review.

The traditional two-column reverse chronological order résumé is the most expected style and suits recent graduates and traditional professions such as Law, Aviation and Government. If you have a very chequered career with some breaks, then a functional résumé with headings such as



Résumé

Lee Wong55 East Street

Erewon, Victoria 3258(03) 3503 1322

Email: [email protected]

Educational background2008 – present University of Adelaide Degree program in civil engineeringAchievements Completing third year with a Distinction average City of Melbourne Award for Innovation (2010)Activities Leader of inter-faculty sports squad (2008–2009) Technical Director, University Review (2009)ExperienceVacation and part-time work:Dec 2009 – Mar 2010 Consolidated Iron – Project Assistant Participated in demolition and construction work Became familiar with heavy equipment on-site Shadowed the project manager Supervised a small project measuring and pouring concrete for foundationsNov 2007 – Feb 2008 Colesworth Glenbroak Store – Salesperson Responsible for fruit and vegetables Maintained clean and fresh displays Liaised with customersJan 2008 – June 2009 Pizza Palace – Cook Responsible for food preparation and cooking Responsible for kitchen cleanlinessOther informationSpecial skills Pilot’s licenceHobbies Underwater swimming, flying and gliding, welded sculptureRefereesJames Soames Toni LeeProject Manager, Consolidated Iron President, Highvale Flying ClubTelephone – (03) 5656 5656 Telephone – (03) 6565 6565

Exhibit 12.3 Example of a simple résumé



Management Experience, Sales Experience and Administration Experience will disguise some of the breaks and highlight your career better than a chronological one. If you have been a ‘high flyer’ then an achievement résumé which lists only your achievements and education might work best. Check examples of these on the Web.

Think of the letter of application as leading to your résumé and then your résumé as gaining you a job interview, which in turns gets you the job.

Letters of acceptance and refusalLetters accepting an offer of employment seldom pose a problem for writers. An effective strategy would be to confirm agreement of the conditions while expressing pleasure at being chosen for the position. Remember, however, that this letter is part of your employment contract, so carefully check all the details before you accept.

Circumstances occasionally dictate the need to refuse an attractive offer. In these cases, it is important to give the reasons for your decision and also try to leave the employer with a positive attitude towards you.

Case study 12.1

The following employment opportunity is similar to many that appear on popular online job sites:

Job Title: Graduate

Job Code: 1234

Location: Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne

Date: 04-02-11

Residency: Residency

Job Type: Permanent

Description:

A leading international organisation has recently taken on a number of outstanding development projects and is now seeking graduates to join the multidisciplinary teams who will face the challenges presented by these exciting new projects.

The ideal candidates possess a sense of adventure and a consistently positive attitude. They will have outstanding written and oral communication skills and a good work ethic. They should be able to demonstrate that they are team players and can perform under pressure. Most important – they need to be quick learners as this role will involve a very steep learning curve.

Candidates must have recently completed an undergraduate degree in any discipline or a Technical College Diploma with

outstanding results. Your application must show that you can use your education as a springboard to an exciting career in a multidisciplinary area.

These vacancies are based in Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne, so please indicate your preference. Candidates must be willing to travel in Australia and overseas and have appropriate travel documents.

Candidates can expect a speedy response as the organisation needs to start immediately to build its project teams.

Please send your CV electronically as directed below. If you have any questions, you can call Marla Gladstone on 06 1234 5678

Discussion1 Why would organisations be seeking graduates from a

variety of discipline areas?2 Who are they looking for?3 How should a candidate apply?4 What questions might they ask if they rang Marla

Gladstone?5 Develop a CV that is appropriate to this advertisement.6 Should there be a cover ‘letter’ even though it is not

asked for? If so, write an appropriate cover letter.After you have discussed this case study, turn to page 358

for our comments.

Employment application



reportsThere are as many different types of reports as there are reasons for reporting. The basic function of a report is to communicate information to someone who needs it. We may describe an event or detail a process that has been carried out. We may discuss the merits of different items of equipment or suggest what should be done to solve a staffing problem. We may investigate an accident and report our estimate of the damages, or we may survey potential users of a new product and report their opinions to the product-design team. You can see that in all these reports, a common theme is that reports usually result in some decision being reached or action taken. For this reason, reporting is one of the most important communication activities in business, industry, hospitals, research organisations and governments.

Reports can be defined as structured presentations directed to interested readers in response to some specific purpose, aim or demand. We often report to others orally, briefing them on a situation or supplying them with necessary information. However, as a piece of written communication, a report provides a permanent record of findings, a coherent discussion of alternatives, a logical presentation of conclusions and a detailed list of recommendations that propose the course of action best indicated by the study.

Written and oral reportsWhile oral reports often provide a quick overview of a situation, the obvious advantages of a written report are that it provides one or a number of readers with a physical copy of the report, and with that the opportunity to study the findings and make frequent reference to the information if required. In an oral report, the listeners will be able to ask questions and demand explanations; in a written report, the writer must anticipate those questions in presenting the information.

Qualities of effective reports• An effective report is accurate. If facts have not been recorded correctly, any conclusions, decisions

or recommendations made will also be flawed.• An effective report presents information as objectively as possible. Logic rather than emotion should

determine both the content and the presentation. While reports frequently suggest a course of action, readers should clearly see that the facts support that recommendation.

• An effective report is clear and concise. Since the purpose of reports is to convey information so that another can make a decision, it is crucial that the reader be able to quickly and easily understand exactly what the writer is trying to say, without having to ask, ‘What does this mean?’

• An effective report presents all the necessary information (but no more!). Omitting a portion of relevant data biases the outcome of the report and gives a false representation of the findings. Those who rely on your report to guide them in making a decision trust that they have been presented with a comprehensive coverage of the issue. This does not mean that reports should be longwinded; on the contrary, an effective report is written in a brief and lively style. Edit out all extraneous material.

• An effective report is clearly directed towards its goal. The aims or objectives of the report should be as obvious to the reader as they are to the writer. At each stage of a report, the writer should focus on the goal and lead the reader towards the recommended conclusions. If the report is persuasive in nature, or if the recommendations for a particular course of action are especially important, the writer needs to be very conscious of the reader’s feelings and attitudes and address uncertainty and misgivings during the discussion of the issues.



Questions to ask when writing a reportWhen you are commissioned to write a report, begin by listing all the questions that need to be answered if the aim of the report is to be achieved. Then begin the process of answering those questions. Below are some of the questions you need to explore.• Why is the report being requested? What reasons have you been given for preparing the report? Can

you find any additional reasons why the report might be necessary? What specific expertise do you have for being given the task of preparing this report? Is the report simply to be an objective presentation of data so that someone can make a decision, or does it need to be written in a persuasive style to influence a specific decision? Is it meant simply to describe a situation or are you expected to analyse and make recommendations?

• What is the purpose of the report? What are your objectives in writing the report and your organisation’s objectives in commissioning it? Perhaps you are trying to stimulate interest in some controversial or important area so that your readers will share your concern for this matter. Do you wish your readers to take action about something or perhaps to make some decisions? Is the material confidential or sensitive and therefore needs to be handled discreetly? Market-research reports, for instance, often need to be designed to disguise key elements from competitors while at the same time yield valid information. Valuation reports can be used for sales or property development, or even as the basis for bankruptcy proceedings. Medical reports must accurately describe a patient’s condition and medication so that the next staff member can correctly continue treatment.

• Who will read the report? The readers of, or audience for, the report have certain needs and expectations. What will they already know about the subject matter? Will they have different degrees of knowledge? Are their interests varied? Will they be familiar with the terminology? Some executives will prefer a broad overview while technical staff will want detailed and concrete data.

• What is the scope of the information requested? A report is usually commissioned to answer a question or a request for information. What specific and precise information is required? Should the information you supply be detailed and specific, or broad and general? Is the information requested really the information the client requires, or should you suggest further data be included? Is the report simply to be a presentation of information, or is some interpretation and analysis also required? Are you supposed to record only existing data or put forward new ideas? How much time and money should you invest in conducting the research? If possible, write a statement on the aim of the report and check with your supervisor to see if it concurs with the objectives he or she had in mind.After answering these questions, an aim or purpose can finally be established for a report. Here

is an example:Aim: To examine prospects during the next five years for development of light industry, especially electronic, in the three kilometres to the east of Penrith on the land having direct access to the Great Western Highway.

Finally, ask:• What use can I make of other reports? Some reports resemble others that have already been

submitted and approved. You will be tempted to use the formulas that have worked in the past. They will be useful guidelines, but too much reliance on them may blind you to the problems of this particular report. For example, following the headings of a report on a similar property may lead you to neglect an area of research in which this property is different. On the other hand, if you depart markedly from the format of routine reports accepted in your organisation, you may come in for criticism from senior colleagues, so you need to be able to justify any changes.



Collecting informationReport writing requires skill in the art of detection – knowing about sources of information and how to tap them. As you build experience, your reports will reflect this experience, not only because you have met similar problems before but also because your judgements are more mature and accurate than they were in the past.

There are many methods of finding and collecting data for a report. The type of material collected and the way in which it is acquired will be determined by the purpose and nature of the report. It will not always be easy to find what you need; however, your responsibility for producing a report that meets your readers’ needs will induce you to be innovative and thorough in your research. In Chapter 6 we discuss research methods; these skills are useful to you for any business reports you are commissioned to write.

