Islamic questions on1. Ilm Kalam

2. Al Firaq

3. Firaq

4. Kwarij, Shia and Murjia5. Ilm Muutazilah6. Some Muslim philosophers:-

a. Alkindi and his school of thought

b. Alfarahabi

c. Ibn Sina

d. Ibn RusulBy

Umaru Yusufu

1. Ilm al-Kalm

Ilm al-Kalm, which literally means "science of discourse, is often foreshortened to kalm. It is an Islamic science born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islamic faith against doubters and detractors. A scholar of kalm is referred to as a mutakallim (plural mutakallimn) as distinguished from philosophers, jurists and scientists. There are many possible interpretations as to why this discipline was originally called "kalm"; one is that the widest controversy in this discipline has been about whether the Word of God, as revealed in the Qur'an, can be considered part of God's essence and therefore not created, or whether it was made into words in the normal sense of speech, and is therefore created.

The term Kalam means "word" and its use for the name of the Islamic theology has the root in the Quran which is the Word of God" (Kalam Allah). The founder of Kalam has been said to be Ali who used the rational arguments for the defense of Islamic faith. Even though seeking knowledge in Islam is considered a religious obligation, the studying of 'Ilm al-Kalam is considered by Muslim scholars to fall under the category of necessity and is only permitted to qualified scholars, but not for the masses or common people. The early Muslim scholar Imam al-Shafii held that there should be a certain number of men trained in kalam to defend and purify the faith, but that it would be a great evil if their arguments should become known to the mass of the people. Similarly, the Islamic scholar Imam Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, held the view that the science of 'Ilm al-Kalam is not a personal duty on Muslims but a collective duty. Like al-Shafi'i, he discouraged the masses from studying it.

The Hanbali Sufi, Khwaja Abdullah Ansari wrote a treatise entitled Dhamm al-Kalam where he criticized the use of kalam. The contemporary Islamic scholar Nuh Ha Mim Keller holds the view that the criticism of kalm from scholars was specific to the Mu'tazila, going on to claim that other historical Muslim scholars such as Al-Ghazali and An-Nawawi saw both good and bad in kalm and cautioned from the speculative excess of unorthodox groups such as the Mu'tazilah and Jahmites. As Nuh Ha Mim Keller states in his article "Kalam and Islam":

"What has been forgotten today however by critics who would use the words of earlier Imams to condemn all kalm, is that these criticisms were directed against its having become 'speculative theology' at the hands of latter-day authors. Whoever believes they were directed against the `aqida or "personal theology" of basic tenets of faith, or the 'discursive theology' of rational kalm arguments against heresy is someone who either does not understand the critics or else is quoting them disingenuously."

2. Al-Firaq

Al-firaq could literally mean sects. In the religion of Islam, sects, mainly Shia and Sunni are deeply rooted in history and revolved around some figures and core believes which have significant implication in the Muslim world of today and to some extent members of one group in some cases do not accept the other group as fellow Muslims and in some cases even bloody conflicts usually erupts. The third group that developed virtually from that very infant state of Islamic history was Khawrij. This group was a breakaway sect from the supporters Ali and had ever since remained a distinct sect.3. Emergence of the Al-Firaq in Islam

Despite the notion of a unified and consolidated community, as taught by the Prophet, serious differences arose within the Muslim community immediately after his death. According to the Sunnah, or traditionalist faction and their varied sub-factions who now constitute the majority of Islmthe Prophet had designated no successor. Thus the Muslims at Medina decided to elect a separate chief. Because he would not have been accepted by the Quraysh, the ummah, or Muslim community, would have disintegrated. Therefore, two of Muammad's fathers-in-law, who were highly respected early converts as well as trusted lieutenants, prevailed upon the Medinans to elect a single leader, and the choice fell upon Ab Bakr, father of the Prophet's favoured wife, ishah. All of this occurred before the Prophet's burial (under the floor of ishah's hut, alongside the courtyard of the mosque).

According to the Shah, or Partisans of Al, the Prophet had designated as his successor his son-in-law Al ibn Ab lib, husband of his daughter Fimah and father of his only surviving grandsons, asan and usayn. His preference was general knowledge; yet, while Al and the Prophet's closest kinsmen were preparing the body for burial, Ab Bakr, Umar, and Ab Ubaydah from Muammad's Companions in the Quraysh tribe, met with the leaders of the Medinans and agreed to elect the aging Ab Bakr as the successor (khalfah, hence caliph) of the Prophet. Al and his kinsmen were dismayed but agreed for the sake of unity to accept the fait accompli because Al was still young

After the murder of Uthmn, the third caliph, Al was invited by the Muslims at Medina to accept the caliphate. Thus Ali became the fourth caliph (656661), but the disagreement over his right of succession brought about a major schism in Islm, between the Shah, or legitimiststhose loyal to Aland the Sunnah, or traditionalists. Athough their differences were in the first instance political, arising out of the question of leadership, theological differences developed over time.

