Somalia - HumanitarianResponse · expressed in terms of high salinity, fine sand, loss of...

WASH CLUSTER - SOMALIA MINIMUM WASH TECHNICAL GUIDELINES -2017

Somalia

Minimum WASH Technical Guidelines


Contents Preview ............................................................................................................................................... 2

Part 1: Water ....................................................................................................................................... 3

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 3

Construction, Rehabilitation and Upgrading of Water Points: ........................................................... 7

Shallow Wells: ................................................................................................................................. 8

Boreholes ......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Berkhads ....................................................................................................................................... 16

Water Pans .................................................................................................................................... 17

Dams ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Water Vouchers ............................................................................................................................ 21

Part 2 Sanitation and Hygiene .............................................................................................................. 23

Latrines .............................................................................................................................................. 25

Recommended latrine standard for Somalia (Annex 9 in SOF) ............................................................. 25

Latrine nomenclature: .................................................................................................................. 26

Latrine Rehabilitation .................................................................................................................... 26

Emergency/Urban latrine construction: ....................................................................................... 27

School latrine Construction ........................................................................................................... 27

Preview The guidelines presented in this document represent a common cluster approach toward WASH activities in Somalia, based on best practice, cultural, social and environmental acceptability and global minimum standards

The guidelines in no way detract from the participation of disaster-affected communities in the assessment, design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of assistance programs. The guidelines help to ensure that vulnerable communities in Somalia receive an equitable, minimum level of service from WASH cluster members.

All WASH cluster members agree to adopt the minimum guidelines in their programs and justify any interventions that fall short of the guidelines.

The guidelines are technical in nature and all WASH cluster members are encouraged to seek technical advice on construction from the WASH cluster technical library, where necessary.


Part 1: Water

1. Introduction

Many international and local organizations, private contractors, and communities are involved in the construction, rehabilitation, and upgrading of water points (ex., hand dug wells, boreholes, barkeds, dams and water pans). But serious failings in the quality of implementation and construction may impede these efforts, from which recovery is difficult without significant additional investment.

There are many examples in Somalia of water points providing water all the year round to satisfy the needs of local populations. However, there are also numerous examples of water points falling into a state of disrepair, or providing water on a seasonal basis only. Poor construction quality or construction at the wrong time of the year can undermine all efforts to keep water points working. The premise of this part of the guideline is that certain basic mandatory standards should be adhered to when implementing and constructing water sources. This will help to professionalize the water supply, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) sector. Reasons for better water supply could be:

• The quality of the water from the existing source may be inadequate/unsafe

• The existing source of water may not function properly and needs to be improved/repaired

• The existing source may provide an inadequate quantity of water

• The existing source may be inconvenient, e.g. it is too far away from the home

The SPHERE standards 1 outline the basic principles of water supplies from page 79 to 139.

The quantities of water needed for domestic use is context based, and may vary according to the climate, the sanitation facilities available, people’s habits…etc. Water consumption generally increases the nearer the water source is to the dwelling. Where possible, 15 litres per person per day (l/p/d) can be exceeded to conform to local standards where that standard is higher.

Table 1: Minimum basic survival water needs2

Survival needs: water intake (drinking and food)

2.5–3 litres per day Depends on the climate and individual physiology

Basic hygiene practices 2–6 litres per day Depends on social and cultural norms

Basic cooking needs 3–6 litres per day Depends on food type and social and cultural norms

Total basic water needs 7.5–15 litres per day

Maximum numbers of people per water source: The number of people per source depends on the yield and availability of water at each source. The approximate guidelines are:

Table 2: Maximum numbers of people per water source

250 people per tap based on a flow of 7.5 litres/minute

500 people per hand pump based on a flow of 17 litres/minute

400 people per single-user open well based on a flow of 12.5 litres/minute

1 http://www.sphereproject.org/handbook/ 2 SPHERE standards page no 98.

http://www.sphereproject.org/handbook/


In a disaster and until minimum standards for both water quantity and quality are met, the priority is to provide equitable access to an adequate quantity of water even if it is of intermediate quality. Disaster-affected people are significantly more vulnerable to disease; therefore, water access and quantity indicators should be reached even if they are higher than the norms of the affected or host population. Particular attention should be paid to ensure the need for extra water for people with specific health conditions, such as HIV and AIDS, and to meet the water requirement for livestock and crops in drought situations. To avoid hostility, it is recommended that water and sanitation coverage address the needs of both host and affected populations equally.

Water sources can be divided into three categories: groundwater, surface water and rainwater. In Somalia, the common choice is boreholes equipped with hand pumps or motorized pumps; hand dug wells, barkeds, and dams and from developed springs. A number of global technology options are available for improved rural water supply systems. However, not all can be applied everywhere.

Table 3: Water sources and relevant technology

Water Source Technology Details / Examples

Collection Distribution

Ground water Spring catchment Outlet pipe from catchment No pumping required

Tap - stand at catchment

Piped distribution system

Shallow (hand-dug) wells

Rope and bucket Susceptible to contamination

Hand- pump

Power pump (Possibility for piped distribution system)

On-going operation costs

Boreholes Hand- pump

Power pump (Possibility for piped distribution system)

On-going operation costs

Surface water

Direct collection from rivers, barkeds, etc.

No distribution system Requires water treatment

Pumped storage/piped system

Requires water treatment. On-going operation costs

Rain water

Roof gutter and storage tank

Direct collection from tank Feasibility dependant on amount and frequency of rain; construction of roofs

Pumped piped system

2. Design considerations

In order to ensure the supply of improved and adequate water to communities within the design period of any water supply system, due consideration should be given to the following parameters:

• The population number: A reliable forecast of the expected number of people utilizing this service is important. This can be extrapolated from the current population figure and the growth rate and/ or any other factors that might affect the numbers to be served.