SummarisingThroughout the reporting process you will be summarising information as you condense material to present to others in a useful and informative format. The title of the report is the ultimate summary as it presents in the most concise form the essence of what the report is about. The table of contents is in reality a point-form summary. The complete report is a summary of a much larger body of information, while the section of the report called the summary has the function of presenting the report ‘in a nutshell’.

The terms abstract, executive summary and precis are used to describe alternate forms of summarising information, and while there is some ambiguity in their use there is also wide agreement as to their function.

An abstract generally describes the contents of a paper or report. Its function is to let readers know what the composition is about so that they can decide if it is relevant to their needs. We use abstracting services such as ABI Inform and Proquest extensively when we are researching a topic to help us find the information in that area. Here is an example of an abstract for a student paper on the manufacturing industry in Australia:The last 10 years have seen many changes in the manufacturing industry in Australia. This paper presents a historical perspective to help understand how we got to where we are. It also poses the question of just who owns Australian manufacturing industries.

The terms summary or executive summary usually mean an informative piece of text that presents the aim, results, conclusions and recommendations of the major work in a concise and readable form. It can vary in length from a few sentences to a complete volume, depending on the length and complexity of the work it serves. Compare the following summary with the abstract above:The aim of the report was to analyse production costs in order to increase profits for the company. Our analysis of the production costs shows a problem between the customer-controlled variables and the cost of the production output. Additionally the company can optimise the use of its managers and the temperature of its factories and so decrease operating costs.Five of the six customer specifications do not affect the costs of the order. Specifically, rush, detail and stamp do not contribute to the cost and therefore should be exploited to maximise profit. Any premium charged for these specifications will directly improve the margin of profit. For example, a 500-unit detailed job and a 500-unit rush job cost the same amount to produce. Charging a $40 premium for the rush job would not increase costs, but translate into profits.Furthermore, one of the company’s team managers, George, produces units at $7.50 less per unit than other managers. We recommend that the company benchmark George’s methods to extract an extra $7.50 per unit.



Typical production runs would see cost reductions in the vicinity of $9000. Given George’s lower costs are not related to the variable costs, his methods are potentially transferable.Finally, it is important for the company to alter its cost structure around features of the job related to design, labour hours, material costs, temperature and manager.

A précis is an evaluative summary that presents a measure of professional judgement in addition to the aims, results, conclusions and recommendations of the report or paper. The writer of a précis is expected to present some critique of the accuracy, completeness and usefulness of the document based on their own expertise. This style of summarising is employed when you are compiling a literature review as part of a major academic research paper or when you have been asked by a supervisor at work to review a recent report affecting your field of work. In some ways it is similar to the book reports you may have been required to submit in literature classes, but you can also observe this style of review in newspapers following the publication of major government reports. For example:The government report on child care issued last week highlights the need for more long-day child-care facilities, especially in the rapidly growing outer suburbs. However, it ignores completely the needs for casual child care. This signifies that the government commitment to a holistic approach to child welfare is once again a token effort.

In all summarising activities you need to thoroughly understand the material you are condensing and have a clear idea of the audience and the purpose of the summary. Your abbreviated edition should be an accurate reflection of the facts and the emphasis presented in the original work. You should present the key points but omit the details, examples, illustrations and supporting material.

Format of a formal reportMany companies, departments and organisations develop their own special layouts for reports, and their employees soon become familiar with their expectations. However, an understanding of the commonly accepted format for formal reports prepares a writer for any reporting situation. The purpose, nature and scope of the report will influence the final decision about which format or style is appropriate. The writer should choose a format that will best fulfil the aim of the report, be as simple and clear as possible, and be the most useful and timesaving to the reader.

A typical report outline or format usually consists of the parts listed in Exhibit 12.4 (on page 333). Some of these parts may be excluded if they are not relevant to the nature or scope of your report; for instance, a table of illustrations may not be necessary in many reports. The traditional divisions of a report outline help a writer to organise the information into a framework that coordinates or subordinates each piece of data in relation to another.

A writer should be willing to vary the order of the standard report if it better suits the purpose. For example, in some cases it would be appropriate to present the conclusions and recommendations at the outset, and allow the readers to peruse the report for the analysis and justification. Many management reports also contain an executive summary that gives a brief overview and cites all the recommendations. This summary may be presented at the beginning of the report or may even be a separate volume.

Content of report sectionsFor the structure of the following material, refer to Exhibit 12.4.1 The title page provides instant identification of the contents of the report. In addition to the title

itself, which should be a concise and explicit description of the report, the title page should always be dated. Frequently, the name and position of the author and the person or group authorising the report is also presented. Occasionally, some indication of the intended audience is noted and in some cases, notices or restrictions such as ‘Confidential’ or ‘For internal use only’ are clearly stated.



2 A letter of transmittal is often included with a report. It is usually separate from the main document but in some cases, as in many government reports, it is bound up with the report itself. This letter personalises the report for a specific reader and calls attention to those items or sections in the report that are of particular interest to that person.

3 The table of contents is an outline of the complete report. It shows the section titles and major headings listed in order of appearance and indicates the appropriate page locations. A numbering system identifies each section. The table of contents is useful for an overview of the report and, of course, for quick reference to sections of specific interest to the reader.

4 A list of figures, illustrations and tables is included if many of these items appear in the report. The figure numbers, titles and page references are listed in order of appearance.

5 A summary of the report is presented next. As we discussed previously, it should be a concise presentation of the essential elements of the report. Its purpose is twofold: first, to give an overview of the report, and second, to save many readers from the necessity of skimming the entire report to find the main points. For these reasons, the summary contains the aim and scope of the report, the main findings without supporting examples or arguments, and the conclusions and recommendations.

6 The introduction provides the necessary background of the report. Readers may need some history or descriptive material to fully appreciate the details presented. If specialist terms are employed, it is wise to define these terms so that there is no misunderstanding or confusion throughout the remainder of the report. If extensive technical terminology is used, a glossary could be included after the table of contents or before the bibliography.

7 The aims and objectives, as well as the intended audience, the reasons for the investigation and any special instructions that may be useful for the reader, should be clearly defined. You may include this in the introductory section or provide a separate section to highlight its importance.

8 The scope of the report is also helpful information to be presented as introductory material. The scope should cover these questions: What does the report cover? What does it ignore? Why have these boundaries been set? Who is the report directed to? Who will be affected by it?

9 The body of the report communicates the facts and opinions collected. It should contain headings and subheadings that clearly describe the topics being discussed. One element should lead to the next so that the content is explored in a logical manner. A typical approach is to describe the research undertaken, display the results obtained, discuss the results by considering various viewpoints and perspectives to extract meaning from the data, and then analyse them using your professional judgement and expertise.

This section may also inform a reader about how the information was gathered and what materials and equipment were used. If the method used for research was complicated and a description of the material and equipment is essential to the understanding or use of the report, then these should be presented in detail.

If you use tables, graphs, photographs or illustrations throughout your report, you should give each one a title or caption such as ‘Table 1.2’ or ‘Exhibit 3.5’.

10 The conclusions are a natural outflow of the body of the report. This section usually opens with a brief summary of the report thus far and then leads to the obvious conclusions drawn from the data presented. The conclusion should reinforce the reader’s understanding of the report and relate to the objectives stated in the introduction. Some conclusions may simply be summaries of the main points of the discussion, while others may state the results; still others may evaluate the facts presented. However, no new material should be introduced in this section. A good test of a well-written report is to check whether readers draw the same conclusions as those the writer presents.



11 The recommendations section is sometimes included with the conclusions, but if the recommendations are important, or if there are many, then a separate section is more functional. Analytical reports, in which a writer has been asked to evaluate and initiate change in an area, require a separate recommendations section.

Recommendations are clear statements of the action that should result from the report. They often form the basis for motions to be debated and voted on at meetings.

12 A list of references or a bibliography may be included to acknowledge the sources of the information presented. Any books, reports, conference proceedings or journal articles you use should be presented in a style appropriate to the report. It is also quite common to cite interviews and survey respondents. You should be sure to reference throughout the text if you have used an idea, paraphrased or taken a direct quotation from someone else’s work. However, many business reports do not use any references at all. If you do use references, then refer to the instructions for referencing in Chapters 6 and 13.

13 The appendices contain any relevant additional graphic, statistical or other supplementary material that may be interesting to the readers. These are placed at the end of the report so as not to interrupt the flow of the main ideas. Each item should be clearly titled and labelled (Appendix A, B, C, etc.), and should be referred to at an appropriate point in the body of the report.NOTE: one main difference between business reports and scientific reports is that the Method

section is usually missing or glossed over in business reports. We believe that many consultants, managers and outside agencies are employed for their expert knowledge, and so their Method actually consists of their expertise, or using expert analysis. We ask our students to specify their exact methods in our classes because we believe that omitting the Method is misleading.

Exhibit 12.4 Structure of a formal report

1 Title page2 Letter of transmittal3 Table of contents4 List of figures, illustrations and tables5 Executive summary6 Introduction7 Aims and objectives8 Scope9 Body of report (presented in sections)

9.1 Method of research9.2 Results9.3 Discussion and analysis

10 Conclusions11 Recommendations12 References/bibliography13 Appendices



Case study 12.2

The following is part of a typical student report in the subject Communication 1:

Evaluation of communication in Sydney Central Railway Station

SummarySydney Central Railway Station (or Central Station) is used by thousands of travellers each day. As part of the requirements of the subject Communication 1, an investigation of the effectiveness of communication used in the station was undertaken.

