• Where do artists get their ideas? What can I make art about?

• When is it okay to copy?

• Do you have to be able to draw well to be a good artist?

• What makes some works of art better than others? How can you tell good art frombad art? Is there really such a thing?

• What work of art do I hate/love the most and why?

• Why do artists do what they do?

• How does an artist know when a work or art is finished?

• What is art? What isn’t art? What is art for?

• Can anyone make art? Can animals make art?

• Should art be pleasing to the eye? Can art be ugly? Why would an artist make an uglywork of art?

• Should art make people happy?

• Should art tell a story?

• Should artists imitate what they see? In what ways does art represent the world?

• Does something have to be original to be art? Can a forgery or copy be art?

• What’s the difference between art and craft?

• What is an artist? Are artists the same in every culture?

• What are some different ways to approach art? What can we learn from studying awork of art?

SomeBIG QUEStions in Art

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Why do people make Art?

Try This: Display examples of art from various cultures and time periods

in the classroom. Ask students to speculate on the possible reasons why

the art was made.

People around the world make art to:

• seek personal enjoyment and satisfaction.

• express personal thoughts and feelings

• communicate with others.

• create a more favorable environment.

• make others see more clearly.

• provide us with new visual experiences.

• record a time, place, person, or object.

• commemorate important people or events.

• reinforce cultural ties and traditions.

• seek to affect social change.

• tell stories.

• heal the sick.

• adorn themselves.

• explain the unknown.

• worship.

• create an illusion or magic.

• predict the future or remember the past.

• earn a livelihood.

• do something no one else can (or has yet done).

• amuse themselves (or make us laugh).

• make the ordinary extraordinary.

• increase our global understanding.

This mask represents “The Cannibal of theMountains” and was used in a secret winterceremonial, British Columbia, around 1900.

Art is like a border of flowers alongthe course of civilization.

• Lincoln Steffens

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Why do artists do that?The following list of purposes for which a work of art might have been

created may prove helpful in sorting through the variety of art forms

we see today. A single work of art can serve more than one purpose.

Artists create to:• record images inspired by observations of daily life; connect us with everyday

experience, people or events.

• demonstrate technical virtuosity; do something no one else can.

• celebrate the aesthetic qualities of common objects; transform the mundane

into an object of art; make the familiar strange, the ordinary extraordinary.

• celebrate beauty as found in the aesthetic qualities of nature; record a time

or place.

• explore art that speaks about the basic elements of art; celebrate the aesthetic

qualities of line, shape, color, and so on.

• convey dynamics of movement; explore relationships between time and

space.

• stimulate public discourse; provide social commentary; make people

think.

• emphasize the experience of looking at a work of art.

• convey a feeling of human emotion; show human experience.

• explore narrow and personal visions.

• innovate; give up the old, break the rules; explore new approaches; provide

us with new visual experiences.

• explore new materials and technologies to create new forms of art.

• express private, personal musings; explore the unconscious.

• subvert, create irony; break established notions of how things should be;

change people's minds.

• emphasize the importance of the idea rather than the object/product as the

work of art.

• create optical effects; optics created by shadows and reflection of light.

• raise questions about art traditions such as, "What is art?" "What is a painting?"

• commemorate important people or events; reinforce cultural ties and

traditions; tell stories.

• other.

Try This: Display examples of art by various contemporary artists. Ask students to

speculate on the possible reasons why the art was made.

To be an artist today is to becontinually engaged in questioningwhat art is and what it could be; itis to be constantly reinventing art.

• George Szekely

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PRESS RELEASE: CHRISTO AND JEANNE-CLAUDE: RUNNING FENCE,SONOMA AND MARIN COUNTIES, 1972-76.

Running Fence, 5.5 meters (eighteen feet) high, 40 kilometers (twenty-four and half miles) long, extendingEast-West near Freeway 101, north of San Francisco, on the private properties of fifty-nine ranchers,following rolling hills and dropping down to the Pacific Ocean at Bodega Bay, was completed on September10, 1976.

The art project consisted of: forty-two months of collaborative efforts, the ranchers' participation, eighteenpublic hearings, three sessions at the Superior Courts of California, the drafting of a four-hundred and fiftypage Environmental Impact Report and the temporary use of hills, the sky and the Ocean.

