Some Notes on Writing
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Some Notes on Writing
From the UNB Writing Centre
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Topics
1. Structure: IMRaD & More2. Bugbears, Diction, & Wordiness3. Sentence Length & Coherence4. Passive Voice5. Limits of Self-Editing
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StructureO Outlines:O A formal plan serving as your guide
to your thoughtO Writing it out externalizes itO Your own familiarity with your
thought may blind you to your lack of a clear structure
O Try not to rely on “blind writing”
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Structure
IMRaDOIntroduction,OMethods,OResults, andODiscussion.
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Introduction
1.What we know (lit. review)2.What we don’t know (hypothesis)3.What we did
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Literature ReviewO shows your understanding of the
fieldO review the best studies available
(most rigorously designed & executed)
O avoid the temptation to include everything you reviewed (no matter how troublesome it was)
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Hypothesis/Research Question
O the FIRST and LAST sentence you will write
O sums up the whole point of the paper“We determined the relative effectiveness of three exercise regimens in promoting health and fitness.”
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Hypothesis/Research Question
O Later in the process you may find it useful to add details. . . .
“We determined the relative effectiveness of three exercise regimens, intense interval training, prolonged exercise, and strength training, in promoting health and fitness.”
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Hypothesis/Research Question
O So that the final version of your research statement or question—the last sentence you write—is significantly different.
“We determined the relative effectiveness of three exercise regimens, intense interval training, prolonged exercise, and strength training, in improving cardiorespiratory fitness, reducing body fat, and increasing total bone mass.”
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MethodsO details of what you didO study design, participants, methods,
data analysisO should only include details necessary
for readers to judge your work/repeat your experiment
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ResultsO easy part: the key findingsO again: avoid the temptation of
presenting everything O focus on the general in the text and
the specifics in the data tables
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DiscussionO be open about limitations,
inconsistenciesO never draw unjustified conclusionsO use appropriate validity markers
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Validity Markers
a. hedges: perhaps, may, might, often, usually, apparently, seemingly
b. emphatics (boosters): clearly, undoubtedly, it is obvious that, of course
c. attributors: “according to Wilson (1999)”
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2. Bugbears, Diction, & Wordiness
(illus. Sir John Tenniel, Alice in Wonderland, by Lewis Carroll.)
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What Are Bugbears?
O Grammatical howlers, frequently merely conventional or formal errors
O Many do not impair the effectiveness of the communication
O How important are they?
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Although high intensity interval training was suppose to increase bone density as well as VO2 max, it failed in this respect.
suppose to
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Grammatical BugbearsO Cannot be ignored (“use to,” “should
of,” “in regards to”)O Will always overshadow genuine
achievement to some degreeO Technology cannot yet save us--
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MS Word May Not Help!
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DictionO Writing Apprenticeship:
expansiveness and dilation have been emphasized over precision and economy
It is time to chooseO The right words and O Words your audience knows.
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Novelty & VocabularyO “make it new” is not the always best
advice for selecting wordsO Accuracy and familiarity (of
individual words, not phrases) are crucial
O The evil comes from overly familiar phrases and unnecessarily obscure words
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Complex DictionO What do people REALLY think of overly complex diction?
O D. Oppenheimer, Stanford U (2003): O people who use unnecessarily complicated language are viewed as less intelligent than people who use more familiar language
Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity:
Problems With Using Long Words Needlessly
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Ready‑Made Phrases
O Like Frankenstein's monster, "ready‑made" writing is stitched together out of dead parts.
O Avoid phrases that “sound appropriate”
O Use only words you need—and your audience understands
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Basic Inflation
• Based on the fact that• Due to the fact that• Exhibit a tendency to• For the purpose of• For the reason that• In spite of the fact
that
Because
Because
Tend to
For
Because
Although
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Other Types of Repetition
Redundant Adjectives/Adverbs O future plans O consensus of opinion O especially unique O potential hazard O final outcome
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Nominalizations
allocation allocate
assessment assess
compliance comply
determination determine
expectations expect
exposure expose
[had] hopes [of] hoped
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Positive AdviceO Find the VERB in the nominalization,
and build the sentence around itO Strong verbs make clear sentences
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Where Does It Come From?
O Most of these choices are the result of “length anxiety”
O From early grades, length is the measure of achievement
O Students learn to pad—to be honest, we teach them—and the habit becomes engrained
O Editors then try to take it all out again
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3. Sentence Length & Coherence
O Writers are taught to vary the form and length of their sentences
O Length in the wrong place is dangerous
O Proceed with cautionO Selecting length with a clear purpose
is one challengeO Coherence is another
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What Length MeansLENGTH QUALITY8 words very easy11 words easy14 words fairly easy17-19 words standard21-24 words fairly difficult25-28 words difficult29+ words very difficult
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Long, Graceful Sentences
O A long sentence can still be readableO Key tactic: Move from subject to verb
quicklyO Avoid delaying the subject-verb
progression with long intervening elements
O A sentence which moves from subject to verb rapidly will still be readable even when it is quite long
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To the Subject and Beyond
Inferring from behavior the existence and nature of underlying but not observable mechanisms that mediate that behavior is for the cognitive behaviorist the fundamental research goal.