Each section of the station was investigated for signage, lighting and architectural detail, recorded messages used and obstacles to certain populations.

The Upper Station, servicing regional trains, was found to be ‘user-friendly’; however, the Lower Station, servicing suburban trains, was ‘user-hostile’. Both sections of the station would benefit from a greater use of symbols and icons on all signs to cater to international travellers and the multicultural nature of Sydney. Many signs also need to be simplified and have visual obstructions removed.

Table of contents1 Introduction 32 Sydney Central Station users 43 Terminal design 54 Upper Station signs 65 Lower Station

5.1 Railway Square 75.2 Devonshire Tunnel 75.3 Chalmers Street entrance 85.4 Platforms 9

6 Conclusions 107 Recommendations 118 References 129 Appendix 13

List of figures4.1 Upper Station4.2 Eddy Avenue directional sign4.3 Internationally recognised symbols5.1 Lower Station5.2 Chalmers Street entrance5.3 Destination monitors

1 IntroductionSydney Central Railway Station (or Central Station) is used by thousands of travellers each day. Every user needs specific information to be able to complete their journey, as well as general information regarding toilets, chemists, food, souvenirs, etc. In addition, in a multicultural city such as Sydney, the information needs to be presented so that all travellers can interpret it.

As part of the requirements of the subject Communication 1, an investigation of the communication techniques used at Central Station was undertaken. This report details the results of that study and includes recommendations to make Central Station operate more effectively …

6 ConclusionsThe two parts of Central Station are very different in the way they affect people and communicate destinations effectively. The Upper Station is an open, people-friendly place in which everything has been kept at the same floor level, which is a benefit to disabled patrons. The Lower Station, on the other hand, is a very antisocial area and poses many severe physical obstacles. These include narrow corridors, turnstiles and stairs which make travel difficult for the elderly, the disabled and those with small children in prams. The city platforms are also likely places for assaults because all sorts of people use the trains at night.

The signage is good in that the lettering, colouring and positioning has been standardised. The platform signs indicating stops are also effective if you are near enough to see them; however, they cannot be seen from the full length of the platform.

Most of the signs are hindered by the following:• lack of symbols and icons to indicate services and

destinations• lack of follow-up signs to reach service destinations• too much information on signs• poor sign location and visual obstructions• poor choice of information and display methods.

7 RecommendationsThe following recommendations should be investigated to improve movement and communication in Central Station:a Clean and redecorate the Railway Square passageway.b Dedicate staff to help disabled people.c Make greater use of symbols and icons.

Sample student report



Style in report writingIn Chapter 11 we give suggestions for effective writing style that are appropriate for business reports. Often reports are written by a number of people, so it is especially important for the principal writer to make sure that the final report appears to have been written by a single author. Since reports are often written for others within a specialist area, it is quite appropriate to use the specialist terms and jargon of that profession. If a writer is in any doubt about whether readers will understand a term, it is wise to define that term, either in the text or in an accompanying glossary.

Many report writers feel they must write in the third person and use highly formal language. Modern practice, however, recommends using the pronouns I or we rather than the more formal terms the writer or the investigator. Quite rightly, writers also think they should seek variety in their writing and so consult their thesaurus to find synonyms for frequently used words, sometimes unnecessarily. Report writing demands precision rather than an elaborate style, so repetition and restatement is quite appropriate.

Many reports list information using bullets (•) or numbers. Sometimes sections are surrounded with a border or shaded. This grouping of information is called chunking and, although it does not necessarily conform to our usual idea of a paragraph, it performs the same function. Its purpose is to link related ideas into a coherent whole so that a reader will more easily interpret the message presented.

Compare the two versions of a report on building services presented in Exhibit 12.5. Not only is the first hopelessly confused in its arrangement of items, but the solid paragraph prose form makes separation of major and minor points difficult.

HeadingsHeadings, numbering and listing are used extensively in reports to guide your reader towards the information they need. Use headings and subheadings for sections and even paragraphs, to act as signals to the content. Headings can help readers who are skimming the report because they lack time to read it thoroughly, or readers who are scanning for specific information. The headings form the table of contents of a report and, with the addition of page numbers, are a central navigational aid.

Decide on the style you will use to signify your levels of headings to indicate the relative importance of sections. You might use a bold upper-case font for main headings and lower-case words with initial capital letters for subheadings. It is important to be consistent throughout the report. Your word-processing system can help you with the format of your headings so that you can make changes consistently throughout a report.

d Simplify information on signs.e Remove visual obstructions.f Place maps of the station near entranceways.

Discussion1 Evaluate the methods chosen by this student to present

the data.2 Does the Summary provide a good overview of the report?3 Assess the effectiveness of the Introduction.4 Does the Conclusion indicate that the goal of the report

has been achieved?

5 Do the Recommendations follow logically from the Conclusions?

6 Do the Recommendations provide a framework for action?7 Using your own railway station or other central

transportation depot, reconstruct the investigation and compare your results with this report. What would you include in your report? Is there a more effective way to assess the communication effectiveness of a transport depot?After you have discussed this case study, turn to page 334

for our comments.



Numbering is also important in reports to help readers follow and find particular sections. A recommended system is the decimal numbering system, which is easy to use and does not lead to confusion about the relative levels of letters. The example in Exhibit 12.6 illustrates decimal numbering. We used this system to outline the sections of reports.

How reports are readSeparating the various sections of the report enables people at different levels in an organisation to read those parts of the report they find interesting or necessary. Senior management may have time to read only the executive summary. Others may scan the synopsis (summary), introduction and conclusions, and these parts should give them a good general idea of the report’s main points. Middle-level administrators may wish to concentrate on the conclusions of the report so that they can implement the report’s findings.

Research officers may be asked to read the whole report carefully, especially checking the detailed calculations that may appear in an appendix. If there are a number of tables, charts and graphs in the report, researchers may appreciate the inclusion of a list of illustrations as well as a table of contents at the beginning of the report.

Exhibit 12.5 Paragraphing vs. chunking

Version 1: Block paragraphingQuotations are given and sales made under the following conditions. First, prices may fluctuate without notice, either before or during delivery. Second, the whole of the bricks required on the job must be supplied through us from our own yard. Extra payment will be required if carters are required to wait on the job for more than 15 minutes. Delivery is subject to strikes, lockouts, shortage of vehicles or any other cause beyond our control. Face-brick prices are subject to face-bricks being available from yards in this district. In the event of carters having to divide their loads or place bricks on a scaffold higher than their vehicle, extra payment will have to be made. This additional payment will also be required if the carters have to carry bricks over a footpath more than four metres wide or unload bricks over the rear of the vehicle.

Version 2: Numbering, listing, indentingQuotations are given and sales made on the following conditions:1 that prices may fluctuate without notice either before or during delivery2 that the bricks supplied on the job are supplied through us from our own yard3 that extra payment will be required if carters are required to:

– divide their loads– place bricks on a scaffold higher than their vehicle– carry bricks over a footpath more than four metres wide– unload bricks over rear of vehicle– wait on jobs more than 15 minutes

4 that face-brick prices are subject to face-bricks being available from yards in this district5 that delivery is subject to strikes, lockouts, shortage of vehicles or any other cause beyond our

control.



Structuring the body of the reportThe structure of the central part of the report, the body of the report, will depend on the subject. Many reports are essentially answers to the question ‘What happened?’ The answer to such a question might proceed chronologically, dealing with the topic in stages or phases, and bringing the reader up to date.

Another question that might be addressed by the report is ‘Why did this happen?’ Cause and effect will be the basis of the answer to this question, and again a chronological structure might be used. On the other hand, such a report might begin by discussing the present state of the problem and then move back in time to explain how the problem arose.

If the question is ‘What should be done?’, the structure of the report is likely to be a sort of debate, comparing solutions to a problem, assembling evidence and making a judgement.

Reports can be broadly classified as either descriptive or analytical. Descriptive reports emphasise facts, figures and descriptions. They say what is happening as concisely and precisely as possible. They might include judgements such as ‘So the year’s trading figures show an improvement month by month owing no doubt to the lifting of the drought in April’. However, in information reports, judgements are of less importance than objective statements of fact. Analytical reports, on the other hand, rely on your professional expertise to examine the information and provide expert opinion on its meaning and relevance.

Many reports are structured according to topic. That is, a number of areas or topics are reported on and the writer must decide the order of the topics. Suppose that you were reporting on the incidence of road-accident fatalities in your state during a particular period. Perhaps your research shows that in order of seriousness the causes of fatalities are drunkenness, speeding, distraction and incompetence. You may decide to treat each cause in the order given; that is, from the most to the least serious cause of accidents. This order will give prominence early in the report to the most important problems. On the other hand, you may wish to lead up to the big accident causes, in which case you can proceed in reverse order. Yet another method is to classify the types of accident

Exhibit 12.6 Decimal numbering in headings

Infectious diseases1 Summary2 Introduction3 History

3.1 Local3.2 Overseas

4 Causes of disease4.1 In the home4.2 In the community4.3 In hospitals

5 Conclusions5.1 Results5.2 Recommendations



fatality; drunkenness and speeding can be regarded as deliberative behaviour, and distraction and incompetence as non-deliberative behaviour. This structure may enable you to make more interesting points in your analysis and recommendations.