As time progresses each of these sect was to break into sub-sect as other groups like Mutazilah, sunnah (orthodox theology), Islmic mysticism, or fism, Ahmadiyya and even a racial sect known as the Black Muslims or the Bilaliyads come into being in the United States of America.

4. The Khawrij, Shia and MurjiahThe Kwarij, Shia and Murjia are all sects that rose after the death of the prophet (SAW) because of the leadership contention.The KhawrijDuring the reign of the third caliph, Uthmn, certain rebellious groups accused the Caliph of nepotism and misrule, and the resulting discontent led to his assassination. The rebels then recognized the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, Al, as ruler but later deserted him and fought against him, accusing him of having committed a grave sin in submitting his claim to the caliphate to arbitration. The word khraju, from which khrij is derived, means to withdraw and Khawrij were, therefore, seceders who believed in active dissent or rebellion against a state of affairs they considered to be gravely impious.

The basic doctrine of the Khawrij was that a person or a group who committed a grave error or sin and did not sincerely repent ceased to be Muslim. Mere profession of the faiththere is no god but God; Muammad is the prophet of Goddid not make a person a Muslim unless this faith was accompanied by righteous deeds. In other words, good works were an integral part of faith and not extraneous to it. The second principle that flowed from their aggressive idealism was militancy, or jihd, which the Khawrij considered to be among the cardinal principles, or pillars, of Islm. Contrary to the orthodox view, they interpreted the Qurnic command about enjoining good and forbidding evil to mean the vindication of truth through the sword. The placing of these two principles together made the Khawrij highly inflammable fanatics, intolerant of almost any established political authority. They incessantly resorted to rebellion and as a result were virtually wiped out during the first two centuries of Islm.

Because the Khawrij believed that the basis of rule was righteous character and piety alone, any Muslim, irrespective of race, colour, and sex, could, in their view, become rulerprovided he or she satisfied the conditions of piety. This was in contrast to the claims of the Shah (the party of Muammad's son-in-law, Al) that the ruler must belong to the family of the Prophet and to the doctrine of the Sunnah (followers of the Prophet's way) that the head of state must belong to the Prophet's tribe, i.e., the Quraysh.

A moderate group of the Khawrij, the Ibs, avoided extinction, and its members are to be found today in North Africa and in Oman and other parts of East Africa, including Zanzibar Island. The Ibs do not believe in aggressive methods and, throughout medieval Islm, remained dormant. Because of the interest of 20th-century Western scholars in this sect, the Ibs have become active and have begun to publish their classical writings and their own journals.

Although Khrijism is now essentially a story of the past, it has left a permanent influence on Islm, because of reaction against it. It forced the religious leadership of the community to formulate a bulwark against religious intolerance and fanaticism. Positively, it has influenced the reform movements that have sprung up in Islm from time to time and that have treated spiritual and moral placidity and status quo with a quasi-Khawrij zeal and militancy.The shiah

IntroductionShiah is one of the earliest sects to emerge in history of Islam. It started as the organization of the supporters of Ali Ibn Abi Talib on matters of leadership of the Muslim world after demise of the Prophet (SAW). In their view, Khalifa (Muslim leadership) is a divine institution worthy to be handled by people who have divine Authority not by people elected or selected through consultation among the Sahabah. They also ruled out public opinion on the matter arguing that only Ali (R.A) is qualified to succeed the Prophet.The Shiah which started from the beginning as one group became divided as time progressed into sub-sects as a result of political conflicts among them. Although Ali Ibn Abi Talib was recognized by all the sects, they differ on lines of family succession in later days. Some of these sects include;Shiah Ismailiyyah