• The design period of components: This should be identified and the implementation period agreed upon at the beginning of the planning stage as the life span of the components varies. Components can be implemented in phases depending on the availability of resources. Components like hand dug wells could initially be designed for 20 years or more,


and pumps should be designed for the same period with a regular replacement of components.

• The quality of water: The quality of water (in terms of physical, chemical and bacteriological content) has a significant impact on public health. Since this varies considerably from region to region in Somalia, the fluoride, sulphate and nitrate content in the groundwater sources needs to be examined as it may be higher than the rates allowed by the drinking water guidelines of Somalia.

• Choice of technology options: Without compromising on the quality, quantity and sustainability of the system, a low-cost option should be prioritised.

• Distance to improved water supply facilities: To the extent possible the distance to the improved water supply point should not be greater than 500m during emergencies and 1000m during normal times.

For the purpose of this document, water point’s construction, rehabilitation, and upgrading have been arranged into four stages, with each stage requiring a set of actions. The stages and actions are illustrated in table 4. The guidelines are structured according to the different stages and are elaborated upon in the rest of the document. Some of the stages are mentioned only briefly in this document.

Table 4: Stages in Water Point’s Construction, Rehabilitation and Upgrading3:

Stage Actions

Stage 1: Community sensitization and mobilization

- Stimulating demand

- Community contribution

- Setting up post construction monitoring

Stage 2: Site selection - Community consultation

- Reconnaissance, Land ownership, Accessibility

- Preventing contamination

- Site selection to ensure health and hygiene as well as productivity

Stage 3: Construction - Mobilization; appointment of contractor and supervisor

- Technical specifications of construction

- Maintenance

Stage 4: Installation - Installation

- Operation and maintenance

When considering selection of sites for water sources, considerations on proximity, availability and sustainability of sufficient quantity of water, whether treatment is needed and any other factors social or legal that concern the water source. In disasters a combination of approaches and sources is often required in the initial phase. Monitor water sources regularly to avoid over exploitation.

To ensure that the water point is hygienic, it is mandatory to site it beyond the minimum distance from existing contaminants as set out in table 5. The water point should be located upstream of any possible pollutants. A water point must not be sited where it could be flooded or in depressions with poor drainage. The site must not be liable to erosion and it must not be in an area where pesticides or fertilizers are being used.

Table 5: Minimum Distance (m) from New Water Point:

3 http://www.sphereproject.org/handbook/



Existing Structures Minimum Distance from Water Point (m)

Existing public water points (well/borehole) 20

Latrines/septic tanks/soak ways 30

Streams, canals, irrigation ditches 20

Buildings 5

Approved or informal solid waste dumps, burial grounds, lubricant depots

500

Coastline 100

For guidance on minimum distance from water points other uses, see sphere guideline


Hydrogeological classification of Aquifers in Somalia:

The knowledge of the hydrogeological classification of aquifers in the various parts of the country and the quantity and quality of the groundwater in the various aquifers is vital, for making an informed decision on the design of the water treatment system to be used. According to hydrogeological information, Somalia’s hydrogeological units are divided into three main groups:

a) Porous rocks of relatively high to low hydrogeological importance b) Fractured rocks of relatively medium to low hydrogeological importance, (this unit is

characterized by local aquifers restricted to fractured zones. It could be unconfined or confined. The permeability varies and it is generally low. The water quality is generally good. Thermal saline waters may occur. Its relative importance is medium to low and the potential is generally low).

c) Porous or fractured rocks with very low hydrogeological importance

Map1: Somalia Hydrogeological Map4

Practical problematic situations that are related to groundwater in different parts of Somalia are expressed in terms of high salinity, fine sand, loss of circulation, running sand & caving, thick mud-

stone and other problems that will occur during drilling of boreholes like the presence of boulders. Groundwater is of huge importance in Somalia. Apart from the areas along the Juba and Shabelle Rivers, all regions depend on groundwater for domestic water supply, livestock and small scale irrigation. There is very low effective rainfall and no perennial surface water across most of the country. Groundwater is accessed through boreholes, shallow wells and springs. Most boreholes are between 90 m and 250 m deep, but in some areas reach over 400 m deep. Most shallow wells are less than 20m deep. Yields vary from one aquifer to another, but most shallow wells yield between 2.5 and 10 m³/hr, compared to the typical range of borehole yields of between 5 to 20 m³/hr5.

4 Africa Groundwater Literature Archive 5 Faillace C, Faillace ER. 1986.


http://www.bgs.ac.uk/africagroundwateratlas/searchResults.cfm?title_search=&author_search=&category_search=&country_search=SO&placeboolean=AND&singlecountry=1


Groundwater quality is a major issue. Most groundwater sources have salinity levels above 2,000 µS/cm. Many of the shallow wells are also unprotected and vulnerable to microbiological and other contamination. See Appendix 1 for more details.

Construction, Rehabilitation and Upgrading of Water Points:

Groundwater resources play a major role in domestic water supply, watering livestock, industrial operations, agriculture and environmental conservation in Somalia due to a lack of reliable surface water sources. Both permanent and seasonal water sources exist. The permanent water sources include boreholes and hand-dug wells (ceel) and natural springs, while seasonal sources comprise man-made earth dams (wars), berkads and natural depressions.


Shallow Wells:

Guidelines for Shallow Wells Construction:

From Somali’s experience, shallow wells are a very reliable source of water supply to the communities although precautions need to be taken to ensure that they are not contaminated. The depths of shallow wells vary from place to other as well as the water table levels.