17-word subject—in a 26-word sentence !
17-word subject—in a 26-word sentence !
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To the Subject and Beyond
The fundamental research goal of the cognitive behaviorist is inferring the existence and nature of underlying but not observable mechanisms that mediate behavior.
8-word subject—in a 23-word sentence !
8-word subject—in a 23-word sentence !
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To the Subject and Beyond
Cognitive behaviorists infer the existence and nature of underlying but not observable mechanisms that mediate behavior.
Better: a 2-word subject—in a 16-word sentence !
Better: a 2-word subject—in a 16-word sentence !
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Developing a Feel for Length
O More gradual variations in length are possible
O Increasing length can build to the climax of an argument
O Length should always develop from the rhetorical goal
O Never introduce variety for the sake of variety
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4. Passive VoiceO “There are several observations that
could be made. . . .”O “It has been suggested that. . . .”
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Passive voiceO Generally misunderstood, by Strunk
& White among othersO Passive verb construction:
Object of transitive verb
“to be”Past participle
Preposition + Subject of transitive verb
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Passive voiceO Generally misunderstood, by Stunk &
White among othersO Passive verb construction:
The man was bitten By the dog
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Passive voiceO Generally misunderstood, by Stunk &
White among othersO Passive verb construction:
The test was writtenby 30 students.
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Expletives & FogO It has been repeatedly asserted that.
. . .O There are significant obstacles to the
further investigation of. . . .O “it” and “there” have no
antecedents; they are “expletives” rather than pronouns
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Editing & Memory• Let’s test yours
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Memorabilia
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5. Why You Are Your Own Worst Editor
O We see what we expect to see;O We interpret as we read;O At the same time, we know communication is robust—and so we are sometimes careless
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How Robust?
They're as nothing wring wither way of handing the care; its engine was deflective.
There was nothing wrong with her way of handling the car; its engine was defective
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Word: No Help Here
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General PrinciplesO Keep track of your purpose and test each paragraph and sentence against it
O Keep your audience in mind and write for them, not at them
O Critique your own writing in relation to that purpose and audience
O Have someone else read your writing
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Five Revision Rules
1. Stick to the pointO delete any irrelevant information,
however interestingO you may be able to place it in the
appendixO removing extra information makes
what remains clearer
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2. Say what you meanO reading out loud helpsO having another person read it helps
moreO never repeat a phrase you have read
elsewhere unless you understand it thoroughly (the other writer may be wrong)
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3. Keep forward momentum
O repeat key words as necessary so that a clear argument develops
O use appropriate connectives to ensure clear progress (example)
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Identify the connectives
In saturated air (100% relative humidity), the worms lost about 20% of their initial body weight during the first 20 hours but were then able to prevent further dehydration. In contrast, worms maintained in air of 70-80% relative humidity experienced a much faster rate of dehydration, losing 63% of their total body water content in 24 hours. As a consequence of this rapid dehydration, most worms died within the 24-hour period.
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In saturated air (100% relative humidity), the worms lost about 20% of their initial body weight during the first 20 hours but were then able to prevent further dehydration. In contrast, worms maintained in air of 70-80% relative humidity experienced a much faster rate of dehydration, losing 63% of their total body water content in 24 hours. As a consequence of this rapid dehydration, most worms died within the 24-hour period.
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4. Indicate interpretations
O Signal all interpretations clearly
The difference in absorption rates is evident in Table 1.
What IS the difference?
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4. Indicate interpretations
O Signal all interpretations clearly
Clearly, alcohol is more readily absorbed into the bloodstream from distilled, rather than brewed, beverages (Table 1).
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5. Avoid overlap & repetition
O Be concise. . . .
Our results were based on observations of short-term changes in behavior. These results showed that feeding rates did not vary with the size of the caterpillar.
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5. Avoid overlap & repetition
O Be concise. . . .
Our observations of short-term changes in behavior indicate that feeding rates did not vary with the size of the caterpillar.
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5. Avoid overlap & repetition
O Be concise. . . .
Feeding rates did not appear to vary with the size of the caterpillar (Table 2).
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6. Bonus Rule: Make Back-ups!
O Most common error: saving OVER existing document
O Difficult to reverseO Practice saving with a new name so
this never happens
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Slideshow (and More)
go.unb.ca/wss