The Ismailiyyah faction recognized only the leadership of Ismail Ibn Jaafar al-sadiq excluding his brother Musa al-Kasim. According to them, the line of Imamate ended with Ismail (the 7th Imam). For this, they were called the Sabiiyyah SevenersThe doctrines of this group are;

a. that Ismail was the seventh and the last of the Imams

b. that the meaning of every verse of the Quran has zahir outward or plain meaning and Batin conceal or hidden meaning. c. That the ordinary people can only understand the plain meaning while the hidden meaning could only be understood by the Imamsd. Belief in the existence of two spiritual authorities who control the universe. The first is known from the public declaration of the spiritual message (Naria) and the other known from an implied declaration of precepts (Samit). Here an Imam is regarded as the Samit and the Prophet of Islam is the Naria.e. That Imams and the prophet are of the same religious status because both of them have access to the divine secret knowledge.f. That the Imams are always upright and infallible.Shiah Ithna-Ashariyah

Ithna-Ashariyah is a sub-sect known as Twelvers and they believe in the twelve Imams through the line of succession from Ali down to the last Imams. These Imams are; Ali, al-Hassan, al-Husayn, Zain al-Abidin, Muhammad al-Baqir, Jaafar al-Sadiq, Musa al-Kazim, Ali al-Rida, Muhammad al-Jawad, Ali al-Hadi, Hassan al-askari and Muhammad al-Mahdi.The Main doctrines of the ithna Ashariyah, is a belief in the twelve Imams against seven by the other sect. Other doctrines include;a. The belief that Shiaites Imams have access to al-ghayb (knowledge of the unknown) b. That the knowledge of an absolute reality is achieved through the Imams only.

c. That all the Imams are infallible and are by law givers.

d. That obedient to an Imam is as nessary as other religious duties.

e. That the appointment of Ali was ever refered both in the Quran and Hadith

f. That it is necessary for all the Shiites to observe the following:-

i. Taqiyya which means concealing Shiaits members that found them in an unfavorable situation.

ii. Rija meaning believing in and expecting the return of al-Mahdi (saviour).

Each of the immswas chosen from the family of his predecessor, not necessarily the eldest son but a descendant deemed spiritually pure. The last imm recognized by the Ithn Asharyah disappeared in 873 and is thought to be alive and in hiding, ready to return at the Last Judgment. As the 12 imms are viewed as preservers of the faith and the only interpreters of the esoteric meanings of law and theology, a cult has grown around them, in which they are thought to influence the world's future. Pilgrimages to their tombs secure special rewards and are legitimate substitutes for pilgrimages to Mecca. In the period from the disappearance of the imm to the Mongol invasion (c. 1050), a body of literature known as adth (reports of Muammad's activities and sayings and the sayings of Al) was collected in support of Twelver beliefs.

Ithn Asharyah became the state religion of Iran under the afavd dynasty (15011736), which claimed descent from the 7th imm and added the words I testify that Al is the wal (friend) of God, to the Muslim profession of faith (shahdah). The sect also has followings in India, Iraq, and Syria.

MurjiahThe Murjiah, simply means those who postponed in Arabic language. It is one of earliest Islamic sects to believe in postponement (irja) of judgment on committers of serious sins, recognizing God alone as being able to decide whether or not a Muslim had lost his faith.

The Murjiah flourished during the turbulent period of Islamic history that began with the murder of Usthman (3rd Caliph) in AD 656 and ended with the assassination of Ali (th caliph) in AD 661 and the subsequent establishment of the Umayyad dynesty which ruled until AD 750. During that period the Muslim Ummah were divided into hostile factions on issues relating to Imamate and Islam as well as issues of works and faith.

The Murjiah took the stand that no matter what, no one that once professed Islam could be declared kafir (infidel) for whatever reason by another Muslim. They were moderates and liberals. They emphasized love goodness, regarding external actions and utterances as not reflecting individuals inner belief.

The first man to proclaim Irjaa is Bathr Bin Abdullah Alhamadani. With its appearance, Murjiahs big differences emerged. For instance, they believe that humans have no will and that faith does not increase or decrease. They also believe that deeds do not affect the faith.5. Muutazilah

This is one of the schools of thoughts that emerged during the Abbasid period towards the end of the first century of Hijra. It is rational thinking that resulted from a discussion of a religious view between a teacher Hassan al-Basari and his student, Wasil Ibn Ata. The word Muutazilah, simply means isolators or withdrawers.

Muutazilah are political or religious neutralists; by the 10th century the term came to refer specifically to an Islmic school of speculative theology that flourished in Basra and Baghdad (8th10th centuries AD).

The name first appears in early Islmic history in the dispute over Al's leadership of the Muslim community after the murder of the third caliph, Uthmn (656). Those who would neither condemn nor sanction Al or his opponents but took a middle position were termed the Mutazilah.