The sanitary conditions of the shallow wells are very poor. There are many examples in Somalia of hand dug wells and hand dug wells fitted with handpumps providing water all the year round to satisfy the needs of local populations. However, there are also numerous examples of shallow wells falling into a state of disrepair, or providing water on a seasonal basis only. Poor construction quality or digging wells at the wrong time of the year can undermine all efforts to keep water points working. The premise of this part of guideline is that certain basic mandatory standards should be adhered to when implementing and constructing hand dug wells. 1. Minimum Guideline for Shallow Well Construction:

1. Location (or site): The site of construction should be protected from potential pollutants. The nearest latrine should be located at a minimum safe distance of 30 to 50 m from the well; more if there is a chance of underground pollution due to the hydrogeological characteristic of the soil type.

2. Digging of a hand dug well: Digging should begin with well-established safety procedures, using local knowledge of hand dug well techniques wherever possible. Auger techniques can be used to identify a suitable site for a hand dug well.

3. Well diameter: This should be large enough to allow well diggers and equipment into the well for future deepening of the well in case the water table level drops and sufficient water cannot be drawn. The recommended diameter for a concrete ring lined well is 1.50 m, and 2.0 m for a brick lined well.

4. Well depth: 60 meters is usually the practical limit to the depth that can be reached, although most dug wells are less than 20 meters deep.

5. Water Level: Minimum water depth of 1 m (dry season) if no dewatering pump is used. Minimum water depth of 2m (dry season) if dewatering pump is used.

6. Wall lining extension above ground level as a parapet or wall: The provision of 75 to 80cm extended wall lining will protect from the possibility of flooding from surface water during the wet seasons. The lining should extend 0.5m above the most frequent flood level line.

7. Extension of the apron/platform around the well: This should be at least 2 m radius from the wall of the well.

8. Diversion of surface water: Diversion ditches should be dug uphill, a reasonable distance from the well, to divert surface water from the settlement areas away from the well. 1m3 soakage pit filled with large stones – no soak pits should be constructed in impermeable soils.

9. Cover slab on the top of the well: If fixed properly on the lining of the well, the cover will prevent entry of pollutants into the well. If hand pump is to be installed there must be a separate lockable access hatch to allow water to be extracted when hand pump is not functioning/breaks down

10. Protection of well head area: The well head including the apron and the immediate surrounding should be protected from entry of unauthorized people and animals with a fence.

11. Water quality should comply with WHO guidelines. Shock chlorination after works are completed with at least 50mg/l.


Costs: Typical cost for 1 shallow well construction is 5,000 USD for 10m depth6.

Additional Recommendations:

• Where possible animal troughs should be constructed

• Any organization capping a shallow well with a hand pump must ensure a suitable access hatch with cover is installed to allow water to be extracted if the hand pump breaks down.

2. Minimum Guideline for Shallow Wells Rehabilitation

In the case of rehabilitation of an existing well, an assessment must be carried out to diagnose the problem and establish whether it is worth rehabilitating or not. It is essential to assess the following points:

1. Whether the source has failed due to a problem with the well itself. 2. Whether rock was encountered during excavation - this may indicate that the well cannot be

deepened further. 3. Whether the well dries up in particular months of the year but has soft material at the

bottom this well may have the potential to be rehabilitated to provide an all-year water supply.

4. The distance of the well to any potential contaminants should be checked. If the distance is less than that provided in table 2, it should not be rehabilitated.

5. Whether the well lining has collapsed - if this is the case, the cost of rehabilitation may be prohibitive and it may be preferable to construct a new well.

6. Whether the well is unlined – it could be lined with concrete rings and fitted with a new well head and apron according to the specifications.

Shallow Well Rehabilitation should include as a minimum:

1. Desalting of well and removal of debris 2. Repair of concrete apron, minimum radius of 1.5m 3. Repair/construction of 5m long drainage channel

6 Standard BOQs can be found on the WASH cluster website at: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B0eFpej46-

hCOWUtTEZHdkt3VEU

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B0eFpej46-hCOWUtTEZHdkt3VEU

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B0eFpej46-hCOWUtTEZHdkt3VEU


4. Repair/construction of 1m3 soakage pit filled with large stones – (no soak pits should be constructed in impermeable soils)

5. Repair of well lining using concrete rings or stone masonry – whichever is appropriate 6. Repair of lining of at least top 2m in areas of hard rock. 7. Repair of head wall. 8. Concrete work at 1:2:4, cured for 7 days. 9. The whole facility must be protected with a fence that restricts access of unauthorized

persons and animals, and facilitates the management of people and animals during water collection or animal watering schedules.

10. If hand pump is to be installed there must be a separate lockable access hatch to allow water to be extracted when hand pump is not functioning.

11. Water quality should comply with WHO guidelines. 12. Shock chlorination after works are completed with at least 50mg/l

Costs: Typical cost for one shallow well rehabilitation based on all the above work is 1,500 USD for 10 m depth.

3. Minimum Guideline for Shallow Well upgrading with Hand Pumps

Upgrade should include as a minimum:

1. Desalting of well and removal of debris 2. Construct apron slab with radius of 1.5m around the well 3. To ensure good drainage the surface of the apron slab should be 100 mm above ground

level. It should have a gradient of 1:20 towards the drainage channel. 4. The drainage channel should be 4 m long, 200 mm wide and 50 mm deep. It should

terminate in a soak away pit of 400 x 400 x 400mm. See figure below. 5. The cover slab for wells fitted with a handpump should be the exact diameter of the

protruding well head, that is, 1.8m (the internal diameter is 1.6m plus 10cm concrete wall on each side).

6. Cover slab should be 100mm thick, reinforced with 8mm steel rods at 150mm grid, concrete mixed in the ratio of 1:2:4 and allowed to cure for 7 days.