Presenting the final reportThe final draft of your report is the copy that will be presented to the reader and it may take you a number of drafts before you are satisfied that your work meets all of the criteria we have discussed in this text. The usual processes of editing and revising (described in Chapter 11; see page XXX) apply.

Before submitting the document, ask yourself the following questions. You can then be confident that you have achieved the goal of presenting a satisfactory and effective report.• Does the title clearly show the content of the report?• Is the aim of the report clearly stated in the introductory sections? Has enough background

been given to enable the readers to understand the report? Does the conclusion leave the reader in any doubt that the goal of the report has been achieved? (Most readers of reports check for the correlation between the introduction and conclusion as an indication of a report’s effectiveness.)

• Is the structure and sequence of the report logical and appropriate? Is the information in the report arranged under a set of headings and subheadings that follow a logical hierarchy?

• Is the format and layout attractive and visually effective? Have you planned the placement of illustrations so that they are presented in the best possible way? Are the graphics interesting and relevant? Do you make reference to each of them within the text of your report? Do they all have a number, title and, if necessary, an acknowledgement of their source?

• Does each section of your report fulfil its function?• Have you included all the necessary examples, details, facts and illustrations? Is there any need for

more interpretation and explanation? Are all the major points given sufficient emphasis?• Have the sources of your information been provided? Is the bibliography complete and has it

been correctly set out? Have all direct quotations been acknowledged? Has this been done in an appropriate manner and correctly set out as references?

• Have you carefully proofread the report for any errors in grammar, spelling, sentence structure, punctuation and paragraphing?

• Have you presented it in an appropriate style and at an appropriate time?• Are you proud of your work? Does it reflect your professional competence? Will your reader

be satisfied?If you are satisfied that your report has met all these requirements, then you are ready to submit

it to your reader.A checklist like that in Exhibit 12.7 may help.

Technical, medical and laboratory reportsReporting is as important in technical activities as it is in business. When you report to someone, you condense a large amount of relevant material into a framework that is manageable for them. Reports are custom-built, designed especially for those who will need, use and read them. Reports are the mainstay of engineering and scientific activity in the workplace and are crucial in medical and hospital work. Progress reports, site reports, environmental impact reports, research reports and patient reports consume a large portion of the working day for professionals in these fields.



Exhibit 12.7 Example of a report checklist

Title pageo Descriptive titleo Datedo Authorisedo Reader-directed

Table of contentso Completeo Indicates logical hierarchyo Gives accurate locations

Summaryo Contains the essentialso The problemo What we dido What we found outo What we concludedo What we recommendo Easy to read and understando Concise yet complete

Introductiono Reader-directedo Necessary backgroundo Aim and purposeo Research methodso Scope

Main texto The central pointso Necessary supporting materialo Logical organisationo Effective headings and subheadings

Conclusionso Drawn from the texto No new material presentedo Written from the general to the specific

Recommendationso Action statements

o Clear and unambiguouso Capable of implementation

Referenceso Complete and accurateo Up-to-date

Appendiceso Labelled and titledo Designed for referenceo Necessary and relevanto Noted in text

Illustrationso Clear and relevanto Quality artworko Thoughtful text designo Accurately labelledo Appropriately titledo Noted in text

Organisationo Appropriate formato Logical sequenceo Descriptive headings and subheadingso Parallel constructiono Each section necessary and relevanto Pages numbered

Styleo Clear and conciseo Easy to reado Appropriate language

Presentationo Designed for useo Appropriate bindingo Attractive printingo Timely presentation



Many of you will be familiar with the style of laboratory reports you submitted in your physics classes in high school. Perhaps you are also using laboratory reports in your university studies. However, industry also requires its share of laboratory reports when materials and equipment need to be tested, soil specimens identified, industrial waste analysed, or noise or vibration measured.

In your studies, laboratory work helps you to learn the processes of experimentation, measurement and testing. The laboratory report is your offer of proof to your tutor that you know your work. In your report, you will clearly demonstrate that:• you understood the objectives of the test or experiment• you were familiar with the equipment and knew how to operate it• you were capable of conducting the exercise and recording the results• you could analyse the results and discuss their significance.

Your report also shows your tutor that you have the appropriate language skills to operate within your field. That means that:• you know why reporting is necessary and who your reader will be• you have the appropriate vocabulary to accurately describe the equipment and the process• you know the acceptable format and style for laboratory reports• you have adequate skills in defining terms, describing processes and evaluating alternative

positions.In industry, on the other hand, management is usually much more concerned with results

than they are with process. Perhaps you are performing standardised tests where the procedures are clearly defined. The reader will simply want you to confirm that the equipment was functioning within prescribed tolerances to ensure the degree of accuracy of the measurements. However, even in industry, research and development, personnel are keenly interested in knowing the process followed in the experiment or test since they may need to replicate it to ensure that it produces the same results each time. Researchers also sometimes vary one aspect of an experiment to observe the differing results. As in most technical writing tasks, the reader and the purpose of the task determine how you go about it.

The language used in laboratory work is also important to the success of your reports. A study is a careful observation of different phenomena. An investigation, on the other hand, uses observations and tests as a basis for making deductions. Verification is necessary to show that a law or theory is true, or that observations or tests performed by other researchers can be duplicated and yield the same results when performed by others.

Medical reports on patients are often written in a structured style to ensure that all the essential information is recorded in a systematic way. The readers of these reports need complete and accurate information presented in a concise style so that decisions can be made confidently in a minimum time. That means that writers of these technical reports are expected to use standardised medical language and a methodical approach to recording the incident, medication given or episode encountered.

Style in technical reportsUnderstanding the basic principles of scientific method will help you in your approach to technical writing. Most scientists believe that the hypothesis is the central concept of science. Lindsay (1989) describes the hypothesis as a ‘reasonable scientific proposal’. He suggests that it is not a statement of fact but a statement that takes us just beyond known facts and anticipates the next logical step in a



sequence of facts. Through this technique, science has expanded our knowledge. Once a hypothesis has been formulated, the trick is to either prove or disprove it. This is done by means of tests, experiments and/or systematic observation or study. So a hypothesis must rest on an established and accepted body of knowledge and must also be able to be tested through research.

When you are writing a scientific paper or report, you need to establish that you are conversant with the knowledge in the area. You also need to show that from the many possible advances on that knowledge, you have chosen a hypothesis that is both logical and feasible. Your argument may go something like this:1 Inland waterways are becoming polluted through fuel discharge from petrol-driven powerboats.2 Powerboats are popular for fishing and for water sports.3 Powerboats are noisy, thus creating auditory pollution.4 Alternatives to petrol engines exist.

Through these statements you show that you know what the problem is. You also demonstrate that there may be alternative steps to take. Your hypothesis needs to show that you are advancing in the right direction. It may look like this:5 Electric (battery-powered) boats will decrease pollution on inland waterways.

This statement is not yet fact; you have to prove it or disprove it, through research. The goal for your research is clear both to you and to your readers. It can be a beacon for you to focus on as you plough through the complex research activities needed to test it.

We discuss research methods in Chapter 6; however, our main purpose in this chapter is to concentrate on the communication activities involved in scientific and technical work. In your research, you will be recording events using a variety of media. You may film experiments or photograph specimens, you may describe events in writing or orally record your account of them. You may prepare notes, keep a journal and compose lengthy formal reports or journal articles. You may complete detailed drawings, compile complex tables of numerical data, design flow charts and graphs and other visual representations of your results. You will perform all of these communication activities because they are part of your work and essential to its completion. Later, you may draw on your own work to extend or review it, or others may need your documents to perform their part of the process. Our point is that the communication of the data and new ideas you generate as part of your research is an essential component of scientific method.

Short reportsIn business and industry you often hear the phrase ‘time is money’, and so it is common in technical and medical fields to keep reports as short as possible. These short reports may be in the form of a letter or memo, or they may follow a standardised template determined by your organisation. They commonly describe incidents such as accidents or faults in a process, or they may recount the results of a test or experiment. They may be called incident reports, progress reports or patient reports, but the process for writing them follows the conventional reporting process of answering the five Ws (who, what, when, where, why). With many reports, it may be wise to add an additional question of what next? While the Ws do not need to be addressed in this order, they do all need some attention. You must indicate who was involved in the process under review and who it affects. You should clearly and objectively describe the accident or incident, including the relevant details of date, time, season and location. Why is a more difficult task in technical writing, because you must be very careful about attributing blame. Be sure to explain why as factually as possible. You can show what should happen next as your recommendations for further action.



In terms of layout, short reports are often set out using a ‘memorandum’ format: that is, they use ‘To’, ‘From’, ‘Date’ and ‘Subject’. Unlike long reports, they do not have title pages, executive summaries or tables of contents. They often include headings and numbering to break up the text and to make it easier to find relevant parts. An example of a short memorandum report is given in Exhibit 12.8.