All expenses for the temporary work of art were paid by Christo and Jeanne-Claude through the sale ofstudies, preparatory drawings and collages, scale models and original lithographs.

Running Fence was made of 200,000 square meters (2,222,222 square feet) of heavy woven white nylonfabric, hung from a steel cable strung between 2,050 steel poles (each: 6.4 meters / 21 feet long, 9centimeters / 3 1/2 inches in diameter) embedded 1 meter (3 feet) into the ground, using no concrete andbraced laterally with guy wires (145 kilometers (90 miles) of steel cable) and 14,000 earth anchors. Thetop and bottom edges of the 2050 fabric panels were secured to the upper and lower cables by 350,000hooks. All parts of Running Fence's structure were designed for complete removal and no visible evidenceof Running Fence remains on the hills of Sonoma and Marin Counties. As it had been agreed with theranchers and with the County, State and Federal Agencies, the removal of Running Fence started fourteendays after its completion and all materials were given to the ranchers. Running Fence crossed fourteenroads and the town of Valley Ford, leaving passage for cars, cattle and wildlife, and was designed to beviewed by following 65 kilometers (forty miles) of public roads, in Sonoma and Marin Counties.

Questions to consider: (1) Should art be permanent? (2) Must art be made by the artist? (3) Whereshould art by displayed? (4) How big can art get? (5) What can art be made of? (6) Is Running FenceArt?

Photo: AK Ciesielski

Running Fence

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An Overview of Bloom's Taxonomy of

Education Objectives: Cognitive DomainOne of the more popular models used to promote thinking skill instruction in schools was developed by BenjaminBloom (1956). It categorizes thinking skills from the concrete to the abstract and in six categories--knowledge,comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation. The last three are considered by many educators asinvolving higher-order thinking skills.

Knowledge -- the remembering of previously learned material. This may involve the recall of a wide range ofmaterial, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriateinformation. Sample cue words include: acquire, choose, cluster, define, describe (from memory), draw, fill-in,follow directions, identify, indicate, know, label, list, locate, match, memorize, name, outline (format given), pick,point, read, recall, recognize, record, repeat, reproduce, select, state, sort, write.

Comprehension -- the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be shown by translating materialfrom one form to another (pictures to words), by interpreting material (explaining or summarizing) and by predictingconsequences or effects. Sample cue words include: associate, classify, compare/contrast, conclude, describe,discuss, document, expand, explain, express (in other terms), extend, generalize, give examples, give in own words,group, illustrate, infer, interpret, outline, paraphrase, predict, put in order, rearrange, recognize, restate, show, simplify,summarize.

Application -- the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This may include the applicationof such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories. Requires a higher level of understandingthan comprehension. Sample cue words include: apply, change, choose, classify, demonstrate, develop, discover,employ, express (in discussion), illustrate, imitate, interview, investigate, make, manipulate, modify, organize,participate, predict, prepare, present, produce, put to use, relate, restructure, sequence, select, show, use, utilize.

Analysis -- the ability to break down material into parts so that its organizational structure may be more easilyunderstood. This may include the identification of the parts, analysis of the relationships between parts and recognitionof the organizational principles involved. Requires an understanding of both the content and the structural form ofthe material. Sample cue words include: analyze, break down, categorize, characterize, compare/contrast, debate,depict, detect, deduce, diagram, discriminate, distinguish, draw conclusions, examine, form generalizations, map,outline, point out, put in (categories), relate to, research, search, sort, survey.

Synthesis -- the ability to put material together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of an uniqueproduct (painting or theme), a plan of operations (proposal) or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifyinginformation). Emphasis is on creative behaviors involving the formulation of new patterns or structures. Sample cuewords include: adapt, combine, compile, compose, conjecture, construct, create, design, devise, dramatize, generate,imagine, integrate, invent, modify, originate, perform (in public), plan, produce, propose, rearrange, reconstruct,reverse, revise, speculate, suppose, synthesize, transform.