7. 1.5m deep sanitary seal made of cement grout 8. 5 m radius fencing 9. Pump installation must be coordinated with the pad construction as the pump stand has to

be embedded in the pad. 10. The pump stand needs to be secured well with stones or wooden struts, so that it does not

change its position during the grouting process. 11. The pump cylinder should be set 1 m above the well bottom to strike a balance between the

falling water level and incursion of loose sand from the bottom of the well. 12. Separate lockable access hatch to allow water to be extracted when hand pump is not

functioning 13. Shock chlorination is mandatory after works are completed. Disinfection is by chlorine

solution yielding at least 50 mg/l of active chlorine in all parts of the well. 14. Water quality should comply with WHO guidelines.

Costs: Typical cost for 1 shallow well upgrade based on all the above work is 3,000 USD for 10 m depth.


Design of shallow well fitted with hand pump

4. Minimum Guideline for Shallow Well upgrading with motorized pumps

1. Shallow well (the source of water): Shallow wells must produce a minimum of 0.5 l/s of

water to allow installation of a motorized pump. The well can be equipped with a low head submersible electric or solar pump for water levels (both static and dynamic) greater than 6 m from the top of the well. A centrifugal pump is recommended for static water levels lower than 6m.

1. Prime mover: The prime mover can be an electrical or solar power generator. A prime mover that works by both solar and wind could be an alternative, however its sustainability should be field tested and approved as an appropriate. The well can be equipped with a low


head submersible electric or solar pump for water levels (both static and dynamic) greater than 6 m from the top of the well.

2. Storage reservoir: Where there is a possibility of extracting reasonable amount of water from the well, the standard rectangular made of concrete or circular shape storage facility of PE material and steel frames (or masonry wall for PE) could be used. The volume of such reservoirs in Somalia ranges from 2 to 10m3 capacity.

3. Supply and distribution pipes: The supply pipe conveys water from the hand dug well to the storage reservoir (elevated tank), whilst the distribution pipe takes the water from the storage tank to water distribution points.

4. Water distribution points: These are outlets from which water can be collected in containers for individual use, or for filling animal troughs.

5. Provision of drainage for wasted water: There should be a proper system for conveying wasted water from the distribution points to a safe distance away from the facility. The wasted water can be directed to a soak pit, to a nearby garden plot, or dispersed on waste water evaporation beds in areas where infiltration into the ground is difficult due to the texture of the soil.

6. Motor house/shelter: A shelter to protect the electric generating motor from rain, extreme sun and dust, and any kind of vandalism.

7. A fence: The whole facility must be protected with a fence that restricts access of unauthorized persons and animals, and facilitates the management of people and animals during water collection or animal watering schedules.

Set up for a hand dug well with motorized pump

Costs: Typical cost for 1 shallow well upgrade with motorized pumps based on all the above work is 15,000 USD for 10 m depth.


Boreholes:

These Principles for Borehole Construction and Rehabilitation in Somalia are in line with good international practices but take into account Somali’s context. A step-wise approach is needed to introduce and adopt these principles. Ultimately, all stakeholders operating in the country must respect these principles and adhere to all the mandatory aspects.

Boreholes in Somalia must be constructed to be “cost-effective”. This means optimum value for money invested over the long term. Boreholes are drilled to function for a lifespan of 20 to 50 years. The lowest cost borehole is not always the most cost-effective, particularly if construction quality is compromised to save money. Poor construction quality including lack of proper borehole development can lead to premature failure of the borehole or contamination of the water supply. Boreholes that are subsequently abandoned by the users as a result are not cost-effective.

In order for boreholes to be cost-effective they need to be properly sited, appropriately de-signed and specified, and then constructed and completed using suitable methods and equipment. Where the private enterprises undertake the drilling, procurement and contract management procedures need to be followed and supervision needs to be undertaken in a professional manner. Drillers, whether private, public or NGO, as well as supervisors need to ensure adequate construction quality.

1. Minimum Guideline for Borehole Construction

Borehole Construction should include as a minimum:

1. Hydrogeological desk study must be carried out and the detailed method for sitting agreed. 2. For all boreholes, the risk of drilling a dry hole should be assessed. 3. Geophysical survey must be carried out – a professional geophysical consultant must be

hired to determine the most appropriate location for drilling. 4. Geophysical equipment should be used if it considerably improves the likelihood of

successful drilling. 5. Community preference must be considered when sitting a borehole. And alternative drilling

sites or alternative technology options need to be proposed to the community for consideration.

6. For all public/community boreholes, the ownership of the land selected must be determined prior to the finalization of site selection

7. In the case of a decision to go ahead with drilling, the specifications for borehole design must ensure that the well is “fit for purpose”. The borehole diameter, casing diameter and well depth must be designed to meet the requirements for the deliverable borehole yield.

8. The site must be accessible all year round to all people in the community. If possible the borehole should be centrally located within the community. If this is not possible the borehole should not be more than 500 m from the community. For schools and health centres the boreholes must be located within the premises.

9. In order to ensure that the borehole is hygienic, it is mandatory to site it beyond the minimum distance from existing water points and contaminants. It must be located up stream of any possible pollutants. It must not be sited where it could be flooded or in depressions with poor drainage. The site must not be liable to erosion and it must not be in an area where pesticides or fertilisers are being used.

10. Most boreholes are between 90 m and 250 m deep, but in some areas reach over 400 m deep. See appendix 1 for more details.

11. All contracts for drilling contractors must include a technical specification and call for a detailed drilling report, to include the drilling log, screen and casing arrangement, pumping test analyses, water quality analyses, GPS locations, and all required suggestions and


recommendations, submitted in at least 2 hard copies and 1 electronic copy. 1 Copy will be submitted to SWALIM. See appendix 2.