Exhibit 12.8 Example of a short memorandum report

To: Margaret Curzon, Branch ManagerFrom: Jeffrey Blake, Loan ManagerDate: 30 September 2011Subject: Investigation into processing delays in commercial loan applications

1.0 IntroductionIn response to your request, I have investigated the delays in processing commercial loan applications over the past three months. The following is a summary of my findings and several recommendations on how to improve the current processing timeframe and put in place processes to avoid these problems in the future.

2.0 Findings2.1 Processing time

The average processing time for a commercial loan application has slipped for the third consecutive month. It now takes approximately six weeks for our customers to get an answer on their loan application. This is more than two weeks longer than our advertised four-week turnaround time and longer than the turnaround time of most of our competitors. The reasons for this slippage include an increase in the number of loans currently being processed, an ongoing problem with the online loan approval system and the impact of staff leave schedules due to mid-year school holidays.

2.2 Commercial loans processedThe total number of commercial loans processed has continued to increase over the past 12 months. During the past three months in particular, these increases have been significant. Table 2.1 below is a summary of this quarter’s loan activity.

Month Total no. of loans initiated Loan amount

June 2011 50 $350 000

July 2011 68 $598 000

August 2011 86 $843 000

Table 2.1 Loan activity June–Sept 2011

2.3 Staff shortagesThe last three months has seen an increased demand for annual leave by key loans staff. This, in addition to two senior staff taking extended long service leave plus one unexpected extended period of sick leave for a member of the conveyancing team, has meant increased workload for the whole section.



conference papers and journaL artIcLesYou may not even consider the possibility that one day your work might be published in conference proceedings or in a journal, but all things are possible. Your employer may want recognition for the advanced technology you have been developing, or you may want personal acknowledgement for your ingenuity. Journals and conference papers, whether in print or online, are the way that technical people share information in the public domain. Researchers also rely on journals for feedback and critique of their work. By reading and analysing each other’s work, they provide both ethical and technical checks on the research process. So it is essential for researchers to publish and it’s important for businesspeople as well.

Some journal articles and conference papers are written in narrative style since they often tell the story of an event or series of experiments. Most journals and conferences distribute detailed style guides to prospective authors. You may find that some still require the article to be written in the third person and have a preference for the passive voice. If this is explicitly stated, of course, you should comply. However, there is no rule that says that all writing must adhere to this

2.4 Ongoing IT system problemsIn May 2011, the section underwent an IT upgrade to improve the capacity of the whole company. Unfortunately, glitches in the new system software resulted in unexpected downtime which has had a flow-on effect in terms of staff ability to process applications as quickly as normal. The system manufacturers now appear to have developed a patch to rectify the problem, and the system now appears to be functioning as it should.

2.5 Lost businessThe length of time that we take to process loans is especially important now that our competitors are becoming more aggressive in their marketing. There were at least five (5) highly rated and potentially profitable loans that were lost last month because customers became impatient with our delayed response and chose to go to another lender. Several of these were long-term customers who took other business such as credit cards and overdraft accounts with them.

3.0 ConclusionAs outlined and detailed in this report, processing of loans is currently two weeks behind our advertised four-week turnaround on loan applications for several reasons beyond our control. Unfortunately this is having a significant effect on business, with many customers choosing to apply to our competitors rather than wait. In short, the bank is losing important business due to these delays.

4.0 RecommendationsThe following short- and long-term actions are recommended:1 Immediately employ an additional loans officer to ease the burden on the department.2 Ensure that all staff leave is staggered during the end of financial year period.3 Ensure that there is a backup processing system in place when upgrades to the system software are

proposed or are necessary.4 Advertise an immediate reduction in loan application fees until the backlog of applications has

been processed. I would be happy to meet with you to discuss these recommendations. If you are happy to

approve recommendation 1, I will begin recruiting this additional staff member immediately.



model. More and more writers are acknowledging that work written in the active voice is usually easier to read and understand, and that using the first person does not result in a biased and self-opinionated presentation.

Illustrations, tables and graphs are commonly used to clarify and expand on points made in the text. It is important to design these visuals so that they can be clearly presented, since many publications use a multi-column format or a shorter line length to contribute to ease of reading. Online publications will need the visuals and text presented in an appropriate file format.

The audience of an article or paper is much wider than for a report and it may have a longer life. Publications are indexed for retrieval by databases and abstracting services, and your article may be cited by someone 20 years from now who is doing a PhD thesis in your area. Your style, therefore, needs to be able to stand the test of time and it should not contain references to current events that cannot be traced through conventional literature searching. Since you will be read by many people, you will want to be sure that your writing is the best it can be, so take care with all the elements of grammar, spelling, etc. Editors help with this too, but if your writing is too bad, you probably won’t get published.

For many professional journals and conferences, an article or paper is thoroughly reviewed by eminent scholars in the field before it is published. This technique ensures the quality and validity of the published material. A reviewer may query some points in a paper and ask the writer to clarify, elaborate a point or revise their work. If serious flaws are detected, the paper may be rejected. They will be especially conscious of ethical issues involved in your research, since this process of professional critique has provided a way to monitor and discuss conduct within the confines of the profession.

Reports in industry, on the other hand, are not subject to this review by the relevant professional bodies since the information is usually proprietary to the organisation and may even be top secret. Quality, validity and ethical conduct are assessed only within the organisation and are influenced by commercial, not professional, objectives. As a professional, you are still honour-bound to ensure that your work meets the highest standards possible and a number of professional bodies have developed codes of ethical conduct to guide you.

manuaLsAll manuals have the same objective: to explain a proper and efficient way to work with new products or perform unfamiliar procedures. They are the ultimate in usable documents.

There is nothing so frustrating as a bad manual or online help function. In the past, users were willing to shoulder the blame for not being able to understand the instructions presented in software manuals, or decipher the complex drawings provided with a do-it-yourself project. But today’s users are not so tolerant. The occasional well-written and well-designed manual has left us all quite hostile to the egocentric style of an expert-centred manual.

We are also much less patient and want our information presented to us quickly and in easily digested chunks. We are self-reliant. We don’t want to ask experts for help; we want to be able to work it out for ourselves. We like to solve our own problems using clear instructions from a producer.

Computer manuals are one of the most common manuals that we use today, yet the shops are filled with books that simplify those manuals so that those ‘dummies’ among us can actually get the machines to do what we want. Machine designers have added online help systems to supplement manuals, but research shows that users ignore these as well.



Users seem to prefer to ask those around them how to perform a task, but the manufacturers are still obligated to provide clear and safe instructions for operation and maintenance of the equipment they produce. In addition to being useful for those who operate the equipment, these documents or online references will be consulted as evidence should liability issues arise.

Producers have come to realise that manuals (whether paper-based or online) are as much a part of the product as any other component. The design and production of manuals should be included as part of concurrent engineering. They should be considered in the conceptual specification and form part of the product mix. As much effort and expertise should go into their design and production as the product they serve. It is possible that they may actually be one of the most lucrative components if they are integrated into a complete training package.

The key to a successful technical document is to break away from the paradigm of linear text and think of even paper-based documents as hypertext documents. They are not meant to be read from cover to cover but to be accessed and used as the need arises. They should be designed as tools that are used to help perform tasks. Therefore, writers design checklists, employ user-centred headings and construct efficient indexes and cross-referencing systems, so that the users can quickly navigate to the information they need.

styLes of workpLace wrItIng

NarrativeMany documents can be written in a narrative style; they tell a story that is composed of facts. The style can be lively and interesting; there is no rule that says that even the most technical writing has to be boring and dull. Generally the writing is crisp and clean. There is little in the way of ‘padding’. The tone is definitive; the writer knows the topic well and speaks with confidence and authority.

When presenting a report of an accident, a description of a laboratory experiment or the details of a site visit, your purpose is to give your reader as detailed an account of the situation as they need to appreciate the significance of the event. Many narratives follow a chronological order; that is, they tell of an event from beginning to end in a connected time line. For simple accounts, this style is usually the most appropriate. However, events are frequently affected by other events and your writing needs to present these diversions clearly and objectively. You should justify why you include them as part of your account and perhaps why you have discounted other influences. You are then employing another important, logical form. You are using your judgement to indicate that one event is important while another is irrelevant. You may also need to argue that there is a hierarchy of importance, from most to least important, or you may indeed be working towards an argument of cause and effect, that one event actually caused the other to happen. You have then moved from a simple narrative to an argument.

ArgumentIn arguments, you build your case on logical statements. When most people discuss logic, they talk about inductive and deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning assembles facts, one after another, until a conclusion is reached, as shown in the following sample:

Facts:

• Obesepeoplehavedietsthatarehighinfat.• Obesepeoplehaveanexcessivelyhighkilojouleintake.• Obesepeopledonotexerciseregularly.



Conclusion:

Obesity is a result of overindulging in fatty foods and lack of exercise.

Deductive reasoning starts with an accepted principle and then applies that accepted law to a specific situation, for example:

Accepted:

Obesity is a consequence of excessive kilojoule intake, lack of exercise and consumption of foods high in fat.Deduced:

If we overeat and underexercise we will become obese.

Most people believe that report writing is always logical and objective, and that there is no place for personal opinion or rhetoric. However, many experts argue that all writing is actually rhetorical in that its objective is to influence our thinking and ultimately to persuade us to act in a certain way or to believe certain things are true. The argument is that we rely on our professional colleagues to make appropriate value judgements in the course of their work. Since they are the experts in their fields, they know what is important, threatening or critical, and it is their role to make these judgements explicit in their work. Readers should not have to formulate their own conclusions but should have them presented as professional advice.