The theological school is traced back to Wil ibn A (699749), a student of al-asan al-Bar, who by stating that a grave sinner ( fsiq) could be classed neither as believer nor unbeliever but was in an intermediate position (al-manzilah bayna manzilatayn), withdrew (itazala, hence the name Mutazilah) from his teacher's circle. (The same story is told of Amr ibn Ubayd [d. 762].) Variously maligned as free thinkers and heretics, the Mutazilah, in the 8th century AD, were the first Muslims to use the categories and methods of Hellenistic philosophy to derive their three major and distinctive dogmatic points.

First, they stressed the absolute unity or oneness (tawd) of God. From this it was logically concluded that the Qurn could not be technically considered the word of God (the orthodox view), as God has no separable parts, and so had to be created and was not coeternal with God. Under the Abbsid caliph al-Mamn, this doctrine of the created Qurn was proclaimed (827) as the state dogma, and in 833, a minah or tribunal was instituted to try those who disputed the doctrine (notably the theologian Amad ibn anbal); the Mutazil position was finally abandoned by the caliphate under al-Mutawakkil c. 849. The Mutazilah further stressed the justice (adl) of God as their second principle. While the orthodox were concerned with the awful will of God to which each individual must submit himself without question, the Mutazilah posited that God desires only the best for man, but through free will man chooses between good and evil and thus becomes ultimately responsible for his actions. So in the third doctrine, the threat and the promise (al-wad wa al-wad), or paradise and hell, God's justice becomes a matter of logical necessity: God must reward the good (as promised) and must punish the evil (as threatened).

Among the most important Mutazil theologians were Ab al-Hudhayl al-Allf (d. c. 841) and an-Nam (d. 846) in Basra and Bishr ibn al-Mutamir (d. 825) in Baghdad. It was al-Ashar (d. 935 or 936), a student of the Mutazil al-Jubb, who broke the force of the movement by refuting its teachings with the same Hellenistic, rational methods first introduced by the Mutazilah. Mutazil beliefs were disavowed by the Sunnite Muslims, but the Shites accepted their premises.6. Muslim philosophers

Islamic Philosophy refers to philosophical activity within the Islamic milieu, and the sources of this philosophy includes the Quran as well as the Greek, Indian and Persian philosophies which early Muslims inherited as a result of conquests. It became noted during what was referred to the Golden Age of Islam dated between 8th to 12th centuries. The first is Kalam, that deals with the question of Islamic Theology and the second is Falsafa that deals with an attempt to interpret the works of Aristotle and Plato. There was also an attempt by later Islamic philosophers to harmonize the two. Some of the well known Islamic philosophers include the following:-

Al-KindiAl-Kindi, whose full name is Yaqub ibn Ishaq as-Sabah al-Kindi (801?-73?), was one of the first important Islamic philosophers, he born in Al Kfah, Iraq, and educated at Al Barah and Baghdd. Al-Kindi was one of the earliest Arab students of the Greek philosophers and one of the first translators of the works of Aristotle into Arabic. Called the philosopher of the Arabs because he was descended from Arab nobility, he is the author of more than 270 works, most of them short tracts covering a wide range of topics, including philosophy, medicine, mathematics, optics, and astrology. Some of his works were translated into Latin during the middle Ages and influenced European scholars.

The philosophy of al-Kindi was strongly influenced by Neoplatonic Aristotelianism. He attempted to provide a philosophical basis for the speculative theology of the Mutazilites. Although he claimed that the conclusions of philosophy and religion are essentially harmonious, he nevertheless placed revelation above philosophy and prophetic insights above reason. Al-Kindi's influence on Muslim thinkers continued for about a century after his death.

Al-FarabiAl-Farabi (873?-950), the first Islamic philosopher to uphold the primacy of philosophical truth over revelation, claiming that, contrary to the beliefs of various other religions, philosophical truth is the same throughout the world. Born Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan ibn Uzalagh al-Farabi in Frb, Transoxiana (now Uzbekistan), of Turkish parentage, his Latin name is Alfarabius. He studied in Khorsn (now in Iran) and then in Baghdd, where his teachers were Christian Syrians expert in Greek philosophy. Eventually he came to live at the court of Sayf al-Dawlah, the ruler of alab (Aleppo) (now in Syria). Al-Farabi was one of the earliest Islamic thinkers to transmit to the Arab world the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle (which he considered essentially identical), thereby greatly influencing such later Islamic philosophers as Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd.