12. Construction must adhere to specifications with respect to diameter, depth, casing and screen, gravel pack/formation stabilizer, verticality, drilling additive and sanitary seal.

13. The recommended diameter of the borehole between 12” to14”. 14. The drilled borehole must be developed until the water is free of solids, and fine materials

(fines) and turbidity (less than 5NTU) for a continuous period of 4 hours. 15. Procedures for pumping test, as set out in the drilling specifications as set out in the contract

are adhered to. 16. All aborted boreholes must be

backfilled with drilling material and sealed according to the specifications.

17. Well head should be sealed to at least 3.5m

18. Well head works should include a flow meter, a non-return valve, a gate valve to stop flow to the distribution system, dip tube, and a valve that allows pumping tests to be undertaken

19. Gravel pack covering all screened sections

20. 1.5m concrete apron around the borehole casing, concrete work at 1:2:4, cured for 7 days

21. Pumping tests should be at least 24 hours constant discharge with 80% recovery

22. If high yielding (greater than 5m3/hr):

i. Submersible pump

ii. Generator or solar/wind if applicable iii. Ensure that at least two people are trained on the O&M of the generator,

electrical workings and piping system iv. Ensure that 1 tool kit and 1 years’ worth of generator spare parts are

provided 23. Shock chlorination is mandatory after works are completed. Disinfection is by chlorine

solution yielding at least 50 mg/l of active chlorine in all parts of the well. 24. Water quality should comply with WHO guidelines. 25. The depth of well, water level, pump level and yield and the organization undertaking the

work should be marked on the well. 26. 10 m2 fencing around the borehole 27. Generator room – at least 40% of wall area should be ventilated 28. Storage (25m3 Elevated water storage tank to be contacted made from fiberglass,

polyethylene (PE) or concrete) 29. Two animal troughs with an area of 5m x 2m each

Costs: Typical cost for 1 borehole drilling and construction: 110,000 USD for 220 m depth.


Layout of the borehole with complete facilities

2. Minimum Guideline for Borehole Rehabilitation

BH Rehabilitation should include as a minimum:

1. Redevelopment if yield has shown greater than 20% decrease 2. Well head should be sealed to at least 3.5m 3. Well head works should include a flow meter, a non-return valve, a gate valve to stop flow

to the distribution system, a valve that allows pumping tests to be undertaken 4. 1.5m concrete apron around the borehole casing, concrete work at 1:2:4, cured for 7 days 5. If no borehole records are available a pumping test should be undertaken 6. Pumping tests should be at least 24 hours constant discharge with 80% recovery. See

Appendix 2. 7. Results of pump test to be sent to SWALIM 8. If high yielding (greater than 5m3/hr):

i. Submersible pump ii. Generator or solar/wind if applicable

iii. Generator room – at least 40% of wall area should be ventilated iv. Storage (at least 3 litres per person of storage capacity) v. Two animal troughs with an area of 5m x 2m each

vi. Ensure that at least two people are trained on the O&M of the generator, electrical workings and piping system


vii. Ensure that 1 tool kit and 1 years’ worth of generator spare parts are provided

9. Shock chlorination is mandatory after works are completed. Disinfection is by chlorine solution yielding at least 50 mg/l of active chlorine in all parts of the well.

10. Water quality should comply with WHO guidelines. 11. The depth of well, water level, pump level and yield and the organization undertaking the

work should be marked on the well. 12. 10 m2 fencing around the borehole

Costs: Typical cost for 1 borehole rehabilitation: 40,000 USD for 220m depth.

Berkads Berkad in normal circumstances, is traditional way to harvest and store rainwater for human and animal consumptions. This water-harvesting technology spread very fast within the central regions. People have done and are doing everything within their power to ensure their own water supply by constructing family owned Berkads.

Berkad Construction should include as a minimum:

1. At least 4m depth 2. Storage volume of 900 litres per intended beneficiary per 3 months (10 litres per person per

day for 90 days) 3. Stone masonry, Ferro cement or brick lining as whichever is appropriate 4. Mortar of 1:4 – unless Ferro cement 5. Plaster of 1:2 – unless Ferro cement 6. Silt trap of at least 2m x 2m x 2m dimensions 7. 5m radius fencing around berkad 8. Spillway to remove excess water 9. Curved moulding in corners and joints between wall and concrete base 10. Sloping base of 1 in 100 11. Concrete base of 1:2:4, cured for 7 days 12. Test for leaking/permeability of berkhad after works are completed

Cost: Typical cost for 1 Berkad Construction: 7,000 USD for 200m3.

Relatively small size and with a coating on the walls, it is made generally:

• A collection area;

• A transport system consisting of natural or upgraded lines, more or less long spanning the

distance between the place of collection and the storage location;

• A "reserve" (stock) buried or above ground.


Berkad Rehabilitation should include as a minimum:

1. Stone masonry, Ferro cement or brick lining as whichever is appropriate 2. Grouting of cracks with 1:2 plaster 3. Silt trap of at least 2m x 2m x 2m dimensions 4. 5m radius fencing around berkhad 5. Spillway to remove excess water 6. Curved moulding in corners and joints between wall and concrete base 7. Sloping base of 1 in 100 8. Concrete base of 1:2:4, cured for 7 days 9. Test for leaking/permeability of berkhad after works are completed Cost: Typical cost for 1 Berkad Rehabilitation: 4,000 USD for 200m3.