DefinitionWhether the case you are presenting is logical or rhetorical, it needs to be supported with evidence such as illustrations, examples, statistics or expert testimony. You will be calling on your skills in definition and description to present this material.

Definitions clearly identify items or concepts as unique entities. Every field of work has its own vocabulary and although English is spoken around the world, each culture attributes slightly different meanings to words. This highlights for us the living nature of language and the recognition that meanings reside in the people who use the words, not in the words themselves. Since precision is a critical element in report writing, reaching an agreement on the meaning ascribed to words is an important strategy. We achieve this by defining words at various points throughout the document. In highly technical papers and reports or in contract documents, we may even include a glossary as a separate section in which terms are formally defined and explained.

Knowing something about your readers and users will help you to determine the level of definition you will require. You may choose to explain terms by using a parenthetical expression (the explanation enclosed in parentheses immediately following the word). Sometimes an additional phrase or a complete sentence is needed to define the term adequately. Occasionally you will need an entire paragraph to ensure that your meaning is clear. Whichever way you choose to present your definition, the approach is the same. Each word is identified by showing that it belongs to a general class of similar elements and that it has uniquely identifiable traits that distinguish it from others within that class. You will immediately recognise scientific method at work again. In science, we talk about the genus and the species, and scientific classification depends on this method of identification. The principles are the same. It is a highly functional method for identifying and defining entities. Exhibit 12.9 contains some examples.

You will notice that we have included three definitions for the term copper. The English language is rich in the variety of meanings attached to its words. However, when precision is needed, this variety can lead to ambiguity in your writing. It is for this reason that you need to clearly indicate which meaning you are attaching to the words you use. For most technical



writing, it is wise to avoid using synonyms; you should be consistent in your choice of definitive words, not only in a single document but throughout all the documents in a series or set. Each word should have only one meaning. For example, you would not say ‘it is right to use your right hand to turn the handle’; you would logically use the term correct. However, as a novice you may find yourself using the term right instead of correct at other points in the text. Most professionals quickly learn to limit themselves to using only the more specific term correct, even in their speech.

Many organisations have standardised vocabularies that can be used in their technical documents to ensure that only one word is used to describe an item. This style of writing may seem boring to a creative writer, but is essential to those who need to be sure that readers interpret meaning correctly.

DescriptionThe definition tells your readers what an item is and indicates its unique characteristics, but you frequently need to give a more extensive description of what it looks like and what it does. Specifications that itemise equipment or services include both of these descriptive parts. They tell potential suppliers that you want a machine that has these physical characteristics and can perform these functions. For example, you may want a desktop computer and software that is capable of performing complex mathematical calculations. The description may be general or it may be highly specific. You may include detailed technical drawings with precise dimensions; you may signify an exact colour, including standard identification numbers.

You may expand your description by including an example, for instance ‘a desktop computer such as a Macintosh’, or you could use a synonym to explain your meaning, as in ‘a desktop computer, or PC’. Another technique to help readers derive a clearer picture is to tell them what it is not. For example, ‘a desktop computer, not a mainframe’ or ‘a desktop computer as opposed to a mainframe computer’.

Metaphor and analogy are frequently used. We have often heard the computer compared to a human brain, or DNA described as ‘a chain’. This is a communication technique that helps us to relate an unknown to something that we already know, and in that way to come to terms with our new knowledge.

Exhibit 12.9 Defining terms

Term Classification Unique characteristics

Odometer instrument measures distance travelled by wheeled vehicles

Finial architectural feature marks the apex of a roof

Copper metal reddish colour, ductile

Copper large copper or iron container for boiling laundry

Copper coin penny, halfpenny or farthing denomination



InstructionsMany technical documents are instructional. A laboratory report carefully details how an experiment was conducted so that other researchers can replicate that experiment to see if they obtain similar results. A maintenance manual sets out clear directives so that an operator can keep a machine in peak condition. Quality procedures indicate the processes required to complete tasks. In each case, the material needs to be presented in such a way that a user can complete a task accurately and safely. It is the writer’s job to provide clear instructions to achieve this aim.

We have evolved some useful techniques for preparing instructional text. The first step is to use a heading that clearly and precisely indicates what task is to be accomplished. For example: Programming your phone. Each block of instructions is prefaced with such a heading. The rule of thumb in instructional writing is to keep to seven (plus or minus two) steps within each chunk of text.

You will notice that we have used the term chunk rather than paragraph. In the jargon of technical writers, the term chunk is used to indicate a grouping of words (sometimes with accompanying graphics) that relate to the same topic or theme. Since the words may be presented as bulleted lists, numbered lists or annotated drawings, they do not resemble traditional text paragraphs and may not adhere to traditional punctuation rules. (What form of definition have we followed here?)

Instructions tell users what to do, but sometimes a user benefits from knowing a bit about why they will be performing these tasks and they may even want some background information or company policy to put them fully in the picture. This introductory material is usually placed at the beginning of the instructions and separated into a chunk by leaving white space around it or enclosing it in a box, to indicate its role. For example:Engine Overhaul (AEO 56) is a routine maintenance procedure.Only licensed aircraft maintenance engineers may perform this procedure.

You may also want to indicate the equipment the user will need to have available to perform the task. For example:To assemble this component, you will require a screwdriver, pliers and hammer.

Any necessary cautions and warnings certainly need to be clearly displayed at the outset of each chunk of instructions. Use graphic techniques to ensure that your users notice the warning, and skilful writing so that their full meaning is made clear. Compare these two warning statements:1 Warning. Do not connect red and green wires.2 WARNING! Do not connect red and green wires – you may cause irreparable damage to your machine.

The instructions themselves need to be presented in a simple, precise and logical order. They are presented as clear, step-by-step directives, usually beginning with a command verb such as turn, push, press, switch or place. Avoid cluttering up instructions with excess words such as ‘you should’; even courtesies such as ‘please’ can be assumed without the need to include them in writing. For example:Cluttered: Next, you should press the start button.Clear: 3 Press the START button.

In the clear example, the number ‘3’ indicates that it is the next instruction following item 2. The words ‘you should’ in the cluttered example add no value to the statement and slow down the process while the user reads the additional words. Using full capitals highlights the object of the action: the START button. You could even represent the button graphically to reinforce the message.

Your choice of words must be precise and consistent. In the example above, for instance, you would cause confusion if your instruction used the term START while the actual button on the machine carried the label ON. If you wanted to clarify such an instruction, you could use a qualified directive. For example:Qualified: 3 To start the machine, press the ON button.



It is important to present your information in the same sequence in which it is going to be used. A user would want to know what they are doing before they did it, not after. Therefore, the example above is preferred to ‘Press the ON button to start the machine’, which would instruct operators to perform an action before they understood the consequences.

Instructions are usually listed with identifying numbers or bullet points. Like all lists, the items should be written in a similar style to achieve parallel construction. In the first example below, each of the instructional steps is written in a different style. When they are presented as a list, they appear haphazard and confusing. The second example is written in a consistent style – parallel construction – and we recommend this approach for writing lists or any text that needs to show cohesion and unity.Inconsistent style: Specimen preparation

Remove the specimen from the culture.You will need to mount it on a slide.Next, it should be covered with another slide and placed in the microscope.Parallel construction: Preparing a specimen

1 Remove the specimen from the culture.2 Mount it on a slide.3 Cover the slide with a sterile slide.4 Place the stack in the microscope.

All professional technical writers agree that instructional text needs to be closely integrated with the graphics that support it. All terms should be consistent throughout the graphics and the text. The graphics should be adjacent to each instruction and should be simple and clear. Avoid using complex, multi-purpose graphics. It is far better to have a series of simple, easy-to-identify sketches than one elaborate, beautifully crafted drawing that is so complex that a user would not be able to identify the components.

In summary, instructions should be:1 simple, clear directives for action2 written in the active voice3 presented in parallel construction4 consistent in terminology5 clearly identified with an action-oriented heading6 prefaced with warnings, equipment needed and useful background7 integrated with supporting graphics.

generaL conventIonsMost organisations have adopted a ‘plain English’ policy (Eagleson 1990) for their documents. The suggestions we are presenting in this chapter focus on guidelines that have been drawn from a number of company style manuals that follow principles in line with this.• Use descriptive or task-oriented headings throughout your documents.Write: Initialising your diskInstead of: Disk initialisation• Prefer the active voice.Write: The sample contains four soil types.Instead of: Four soil types are found in the sample.



• Prefer the present tense for instructions.Write: Clear the site. You are now ready to lay the foundation.Instead of: After clearing the site, you will be ready to lay the foundation.• Past tense can be used for reporting.Write: The labourers cleared the site in preparation for laying the foundation.• Passive voice can be used when the focus is on the result of the action, not the initiator of the action.Write: The site was cleared in preparation for laying the foundation.• Use simple, short sentences whenever possible.Example: Scientists study natural phenomena. Engineers employ the results of science to create useful products.• Use compound and complex sentences to enhance relationships between ideas.Example: Scientists study natural phenomena, while engineers employ the results of science to create useful products.• Use formatting techniques to guide readers through longer sentences.Example: Engineers (1) draw from scientific research, (2) analyse human problems, (3) devise appropriate solutions, (4) propose implementation plans and (5) manage their completion.• Use correct and consistent terminology.• Use the same term and the same style for a term throughout a document or set of related documents.• Use a standard style throughout a document or set of related documents.• Use standard, conventional English that can be found in a popular or nominated dictionary.• Support technical language with an appropriate glossary of definitions.• Define abbreviations, acronyms and symbols and be consistent in their use.• Use conventional spelling and punctuation. Refer to a standard dictionary such as the Macquarie

or the Oxford, and to the government-preferred Style manual for authors, editors and printers.• Prefer writing in the positive. Tell readers what to do rather than what not to do. Reserve negative

instructions for warnings and cautions.