Evaluation -- the ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose. Judgements are to be based on definitecriteria including internal (organization) or external reasons (relevance to purpose). Involves elements of all of theother categories plus conscious value judgements based on clearly defined criteria. Sample cue words include:appraise, argue, assess, award, choose, compare (pros/cons), consider, convince, decide, defend, determine,discriminate, evaluate, grade, judge, justify, persuade, prioritize, rank, rate, recommend, select, support, test, value,verify.

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"Minds-On" Art Activities1. Examine how different cultures use art to commemorate and celebrate persons and events. Compare and

contrast stamps and currency from different cultures. Create a work of art that celebrates you!

2. Design and construct a 3-D form from a 2-D material without wasting anything. Evaluate the resultsaccording to aesthetic appearance and structural stability.

3. Design and construct the highest self-supporting structure using a given amount of material (e.g., 2 sheets ofnewspaper and 2 inches of masking tape). Evaluate the results according to height achieved, quantity ofmaterial used and aesthetic appearance.

4. Examine two paintings of the same subject matter by different artists. List in two columns all the similaritiesand differences observed. Create a work of art based on the same subject matter, but in your own style.

5. As a group, examine a painting closely for one minute, memorizing as much of the painting as you can. Turnyour backs to the painting. In a round-robin fashion, name (without repeating) any object or relationship inthepicture. When no one has anything to add, re-examine the picture to see what (if anything) has been leftout.

6. Recall a tension-provoking moment. Depict in lines, dots and other marks your thoughts/memories regardingthis situation. Create a work of art from this drawing that illustrates tension. Compare and contrast your workwith those by other members oof the class.

7. Examine masks from different cultures, primitive to modern. Discuss the universality of masks. Identifypurposes for various types of masks and categorize them by form and function. Express how specific masksmake you feel, especially maks which transform the personality. Analyze how various emotions are conveyedin the masks. Describe ways people mask their faces without using real masks (e.g., masking thoughts andfeelings by using facial expressions). Using materials found around the home, create a mask that will giveyou special powers.

8. Create a work of art which passes on to the next generation some bit of knowledge about now which youthink is significant. Categorize the works made by members of your class according to similarities. Discusswhat factors were considered to determine significance. Examine how art is used in different cultures totransmit myths, folklore, legends, beliefs, and truths.

9. Use the element of "visual surprise" as a basis for creating a 3-D art object.

10. List the ingredients for a nonexistant work of art. Trade "recipes" with another member of your class andthen create a work of art based on each other's lists.

11. Identify the steps to creating a work of art. Design a machine or device that would help you to make art.

12. Andy Warhol once said, "In the future, everyone will be famous for 15 minutes." Decide what you will befamous for. Create a work of art to communicate your contribution.

13. Generate a list of "causes of the year." Select what you consider the most important cause and create a workof art to increase public awareness. Examine works of art designed to heighten social awareness.

14. Determine factors which influence your thinking. Design and create a prototype for a thinking cap that willhelp you to think better.

15. Imagine yourself as an animal, an appliance or an inanimate object. Indicate the basis for this animal beingyou. Examine the use of metaphor by artists in different cultures. For example, Picasso utilized the conceptof metaphor in his "Bicycle Bull." Create a mask based upon your personal metaphor.

21

16. Design a postcard about you. Consider the kinds of lines, textures, colors and shapes that you like. Nowinclude these kinds of things in the postcard you make. Exchange postcards through the mail with a pen pal.Examine ways "new tools" (such as computers and fax machines) make new connections between people,between places and between ideas.

17. Visually examine your school. Decide and then illustrate how you would make your school a better place.Discuss and compare designs among class members. Value diversity and similarity of thinking.

18. Generate a group list of possible meanings of the word "shelter." Consider the broadest sense andapplication of the word. Analyze the various factors which effect how people design and build shelters indifferent parts of the world. How does culture influence shelter design? (e.g., extended families remain closetogether in multi-family units in some cultures; the habit of sitting on the floor in the Oriental home influencesits design.) How does technology affect the design of shelters? Location? Climate? Design an "ideal"shelter for you and your family to live in. Construct a prototype model based on your drawing.

19. Recall the first time you experienced or witnessed injustice. Describe your thoughts and feelings at the timeof this incident and how this experience confirmed or challenged your view of the world. Depict this scene ina drawing, using expressive lines to convey your feelings. Examine and compare works of art which protestsocial injustice (e.g., Picasso's "Guernica" and Rivera's "The Liberation of the Peons.")