Water Pans “Wars”

Wars (also called bailey, water pan, ponds or dams) are commonly used to collect surface (rain) water from small catchments of 2 to 3 km². Earth-dams (War’s) exist in many places in Somalia. Some are natural depressions, while others are man-made. The man-made ones are done by hand or by earth moving machines, mainly 1–2 m deep with a surface area of hundreds to thousands of square meters.

1. Minimum Guideline for Water Pans Construction

Water Pan Construction should include as a minimum:

1. Storage volume of 900 litres per intended beneficiary per 3 months (10 litres per person per day for 90 days)

2. Storage volume of 51,750 litres per intended beneficiary household per 3 months for animal usage

3. Silt trap 5m x 5m area 4. Fencing 3m radius from water pan 5. Shallow will with infiltration galleries for drinking water collection 6. Lining with plastic sheeting 7. Spill way Cost: Typical cost for 1 Water Pan Construction: 8,000 USD for 500m3.

2. Minimum Guideline for Water Pans Rehabilitation

1. Silt trap 5m x 5m area 2. Fencing 3m radius from water pan 3. Shallow well with infiltration galleries for drinking water collection 4. Lining with plastic sheeting 5. Spill way

Cost: Typical cost for 1 Water Pan Rehabilitation: 4,000 USD for 500m3, or 1 USD per cubic metre of excavation


3. Improved Earth-dams (War’s)

An ‘improved War or hafir’ is one with a water treatment system that can provide drinking water primarily for human consumption. A hafir or War without a water treatment system that is used for purposes other than drinking may not be classified as ‘improved War’. Design considerations

Like any engineering structure, improved hafir needs to be well planned. The following steps are recommended in the planning phase:

• Preliminary survey (reconnaissance study) of the area: Appropriateness of the site of the improved hafir including estimation of the area for topographical survey, estimation of the design population, socio-economic survey in upstream and downstream locations of the area, rough environmental impact assessment (including the health threats such as the spread of malaria and prevalence of guinea worm and recommended solutions), impact of the hafir on water rights at the development and upstream/downstream areas etc, consultation with local authorities and beneficiary communities and justifications to conduct the feasibility study.

• Feasibility study: Site selection, topographical survey of the area, hydrological and hydrogeological studies community participation including roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders, needs assessment for capacity building etc.

• A hydrological and geological survey should identify different parameters like peak flow, possible quantity and quality of raw water, soil analysis to identify the type of soil of the proposed hafir site, and types and locations of other locally available construction materials etc.

• Hafir design: this includes: Comparison of various designs of improved hafirs, and of the various components, to select the best option, protection strategies/measures against potential pollution and contamination, and soil and water conservation measures of the catchment area, cost estimation and cost sharing among all stakeholders, requirements and actions for capacity building, implementation schedule etc.

• One of the factors, in the selection of the design of an improved hafir, is the estimation of the design human population.

• The potential livestock population which may use the water from the hafir should be added into the total design population figure.

• In determining the dimensions the size of the hafir: factors such as the surface area that will be exposed to evaporation, effect of sedimentation of silt materials in decreasing the volume of the hafir, and misuse and waste during withdrawal and animal watering, must be considered.

• Since a hafir is mainly a gravity system, a topographical survey covering a wide area is very essential.

• Hafirs should be selected in places where there is clay soil and where there are available construction materials. The depth of the clay soil should be determined during the feasibility study using augering kits at least at three points on each hafir site

• Estimation of the expected quality of raw water could be done by extrapolation using the available data in the area or by measuring the turbidity of water in the nearby hafirs, which are selected randomly or specifically during the feasibility study.

• After estimation of the quality of water, then a decision has to be made on the type of water treatment system that will be appropriate for proper reduction of the turbidity.

Design procedures of improved hafirs


Although hafirs are simple hydraulic structures that deal with impoundment of water, they must have the necessary components for efficient service provision. These are:

• Feeding facilities: These are structures that ease the flow of water to the hafir with a minimum sediment load by controlling the velocity (v ≤ 1m/s) of flow. This can be achieved through construction (provision) of weirs, drops and diversion structures.

• Drainage facilities: These are structures to drain excess water away from and before overtopping the body of a hafir. The provision of spilling structures (spillways) minimizes partial or total damage during high floods or during uncontrolled flow of water.

• Seepage control structures: These are provisions like lining of hafirs that minimize or avoid seepage through the body or floor of hafirs. Plastic or concrete lining could be applied as a mitigation measure provided the cost of lining is not significant and affordable.

The design and peak flows must be estimated by a hydrological study. The schematic flow diagrams of improved hafirs have been indicated in figure below for raw water sources from rain water harvesting and irrigation canals/streams respectively.

Schematic flow diagram of improved hafir for raw water source from rain water harvesting


Standardized sizes of hafirs

• Hafirs are rectangular or semi-circular impoundments that store water to be used by both human and livestock population during the dry season. ‘

• Hafir size varied from 15,000 m3 to 100,000 m3

• Hafirs should be fenced and protected. Fencing should include the silt retention area in order the community be able to manage the whole available water source and to minimize pollution and hygiene hazards during storage and abstraction.