Influenced in his metaphysical views by both Aristotle and the Neoplatonist Roman philosopher Plotinus, al-Farabi posited a Supreme Being who had created the world through the exercise of rational intelligence. He believed this same rational faculty to be the sole part of the human being that is immortal, and thus he set as the paramount human goal the development of that rational faculty. Al-Farabi gave considerably more attention to political theory than did any other Islamic philosopher, adapting the Platonic system (as developed in Plato's Republic and Laws) to the contemporary Muslim political situation in The Perfect City.Al-Farabi formulated as an ideal a universal religion in which all other existing religions are considered symbolic expressions of the universal religion. Of about 100 works by al-Farabi, many have been lost, including his commentaries on Aristotle. Many others have been preserved in Medieval Latin translations only. In addition to his philosophical writings, al-Farabi compiled a Catalogue of Sciences, the first Muslim work to attempt a systematization of human knowledge. He also made a contribution to musical theory in his Great Book of Music.

Ibn Sn,

Ibn Sinas full name isAb Al al-usayn ibn Abd Allh ibn Sn. He was born in 980, in the town of Bukhara, Iran and he died in 1037, in the town of Hamadan. Ibn Sina is an Iranian physician, the most famous and influential of the philosopher-scientists of Islam. He was particularly noted for his contributions in the fields of Aristotelian philosophy and medicine. He composed the Kitb al-shif (Book of Healing), a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and The Canon of Medicine, which is among the most famous books in the history of medicine. In the west, he is known as Avicenna.Ibn RushdIbn Rushds real name was Ab al-Wald Muammad ibn Amad ibn Muammad ibn Rushd. He was born at Crdoba [Spain] in 1126, and died at Marrakech, Almohad empire [now in Morocco] in the year 1198. During his life time he was an influential Islamic religious philosopher who at one time integrated Islamic traditions with ancient Greek thought. At the request of the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf,, Ibn Rushd produced a series of summaries and commentaries on most of Aristotle's works (116995) and on Plato's Republic, that was to exert considerable influence in both the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. He wrote the Decisive Treatise on the Agreement between Religious Law and Philosophy (Fal al-Mal), Examination of the Methods of Proof Concerning the Doctrines of Religion (Kashf al-Manhij), and The Incoherence of the Incoherence (Tahfut al-Tahfut), all in defense of the philosophical study of religion against the theologians (1179-80)

Ibn Rushds own first work is General Medicine (Kulliyt, Latin Colliget), written between 1162 and 1169. Only a few of his legal writings and none of his theological writings are preserved. Undoubtedly his most important writings are three closely connected religious-philosophical polemical treatises, composed in the years 1179 and 1180: the Fal al-Mal with its appendix; the Kashf al-Manhij; and the Tahfut al-Tahfut in defense of philosophy. In the two first named Averros stakes a bold claim: only the metaphysician employing certain proof (syllogism) is capable and competent (as well as obliged) to interpret the doctrines contained in the prophetically revealed law (Shar or Sharah), and not the Muslim mutakallimn (dialectic theologians), who rely on dialectical arguments. To establish the true, inner meaning of religious beliefs and convictions is the aim of philosophy in its quest for truth. This inner meaning must not be divulged to the masses, who must accept the plain, external meaning of Scripture contained in stories, similes, and metaphors. Ibn Rushd applied Aristotle's three arguments (demonstrative, dialectical, and persuasivei.e., rhetorical and poetical) to the philosophers, the theologians, and the masses. The third work is devoted to a defense of philosophy against his predecessor al-Ghazl's telling attack directed against Avicenna and al-Qrb in particular. Spirited and successful as Averros' defense was, it could not restore philosophy to its former position, quite apart from the fact that the atmosphere in Muslim Spain and North Africa was most unfavourable to the unhindered pursuit of speculation. As a result of the reforming activity of Ibn Tmart (c. 10781130), aimed at restoring pure monotheism, power was wrested from the ruling Almoravids, and the new Berber dynasty of the Almohads was founded, under whom Inb Rushd served. In jurisprudence the emphasis then shifted from the practical application of Muslim law by appeal to previous authority to an equal stress on the study of its principles and the revival of independent legal decision on the basis of Ibn Tmart's teaching. Of perhaps even more far-reaching significance was Ibn Tmart's idea of instructing the heretofore ignorant masses in the plain meaning of the Sharah so that practice would be informed with knowledge.

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