20. Research hats and headgear. Find as many examples as you can from throughout the world, past orpresent. List various attachments and elements. Consider function and aesthetics. Create a hat orheaddress that exemplifies your importance.

21. Identify the qualities of a "good design." Using a sheet of white paper only create "the best possible design."Enlarge or expand this product in any way you choose.

22. Generate a group list of things that cannot be seen, but that can be experienced in other ways (e.g., sounds,wind, tastes, feelings, abstract ideas, etc.,) Select one item from the list and use it as the basis for creating awork of art. Examine how various artists have depicted the "unseen."

23. Sequence a collection of art prints in order from the most to less beautiful. Determine criteria selected andjustify the order.

24. Select an art work that you wish to promote. Determine the various qualities it possesses. Create a "salespitch" for the value of this work. Test it out on others.

25. Observe a realistic/narrative work of art. Speculate what might be the next scene or where this scene mightoccur in a sequence of events. Draw out your idea.

26. Recall the major events of your life to date. Select an important event and then design a commemorativestamp.

27. Research and discuss the plight of the "homeless." Design a shelter for a homeless individual. Determinecriteria for evaluating the best possible design.

28. Interpret the meanings of flavors. Create a 3-D form which will visually communicate the idea of a particularflavor. Test out your solution on other members of the class. Determine success of the form and redesign ifnecessary.

29. Imagine yourself as an inanimate object. Create this object (which is your personal metaphor) by tearing outits contour from a sheet of paper. Explain why.

30. Design your own art problem to solve. Create a solution.

22

Students engage in critical thinking when they areencouraged to:

A. seek a clear statement of the problem orquestion.

B. gather, judge and connect relevantinformation in order to be well informed.

C. monitor their own thinking and progress.

D. withhold judgment.

E. be open-minded.

F. identify and challenge assumptions.

G. consider other points of view.

H. seek alternatives.

I. detect bias.

J. identify verifiable facts, opinions andreasoned judgments.

K. determine the factual accuracy and strengthof an argument or claim.

L. determine the credibility of a source.

M. be honest and sensitive with others.

N. deal with ambiguity.

O. strive for precision, definition and clarity.

P. remain central to the main point.

Q. suspend judgment when sufficient evidenceand reasoning are lacking.

R. support their positions with sufficientevidence and reasons.

S. change a position when evidence andreasons are sufficient to do so.

Students engage in creative thinking when theyare encouraged to:

A. generate many ideas.

B. seek alternative solutions to a problemsituation.

C. come up with unusual or innovativeresponses.

D. go beyond the ordinary and obvious.

E. expand or elaborate upon an idea..

F. be different from others.

G. take conceptual risks and exposethemselves to failure or criticism.

H. make connections between things.

I. dream, fantasize and visualize mentalimages.

J. point out gaps in information given.

K. create order out of chaos.

L. be inquisitive.

M. persist with a problem where others maygive up.

N. plan and develop an idea before committingit to materials.

O. work at the edge of their potential.

P. rely on their inner-self rather than others todetermine the worth of their work.

Q. reframe a problem in order to develop newpoints-of view.

R. get away from an idea in order to put it inperspective.

S. predict possible outcomes without completeinformation.

Teaching for

Critical & Creative Thinking

23

• looking at things more closely than most people do.

• finding beauty in everyday things and situations.

• making connections between different things and

ideas.

• going beyond ordinary ways of thinking and doing

`things.

• looking at things in different ways in order to

generate new perspectives.

• taking risks and exposing yourself to possible

failure.

• arranging things in new and interesting ways.

• working hard and at the edge of your potential.

• persisting where others may give up.

• concentrating your effort and attention for long

periods of time.

• dreaming and fantasizing about things.

• using old ideas to create new ideas and ways of

seeing things.

• doing something simply because it’s interesting

and personally challenging to do.

Thinking like an artist means:

© 1996 Craig Roland

We can get some idea of what it means to “think like an artist" from reading these quotes by a fewwell-known artists.

"I'm a work horse. I like to work. I always did.I've never had a day when I didn't want tocompose, I painted or stacked the pieces orsomething. In my studio I'm as happy as a cowin her stall."