Design specification of components of improved hafirs The components of improved hafirs shown in figures above:

a) Hafir b) Raw water pump c) Slow sand filtration systems

(that include sedimentation tank and minimum 2 filtration units), or chemically assisted water treatment systems (that include flocculation & coagulation systems, rapid sand filters and chlorinator etc)

d) Clear water well, e) Clear water pump, f) pump/generator house g) Elevated reservoir and distribution points h) Animal trough (raw water is diverted to the trough before it is treated)

Dimensions of the current typical standard design for 30,000 m3capacity hafirs are:

• Top width 70m

• Top length 130m

• Depth 4m

• Bottom width 54m

• Bottom length 114m and

• Slopes: 2:1 for the length and one of the width and 4:1 for the remaining width. By maintaining the bottom dimensions of the hafir

Where, V is volume of a hafir, A is area of hafir at the top, A 1 is area of hafir at the bottom, h is depth of a hafir, a is top width of a hafir, a1 is width of a hafir at depth of h, b is top length of a hafir, b1 is a length at depth h, n is vertical height of the slope of the sides of a hafir for horizontal distance of 1 unit. Depth of a hafir is very important as it is determined as per to the thickness of clay soil


Water Vouchers The WASH Cluster and associated partners have developed some guidelines for water access through vouchers. The guidelines are designed to provide critical information for those planning, implementing and monitoring water trucking operations. This includes Government, especially at Regional, Zonal and district level, NGOs and UN Agencies, including UNICEF. The guideline may also be useful for donors considering how best to support this intervention. The minimum acceptable volume of water to be supplied by water access by vouchers is 7.5 litres/person/day. All water provided by the trucks should be chlorinated and have a minimum free residual chlorine value of 0.5mg/l at the point of delivery. No trucks used for the transportation of fuel or other hazardous materials should be used for transporting drinking water.

IDP Populations Criteria: Water access by vouchers for newly displaced persons, where no accessible water sources are available is acceptable, or existing water systems are unable to provide at least 7.5 litres per person per day. This translates to 45 liters per Household

Water access by voucher projects should provide beneficiaries with the volume of water needed to reach 7.5 litres – if intended beneficiaries are currently consuming 3 litres per person per day, then the project should provide target beneficiaries with an additional 4.5 litres per person per day

Water access through vouchers will not be undertaken unless a full assessment has been completed.

Prioritization:

None

Duration:

As long as necessary however, water trucking projects must be accompanied with a phase out strategy to develop new or existing sustainable water sources for IDP populations. Alternative water sources should be in place within 3 months.

Drought Affected Populations Criteria: Drought affected populations subsisting on less than 5 litres per person per day. Water trucking projects should provide beneficiaries volume of water required to reach 7.5 litres – if intended beneficiaries are currently consuming 3 litres per person per day, then the project should provide target beneficiaries with an additional 4.5 litres per person per day

Prioritization:

Where more than one community is drought-affected and funding opportunities limited, targeted areas will be prioritised under the following criteria:

1. Full and complete WASH needs assessment7 – this covers most of the issues below 2. Prevalence of diarrhoeal disease – NGO assessment 3. Drought-affected population 4. Consumption of water in litres per person per day – NGO assessment

7 See WASH Assessment Guidelines for Project Proposals Ver 3.


5. Cost – the cost that communities pay for water trucking per barrel per km will be assessed by an independent Organisation/body. Lower costs per barrel per Km will be prioritized as this allows more people to be prioritized. Levels of malnutrition – as determined by FSNAU surveys

6. Communities ability to pay for water trucking 7. Predicted rain forecast - SWALIM 8. Distance to nearest permanent water source – NGO assessment as well as WASH cluster

data 9. Areas not previously targeted with water trucking activities – NGO assessment, WASH

Activity Map Duration

As long as necessary however, water trucking projects must be accompanied with a phase out strategy to develop new or existing sustainable water sources for IDP populations. Alternative water sources should be in place within 3 months. In this case we can consider moving the population or realization of a borehole would be more effective.

Donkey Carts

Where water sources can be found within reach of a donkey cart, the provision of donkeys and carts for communities is encouraged. Water treatment at household level needs to be emphasised as water collected is likely to get contamination during collection and delivery to the rightful beneficiaries. The cost of water ranges between 0.0095 USD – 0.058USD per litter during the drought season.8

Donkey carts can play a double role as they can be used to collect and dispose of garbage from settlements. This can be source of income at household level improving household purchasing power.

Typical cost per barrel ranges between 1.9USD – 11.6USD during drought9

8WASH Cluster Report on water price monitoring for trucked water in Somalia, July 2017 9 Cost per litre* 200 litres to get cost per barrel


Part 2 Sanitation and Hygiene Hygiene and sanitation promotion refers to the combination or linkage of good hygiene practices and improved sanitation facilities with the aim of preventing diseases. Hygiene refers to those behaviours or practices that can affect the health of an individual and others either positively or negatively.

These practices include but not limited to the collection, storage and use of water, washing hands at critical moments, the availability and proper use of sanitation facilities. Sanitation is the physical infrastructure that enable people to practice hygienic behaviours. It refers to the use of facilities that keep the environment clean or protect the environment from pollution or contamination.

Community-led total sanitation (CLTS) is an approach to achieve sustained behaviour change of people who participate in a guided process of "triggering"; the triggering is intended to lead to spontaneous and long-term change of social behaviours, in particular the abandonment of Open Defecation and not just construction of latrines. It does this through a process of social awakening that is stimulated by facilitators from within or outside the community. CLTS concentrates on the whole community rather than on individual behaviours. Collective benefit from stopping open defecation (OD) can encourage a more cooperative approach. People decide together how they will create a clean and hygienic environment that benefits everyone. It is fundamental that CLTS involves no individual household hardware subsidy and does not prescribe latrine models. Social solidarity, help and cooperation among the households in the community are a common and vital element in CLTS. It has been further developed since then by applying the lessons learnt from large scale applications in different rural and urban settings, focussing more on aspects of pride. (Handbook on CLTS: http://www.cltsfoundation.org/handbook-on-community-led-total-sanitation/). The government of Somalia, through a ministerial decree in 2015 encouraged stakeholders to use CLTS as a tool to eliminate open defecation in Somalia. Some of the tools for triggering communities to attain effective behaviour change would include;

• Rapport building

• Social and community triggering

• Transect walk

• Shit calculation

• F diagram (may be useful to discuss hand washing, reduction of flies and solid waste)

• Medical expenses and loss of time/ productivity

• Participatory community action plan towards ODF

• Participatory community Monitoring

Cluster partners must note that latrine construction by NGOs (implementing) is not desirable in areas where communities are being triggered for CLTS. Increased coordination among partners is critical to ensure that CLTS progress is not derailed.