Standard formatsReports and technical documents are usually presented in conventional formats because readers need to be able to quickly find the information they need. Each genre or type of document has its own conventions and style. Because the function determines the form in business and technical writing, the way that readers will use the document influences the way it is written and designed.

Readers expect an abstract to describe the contents of a document, while a summary should give them the conclusions and recommendations as well as an overview. If they want background they will consult an introduction; if they want details they will look in the results section. They will seldom read a report from cover to cover, nor will they read every article in an edition of a journal. They read selectively because they know what they need and they want your help as a writer to ensure that they find it in the appropriate place.

Titles and headings are the tools that we use to guide our readers through a document. When we are deciding on our headings we should be asking what our reader wants to know. For example, we may write a heading ‘Background to the study’, while a reader would find the heading ‘The need for soil analysis’ more descriptive of the contents of that section.

Organisations have found other useful techniques for standardising documents. One popular approach, information mapping, was developed by Robert Horn in the 1960s and has influenced the design of corporate documents throughout the world (Horn 1992, pp. 3–4). The information mapping process identifies different information types and then structures it according to its function. Compare, for example, the same information presented first as a prose paragraph (see



Exhibit 12.10) and then in a structured style (see Exhibit 12.11) that incorporates some information mapping concepts. Which do you think is easier to read and comprehend?

Exhibit 12.10 Prose paragraph

Volunteer centre – how to enrol a volunteer at the centreWe have volunteers with interests and skills, and we have organisations needing volunteers. Your job is to match them. As many prospective volunteers lack confidence, the interviewer should adopt a calm, friendly manner. You need to get the volunteer’s personal details, then supply general information about volunteer organisations and jobs on our files. The volunteer then gives you their preferences so that you can put these into the computer with their personal details. Search in the computer for suitable jobs, then consult the volunteer about these details and get them to indicate their most preferred matches according to time and place. You then decide on three or more jobs you consider most suitable and describe these to the volunteer. You follow this up with some advice to the volunteer about their job interviews, as they will be having interviews with each organisation. You should reassure the volunteer about their suitability for these jobs. If they seem hesitant, suggest they give the matter further thought and contact us again if they need to.

Exhibit 12.11 Structured style

Volunteer centre – how to enrol a volunteer at the centreIntroduction Our mission is to match volunteers who have interests and skills with

organisations that need them.Interviewing volunteers Many prospective volunteers lack confidence and are unfamiliar with

interview procedure. Welcome them in a calm, friendly manner to put them at ease. Assure them of confidentiality and that they are under no obligation to

accept any position. Briefly explain how we match volunteers and organisations through our

computers.Matching Open a volunteer file. Complete the volunteer personal data requested. Identify the volunteer’s preferred fields. Search the organisational database for three or four appropriate

vacancies. Present the volunteer with the details of these vacancies.Advice on placement Give the volunteer some guidelines about what he or she can expect in

each of these positions. They may also need to know how to approach organisations and how to prepare for interviews.

Caution If the volunteer seems hesitant, reassure them and suggest that they give further thought to their plans and contact this centre when they are ready.



International perspectiveOne of the advantages of adopting a standard approach to your writing style is that it assists individuals and companies to communicate with colleagues, clients and customers throughout the world. All the suggestions we have made are especially useful when your documents are to be translated into languages other than English. No modern writer can ignore the impact of the global marketplace. While English is widely accepted as the common language of business, many organisations are likely to translate your work into their native tongue. If you have kept your style simple and straightforward, used conventional English, provided clear definitions of technical terms, integrated graphics and text in a systematic and consistent fashion, and adhered to commonly accepted formatting styles, your work will be understood around the world and translated quickly and accurately.

usIng graphIcs and Layout In professIonaL documentsGiven the widespread use of word processing and desktop publishing software, writers today are expected not only to write well, but also to understand and use the basic principles of layout and graphics in professional documents. Programs such as Microsoft Word and Excel allow writers to produce professionally designed tables and graphics, but it still remains important to understand the principles which allow them to effectively communicate.

Graphic material is used to supplement, reinforce and sometimes replace words. Tables, diagrams, charts and photographs should be simple and not require more time and attention to comprehend than the equivalent number of words in paragraphs of text. They should not be used just to ‘pretty up’ a document or merely to add aesthetic appeal, but should complement and work with the text to allow readers to understand a set of figures or statistics, a complex process or a trend more easily.

Complex mathematical material, like large bodies of statistics, should be relegated to the appendix of the report and a simplified graph or table should be presented in the main text. All graphics used in the report should be clearly labelled and referred to somewhere in the text of the report.

Guidelines for using graphicsThe following guidelines should help you ensure that you effectively use graphic techniques to enhance your communication:• Determine your objective for using a visual and the message you want to convey.• Choose a graphic style that is appropriate for your goal. • Consider your reader – are they familiar with this type of graphic? Will they know how to read it?• Make sure that the visual message matches the verbal, written or mathematical message.• Pay attention to detail. Carefully check all the details for accuracy.• Keep your graphic as close as possible to the text it serves.• Label each graphic as ‘Exhibit’, ‘Table’ or ‘Figure’ and include an appropriate title.• Refer to each graphic in the body of the text, e.g. ‘As Figure 1 illustrates …’.• Acknowledge the source of the graphic and ensure compliance with copyright restrictions.• Follow the KISS principle – keep it simple and streamlined. Avoid ‘chart junk’ or fancy effects

such as 3D as this may make the graphic harder to interpret or distract from its message.



Types of graphics and when to use themGraphics such as tables, graphs, photographs and drawings attract the eye and stimulate the reader to explore new approaches to the subject. In particular they help the writer to attract attention; stimulate emotion; emphasise a point; interpret and simplify complex data; demonstrate contrasts and comparisons; show trends over time; show physical appearance; analyse concepts, processes and abstract relationships; capture events; and show what cannot be seen by the naked eye.

Some professional reports necessitate illustrations, given the content of the report. A report on highly technical subject matter usually requires that content be visually depicted at least in part, so it can be understood by non-specialist readers, e.g. new technologies, industrial equipment or specialist tools.

However, not all graphics perform the same function and they should be chosen wisely to provide and enhance written communication appropriately. Consider Table 12.1 which outlines the advantages and disadvantages of commonly used graphics. Most professional graphs for presentations, reports and papers are easily created using Excel at the current time. Graphics software can be purchased, but Excel is so useful that it has become the de facto standard.

Other programs that will produce useful graphs include Adobe Illustrator, SmartDraw (http://www.smartdraw.com/) and PrettyGraph (http://prettygraph.com).

The importance of layout and designThese days, writers need to be able to do more than merely compose clear, well-written text. The advent of computers and modern desktop publishing programs such as Word has created a situation where writers also need to have a basic understanding of layout in order to enhance their written message. Gone are the days when the office typing pool corrected poor writing and formatted documents appropriately. Unless a document is to be printed for mass distribution, this is often the job of the author of the report or technical document. Writers therefore need to understand some of the basic principles of graphic design and layout.

Layout is the non-verbal communication aspect of any piece of written communication. Readers use visual cues to navigate a document, so if you think of reading a report or set of instructions like reading a map, layout can be compared to having street signs, legends, icons and other visual signs to help a reader navigate the text. That is, they help the reader find their way, see how the report is organised or argued, or find the parts they are looking for. Headings, subheadings, page numbers and section numbering systems all act as visual signposts for the reader.