• Louise Nevelson

"The more an artist works the more there is todo"

• Ad Reinhardt

"All the really good ideas I ever had came tome while I was milking a cow."

• Grant Wood

"A man paints with his brains and not with hishands."

• Michelangelo

"I shut my eyes in order to see."• Paul Gauguin

"I think the artist has to be something like awhale, swimming with its mouth open absorbingeverything until it has what it needs."

• Romare Bearden

"Art is an adventure into an unknown world,which can be explored only by those willing totake the risks."

• Mark Rothko

Artists Speak

Louise Nevelson

Grant Wood

Romare Bearden 25

Design an Artrageous Hat!Make a hat from paper that will help you to think like an artist.

Suppose you had a hat that would help you think like an artist. Whatwould it look like? How would it work?

Try to imagine such a hat in your mind's eye. Once you have a mentalpicture of your hat, make it using a paper plate as a base and coloredconstruction paper to create it's form. It may help to draw a picture ofyour hat before you start.

The Project: There are no "rules" for making your artrageous hat (that's whatmakes it "artrageous.") The following suggestions may help you in deciding howto make your hat:

• Try to use several paper techniques to make your hat.• Try to make a hat that no one else would think of making.• Make it so that it can actually be worn. (Use pieces of yarn for ties to

secure the hat on your head.)• Make it strong so that it doesn't fall apart.• Try to make it so it really works. (magic potion helps.)• When you finish your hat, try it out by making some art. Be able to

explain to others how your hat works.

Want To Do More? Explore the world of hats. There are many different kindsof hats and headgear around the world that are worn for many different reasons.Try to find as many different kinds of hats, head-dresses and crowns as you can.

For more artrageous art projects, visit the @rt room at <www.arts.ufl.edu/art/rt_room>

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Materials You Need: A paper plate, assorted coloredconstruction paper, white glue or glue stick, stapler,hole punch, yarn, and other materials that maymake your hat unique.

Interpreting Art Works[This game requires selecting prints with narrative content] Havepairs of students select 3 or 4 postcards without knowing the purposeof the selection. Teach or review the parts of a story such as “thesetting” which is the scene for some action, “the plot” which is theunfolding of the action, and “the climax” of the action. Ask the studentsto arrange their cards in a sequence to illustrate an imaginary story.Have them present their story to others in oral or written form.

Place a group of cards on a table which are active (abstract or non-objective) or which show narrative action by realistic figures. Haveeach group of students select one card without knowing the purposeof the game. Discuss dramatization possibilities together. Determine“rules” of the game (e.g., words or no words, props or no props, etc.,)Provide time to determine the action appropriate to the selected cards.Place all cards in a location so everyone can see them. Each groupin turn presents their dramatization. The audience then makesinformed guesses on which work is being dramatized. Discuss thereasons for choices of action made by the students. Variation: Havestudents (in groups of 4 to 5) make the “sounds” their selected workwould make. The audience then guesses which card was selected.

Classifying and Categorizing Art WorksOne of the more interesting games to play with art postcards involvesasking students to sort a group of art prints into self-determinedcategories. Have each group spread the cards out in front of themand then say, “Place these prints into groups that you think gotogether.” Afterwards, have each group explain how and why theygrouped their prints. Identify works which were difficult to classifyAre their similarities in the ways groups completed the task?

Sort a group of art prints into theme categories such as landscapes,still lifes, portraits and ideas. Possible subcategories might includereal and imaginary events. Share and reflect on the results. Discusscharacteristics of prints found difficult to classify.

Define the terms “realistic,” “abstract” and “nonobjective.” Show anexample of each. Have students sort a group of art prints accordingto these categories. Subdivide categories if possible. Identify worksthat were difficult to classify. Share and reflect on the results.

Group art prints according to time periods (e.g. , works completed inthe 14th century, 15th century and so on.) Select the categorycontaining the largest number of prints and make inferences regardingwhat the works suggest about the art (and culture) of the time period.Determine ways to verify conclusions drawn. Share results.

Art Postcard Games

27

The following games involve students in “structured play” using small art prints to explore art concepts. Thesegames require carefully selecting examples and groups of art works beforehand in order to focus students’ attentionon certain similarities and differences in works of art.

Classify art prints according to emotions or moods expressed in theworks. Students may invent their own categories or they may begiven descriptive words such as “exciting,” “playful,” “calm, “sad,”“indifferent,” and “mad” and asked to sort their prints accordingly.Select a work from each category and determine what the artist hasdone to convey the emotion. Share results. Identify works which weredifficult to classify. Discuss the personal and universal quality ofemotions.

Sort art prints according to the nationality of the artist. (See back ofprints.) Compare works within each category and identify similarities.Contrast works among categories and identify differences. Identifyinterrelationships across groups.

Ordering & Ranking Art WorksBefore doing the following activities, the teacher should explain howa continuum consists of two extremes with the middle portiondisplaying characteristics common to both ends.

Have students rank a group of art prints in order from 1 (least liked)to 10 (best liked) among the group. Share rankings and criteria usedto make decisions. Determine why a certain print was ranked fifthand the next one sixth. Decide if the group ranking reflects “popular”values among the public. Conduct a survey to verify conclusionsdrawn.

Place art prints on a continuum from oldest to most recent. Askstudents to draw conclusions regarding the history of art as reflectedin their time continuum. Discuss conclusions and indicate the basisfor decisions made.

Sequence a group of 10 art prints from the most to least beautiful.Share the criteria used to justify the order. Discuss the personal anduniversal quality of “beauty.”

Place art prints on a continuum according to the depth shown (i.e.,infinite/deep space to decorative/flat space). Identify and discussways artists show depth in a work (e.g., size, color, overlapping,perspective and so on).

Rank a group of art prints in order from 1 (most likely to be popular)to 10 (least likely to be popular) with the general public. Sharerankings and criteria used to make decisions. Discuss issues relatedto “art in public places.” Predict how the ranking might changeaccording to the audience (e.g., big city vs. small town, parents vs.children and so on).

Rank a group of art prints in order from 1 (most significant) to 10(least significant). Share the criteria used to justify the order. Findexamples of “great art” and determine what makes them significant.

Place art prints on a continuum from “active-noisy” to “quiet-still.”Select a print and ask “What has the artist done to make this a ______painting?” Try other polar pairs such as warm/cool, lonely/crowdedor sharp/soft.

Have students invent their own art postcard games to play.

"Ask Mr. van Gogh"Directions: Your group will be given a set of prints of art work by Vincent van Gogh. Look overthe images and then arrange them into groups that you feel go together. Once your group hascompleted this task, respond to the following items:

1. What do all the works seem to have in common? (list 2-3 similar characteristics below)

2. If Mr. van Gogh were to walk into the classroom right now, what questions would youwant to ask him? (write your questions below)

a.

b.

c.

3. Next, place the postcards in chronological order from oldest to most recent. Then,think of a few more questions to ask Mr. Van Gogh if he were in the classroom rightnow:

a.

b.

c.

4. Lastly, choose one of your questions and write down the answer you think Mr. vanGogh might give (and be prepared to give a reason for your answer.)

5. Since Mr. van Gogh is no longer alive, where might you find answers to yourquestions?

29

Your Name: __________________________________ Grade Level: _________

Directions: Choose a work of art from the Letters to an Artist envelope. Look atthe work closely. What do you see in the painting? What do you think about thispainting? What questions would you like to ask the artist about this painting?(Information on the artist and the work can be found on the back of the postcard.)

Once you have finished examining this painting, write a letter to the artist. You maysay anything you wish.

Title of the Work: ____________________________________________________

Artist’s Name: __________________________ Today’s Date: _____________

Dear

(use the other side if necessary)

Art Worksheet: Letter to an Artist

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Lankford, L. E. (1990). Preparation and risk in teachingaesthetics. Art Education. 43 (5), 51-56.

Marzano, R.J. et al, (1988). Dimensions of thinking.Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Mattil, E. L. , et al. (1961). the effect of a depth vs. abreadth method of art instruction at the ninth-gradelevel. Studies in Art Education. 3 (1), 75-87.

May, W. T. (1989). Understanding and critical thinkingin elementary art and music. Elementary SubjectsCenter Series No. 8. East Lansing, MI: MichiganState University, The Center for the Learning andTeaching of Elementary Subjects. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 308 982).