Some of the basic layout ‘rules’ for a traditional document such as a report or letter include:• Body text should be between 10 and 12 point. Headings can be larger.• Use the same typeface, type size and leading (line spacing) for all your body text. The usual rule

is to use a serif font like Times for the body, and a sans serif font like Arial for the headings.• Avoid fancy fonts for text. Choose a font which reflects the nature of the message, the organisation

and the audience for whom the text is written.• Use enough leading (line spacing) to make the text easy to read. Different fonts may require

different leading. If using Word, 1.5 line spacing is useful.• Make paragraph beginnings clear – a (blank) line space is preferable to indentation unless space

is tight. Word 2007’s default is a new line and 6 pts when the Enter key is pressed.• Ragged right margins make text look more visually interesting. Avoid justification of text as it can

create uneven space between letters and words.



tablE 12.1 Uses of different types of graphics

Type Advantages Disadvantages Some rules for use

1 Table offers comprehensive detailallows for comparisons between large amounts of quantitative data

difficult to read quicklyhard to recognise relationshipssometimes too complex

Use Word to create tablesLabel table accordingly and discuss highlights in the textUse white space for ease of readingBe especially careful with financial data

2 Line graph indicates movement and trends over timeeasy to see differences between variables

inappropriate labels and scales can make it hard to interpret information

Use Excel to create line graphsAvoid putting numbers on line graphsDo not place too many lines on the chartLabel the axes clearlyUse colour wisely

3 Column or vertical bar graph

offers clear comparisons between items from one period to the next

difficult for the eye to interpret size and proportions

Use Excel to create bar graphsLimit the number of barsBe sure comparisons are clearAdjust bar widths and space between them equallyAvoid 3D barsInclude a legendThe most useful graph type

4 Pie chart shows relative proportions and importance of each part to the whole

difficult to judge area and size differencesuse for representation only

Limit the pie ‘slices’ to no more than 6 or 7 partsWork clockwise from largest to smallest ‘slice’Use for money and percentagesKeep it simpleLabel carefullyNot used for professional audiences

5 Photograph or illustration

shows subject as it appears and has an immediate impact

can be difficult to see the point due to detailcan be manipulateddoes not show context

Be aware of ethical implications of choice

6 Map shows a large amount of detail in one representation

can be difficult to read unless scales, legends and labels are concise and easy to read

Clearly label scalesUse colour and shading subtly to indicate differences

7 Technical drawings

can simplify a complex concept enables a reader to visualise sections unable to be seen

representational onlymust be labelled clearly

Select the proper amount of detailLabel parts carefullySelect the best view or perspectiveUse a legend when there are many parts



• Leave more space above headlines and subheads than below them. Use subheads liberally to help readers find what they are looking for.

• Use a numbering system to help your reader see the relationships between the sections of your report and to locate sections more easily.

• White space used skilfully can be used to show readers where to start and where to stop reading. It can also isolate important messages.

• Leave only one space after a full stop, comma, question mark or exclamation mark.• If you choose a design device, use it consistently throughout the document to establish a

recognisable pattern. For example: - signals used (arrows or numbers)- words or terms used for captions- format of questions or headings- use of screened backgrounds- typeface and type size used for text, headings and captions.A useful reference is Robin Williams’ (2007) The non-designer’s design and type book. There are also

a number of useful websites on layout and design for the beginner. Each professional group has its own style conventions with regard to graphics and tables.

Engineering drawings must conform to specific standards. Mathematical equations, symbols, measurements and notations all need to be presented in a certain style. You will need to explore the style conventions for your subject area. You can begin by reviewing the literature published in your field and observing the conventions they have adopted. Textbooks in your subject will signal the correct approach to take. We have presented commonly accepted conventions but they are not the only acceptable approaches to writing.

Technical writing is highly visual, so careful thought must always be given to the integration of visual elements throughout the text. The text and the visuals are complementary; they form a holistic communication. Visual representations help readers quickly identify objects and components, see relationships and trace procedural flows. The words provide the definition that the graphics cannot. Together they are an inseparable whole. The numerical information is also an essential component of the communication and needs to be presented with a careful analysis of the message it is communicating.

summIng upWe started this chapter with a review of comments about the future of workplace writing in the age of the Internet. We would like to finish with our own comments. Despite the non-arrival of the paperless office, many technologists predicted that digital communication would mean the death of written language, that students would no longer need to learn formal genres of composition such as letters, reports and technical documents, and that even spelling and grammar would go the way of the dinosaurs. This prediction also appears to be a myth. As we have discussed in this chapter, as well as in Chapter 5 on mediated communication, while new technologies change the nature of workplace and personal relationships, most of the widely used forms of mediated communication, such as email, SMS and social media, ironically still rely on the written word. We believe that there is an overriding need to both understand and effectively use the conventions of written language because for the time being, it is here to stay.



DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND GROUP ACTIVITIESFor discussion topics and activities in addition to those listed below, please refer to the case studies presented throughout this chapter.

Business letters1 Read the following statements. Discuss how

a reader might react to their appearance in a business letter.a We can’t get onto the guy who sold you the

camera.b My secretary informed me that the mistake was

definitely not hers.c Payments must be made on time.d You failed to supply the reference number and

we can’t fill the order until you provide the proper details.

e We’re terribly sorry about the confused orders but these things do happen from time to time, as we all know, and are probably just meant to try us. We’ll have better luck next time.

f It is obligatory that any discrepancies in the account be rectified so that the indebtedness will be cleared.

g I wish to acknowledge receipt of your letter re the cost and thank you for same.

h Our interior-decorating service guarantees to give any drab and shabby looking office an appearance of success and prosperity.

i My training and experience have equipped me to fill the position of assistant to the director in your firm.

j May I have an appointment for an interview? You may phone me during business hours between Monday and Friday.

Employment letters and résumés2 Cut out or download a variety of employment

advertisements from a major newspaper or online job site. Discuss the different strategies you would use to apply for several different jobs. Choose one advertisement that requests a written application and, using your imagination, write:a a letter of application for the positionb a detailed résumé. (Be sure to tailor the

résumé to suit the demands of the position.)

Reports3 Imagine that you work in the market-research

department of a large chain supermarket. You have been requested to present a comparative report on the following consumer goods, usually purchased in supermarkets:– washing detergent (for clothing)– toothpaste– margarine– bread.

Your reader wants to know the different brands, types and prices of these goods in the various supermarkets. Present a set of notes explaining your approach to compiling this report.

4 Prepare a report on your suburb or locality outlining the amenities, features, accommodation, house prices, transport, schooling, availability of employment, community activities and any other data you consider to be relevant. (You may even check with local councils for further information.)

Carefully formulate an objective for your report so that the information is clearly related to that objective. Perhaps the purpose of your report will be to describe a suburb as fully as possible, so that individuals and families may assess its appropriateness and attractiveness as a place in which to settle. Use this idea as a suggestion and modify it or replace it with any other that you feel is suitable.

5 Select a report you have already submitted for one of your subjects. In view of the recommendations offered in this chapter, review the assignment and rewrite it.

6 The manager of ABC Marketing, a small but dynamic organisation that specialises in marketing for technical firms, has requested that Brian, Lee and Ari, who have just joined the organisation as graduate interns, investigate upgrading the firm’s AV equipment and write a report with recommendations concerning the items that should be added to their inventory.a Discuss how the team should proceed with this

assignment.b Compile a list of appropriate equipment for a

firm such as this.c Compile a report that would be acceptable in

this case.



Manuals7 Collect instruction manuals for various appliances,

furniture, software and other items. Compare and discuss what is effective and what is confusing. Why is it confusing? How could it be improved?

Visual communication in documents8 Investigate the graphics capabilities of various

software packages by visiting computer shops, obtaining brochures or reading computer and office technology magazines.

9 Discuss the impact that this technology is having on the writing process.

10 Cut out an article from a daily newspaper that uses graphics and text to explain a current news story. Write an evaluation of the article, discussing the effectiveness of:a the textual information presentedb the graphic information presented.

11 Company annual reports contain a wide variety of graphic aids. Collect copies of annual reports and discuss the techniques used to supplement the written word.

12 Collect a variety of catalogues for consumer and industrial goods. Compare the graphic presentations. Discuss why there are differences in style.

13 Compare a few websites to decide what you consider to be effective use of visual information for online applications.

Styles of workplace writing14 Write an article for a student magazine, local

newspaper or conference on an aspect of your study. Submit it for review and publication.

15 Write your own definition for each of the following terms:– credit card– computer– microscope– hammer– automobile.

Compare your definitions with those of a colleague and discuss the similarities and differences.

16 Select a term used in your field of study and develop an extended definition of it using the techniques discussed in this chapter. You may include graphics.

COMMENTS ON CASE STUDIESCase study 12.1: Employment application (page 327)This is a typical employment advertisement adapted to include graduates from any discipline area. This allows scope for a creative and innovative job application. Notice that the requirements stipulate good communication skills. A review of job advertisements would clearly show that this is a common requirement. How might an applicant prove that they possessed these skills?

If the candidate chooses to telephone for information, they might want to explore what types of projects are expected, what the work might entail, where they may be expected to travel and whether any specific skills are more valued than others.

Case study 12.2: Sample student report (page 334)This is a typical rather than an outstanding student report. It could be evaluated first from the standpoint of its writing style and then critiqued about whether it is a thorough investigation of its topic. Be sure to note the inconsistencies in the Conclusion and Recommendations.

WEBSITES• http://www.class.uidaho.edu/adv_tech_wrt/

week4/proposal_intro/proposal_structure.htm (Technical writing resources)

• vhttp://www4.ncsu.edu/~smk/archive.html#writing (Resources for technical writers)

• http://www.paec.org/david/design.pdf (Page layout tips)

• http://ribaulo.tripod.com/clubricci/poolside/typo.html (Hints for using type)

• http://prettygraph.com (PrettyGraph software)• http://www.smartdraw.com (SmartDraw

graphics software)

Search me! communicationExplore Search me! communication for relevant articles on this chapter’s topic. Search me! is an online library of world-class journals, eBooks and newspapers, including The Australian and The New York Times, and is updated daily.



Log in to Search me! through http://www.cengage.com/sso using the access card in the front of this book.

KEY TERMSworkplace writingletter writingreport writingmanual writinggraphics in writing

Search tip: Search me! communication contains information from both local and international sources. To get the greatest number of search results, try using both Australian and American spellings in your searches, e.g. ‘globalisation’ and ‘globalization’; ‘organisation’ and ‘organization’.



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