Nickerson, R. S., Perkins, D.N. & Smith E. E. (1985).The teaching of thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum Associates.

Perkins, D. N. (1987). Art as an occasion ofintelligence. Educational Leadership. 45 (4), 36-43.

Perkins, D. N. (1981). The mind’s best work.Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Teaching Thinking: Recommended Reading

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Related Web Sites

Teaching Thinking Skills by Kathleen CottonNorthWest Regional Educational LaboratoryNovember 1991www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/6/cu11.html

Framing Essential QuestionsFrom Now OnVol 6|No 1|September|1996http://www.fno.org/sept96/questions.html

Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking.ERIC/AE Digest by Bonnie Potts (1994).www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed385606.html

Teaching Thinking Online: Better or Worsethan Face to Face? by William Peirce 2000academic.pg.cc.md.us/~wpeirce/MCCCTR/ttol.html

Teaching Thinking: an Introduction to theResearch Literature by John Nisbet (1990)The Scotish Council for Research in Educationwww.scre.ac.uk/spotlight/spotlight26.html

What is a Thinking Curriculum? by T.F.Fennimore and M.B. Tinzmann (1990).www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/rpl_esys/thinking.htm

Understanding Thought Processes forImproved Teaching of Thinking by Janine Huot(1998)fox.nstn.ca/~huot/model-tk.html

The Art of Questioning by Dennis Palmer Wolfhttp://www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/workshops/artofquestioning.html

Classroom Strategies to Engender StudentQuestioninghttp://www.questioning.org/toolbox.html

Teaching Thinkingby Nikana (2000)www.school.za/edict/edfort/teaching.htm

The Thinking Classroomlearnweb.harvard.edu/alps/thinking/

Habits of Mindwww.habits-of-mind.net/

The Branco Weiss Institute for theDevelopment of Thinkingwww.brancoweiss.org.il/new/thinking/tqtmain.html

Presseisen, B.Z. (1987). Thinking skills--Throughoutthe curriculum. Bloomington, IN: Pi Lambda Theta.

Roukes, N. (1982). Art synectics. Calgary: JuniroArts Publications.

Resnick, L. B. & Klopfer, L. E. (Eds.). (1989). Towardthe thinking curriculum: Current cognitive research.Yearbook of the Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Resnick, L. B. (1987). Education and learning to think.Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Roland, C. (1992). Improving student thinking throughelementary art instruction. In A. Johnson (Ed.), Arteducation: Elementary. Reston, VA: The National ArtEducation Association. 13-42.

Russell, P. (1979). The brain book. New York: E. P.Dutton.

Shuell, T. J. (1986). Cognitive conceptions oflearning. Review of Educational Research, 56 (4),411-436.

Sternberg, R. J. (1988). The triarchic mind, A newtheory of human intelligence. New York: PenguinBooks.

Sternberg, R. J. (1987). Questions and answersabout the nature and teaching of thinking skills. In J.B. Baron & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinkingskills: Theory and practice. (pp. 251-259) New York:W. H. Freeman and Co.

Szekely, G. (1988). Encouraging creativity in artlessons. New York: Teachers College Press.

Taba, H. (1967). Implementing thinking as an objectivein social studies. [In J. Fair & F.R. Shaftel (eds.),Effective thinking in the social studies: 37thyearbook. Washington DC: National Council for theSocial Studies] 25-49.

Taunton, M. (1983). Questioning strategies toencourage young children to talk about art. ArtEducation, 36 (4), 40-43.

Tishman, S., Perkins, D. N., & Jay, E. (1995). Thethinking classroom. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Von Oech, R. (1986). A kick in the seat of the pants.New York: Harper & Row.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The developmentof higher psychological processes. Camridge:Harvard University Press.

Wassermann, S. (1992). Asking the right question: Theessence of teaching. Fastback 343. Bloomington, IN:Phi Delta Kappa.

Weisberg, R. W. (1986). Creativity--Genius and othermyths. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

Wiggins, G. & J. McTighe (1998). Understanding bydesign. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Wood, D., Bruner, J. & Ross, G. (1976). The role oftutoring in problem-solving. Journal ofChildPsychology and Psychiatry. 17, 89-100.