Special considerations will be given to IDP populations and existing institutions. But communities should also be encouraged to undertake this process in an all-inclusive manner.

The stipulated time duration for attaining ODF varies from one context to another. It has been estimated to take between 2 months to 4 months.

PHAST will be used in stable areas where continuous access to the population is achievable.

http://www.cltsfoundation.org/handbook-on-community-led-total-sanitation/

http://www.cltsfoundation.org/handbook-on-community-led-total-sanitation/


• PHAST in emergencies will be used in unstable areas, where there limited access to the population, and time is a major constraint.

• CHAST will be used in all school related hygiene promotion programs

• All hygiene programs will contain specific trainings on ORS preparation and use.

• In areas where known outbreaks of AWD/Cholera have occurred and in all IDP settings, all hygiene programs will contain specific trainings on AWD/Cholera prevention – see WASH AWD Cholera Response Plan.

• Family Hygiene kits must contain a minimum of 200g of soap per person per month.

Price range recommendation for HP activities: About 1$ per beneficiary including the following items

Staff Unit cost USD

NS-Community Mobiliser incentive to 30

NS-Hygiene promoters for supervision 150 to 300

NS- field WASH/HP coordinator (50%) 300 to 1000

IS- HP expert (10%) 2000-4500

Training

CM training 3 days for 25 per ( without transport) 2000-2500

HP training 5 day 3500-4000

transport for participant TBD

IEC material + material for activities

Three pile sorting + poster + manual (1 set per CM) 15

Others material (theatres, games with children, community meeting) for each HP 1000

Radio -communal 2000

Special event ( Global Hand Washing, toilet day etc) per event 1000 to 2000

Demonstration material

Minimum Technical Guidelines for WASH Interventions in Somalia

25

Latrines Latrine construction can be undertaken in institutions or in schools as per designs endorsed by the cluster that can be found at: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B0eFpej46-hCQmhkLUFpYmhNVWs

Recommended latrine standard for Somalia (Annex 9 in SOF) This provides a standard guide for latrine design, desludging and disposal, as agreed in the WASH Working Group

Aspect Recommendation

Number One latrine per 50 people (or 8 families), moving to one latrine per 30 people when possible (as per WASH Cluster standard). Maximum three latrines in a row (to minimise distance to the nearest latrine)

Location Ask community, especially women, whether they prefer separate men and women’s toilets, or family toilets. If separate, have men’s and women’s latrines in different locations.

Disability 10% latrines to be suitable for use by people with a disability or elderly

Privacy screen

If preferred by women, construct a privacy screen in front of the women’s toilet. If possible, position the handwashing facility and water to be also behind the screen.

Pit Type - Options

All toilets must be able to be desludged (sludge removed, to extend their life). Options include:

• Temporary: Pit lined with 3-4 interconnected drums. Drums placed on top of each other, with bottom open (suitable for sandy soils)

• Twin pit - each toilet connected to two pits, with one pit to be filled at a time. This design is safer to desludge, as sludge is safer to remove after being inactive for 1 year. If pits are shared, this design will require 4 pits rather than 3 pits

• Longer term locations: Common pit with suitable strength to withstand soil pressure (hollow blocks not found suitable). Maximum 3 metres deep (length of desludging suction pipe). Recommend to separate the pit into two by constructing a dividing wall. This means that one side fills up before the other, to give a warning for desludging, while still allowing use of at least one toilet. Both sides of the pit must have an access hatch for sludge disposal. Unlined at base

Pan Straight pipe, at 1:2 ratio between pan and pit (no s-bend)

Bathing Bathing facility to be included – either combined with latrine, with separate drainage to a soakage pit. Or a separate bathing cubical, draining to dedicated soakage pit.

Pit Location Off-set pit (pit next to latrine, not below latrine), to allows the pit to be easily desludged

Pit Cover Pit to be covered with a slab which can be removed to desludge. Ideally the main slab has a smaller access hole which is easier to open (at least 100m diameter). Ensure the slab or opening has a good seal, so the pit does not become a mosquito breeding site.

Vent pipe Vent pipe installed from each pit, with wire mesh over top (to prevent mosquitos entering pit)

Pit Depth Up to 10-12 metres deep, with 1 metre diameter (in suitable soils, for example in Central Somalia). If Rocky soils or sandy that require lining, 3-4 m deep if possible. The latrine can be raised by 1m above the ground to increase pit volume if required. In all cases, ensure the bottom of the pit is 1.5m above the groundwater level, to avoid groundwater contamination.

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B0eFpej46-hCQmhkLUFpYmhNVWs

https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B0eFpej46-hCQmhkLUFpYmhNVWs


26

Aspect Recommendation

Handwashing

Install a handwashing station for all latrines. Ideally behind a privacy screen (if women prefer). A key requirement is a shelf for soap, as many people bring their own water to the latrine.

Water If possible, provide a dedicated water supply for latrines (for example: tank above the latrine, linked to the main water network). Dedicated drainage to a soakage pit will be required, to avoid septic pits overflowing. This is especially useful for women, to wash menstrual cloth.

Hygiene Promotion

Somalia WASH Cluster Emergency Hygiene Promotion package to be used. Details and pictures are available on the WASH Cluster website. Trained Hygiene Promoter or Community Mobiliser to support initial discussions with the community on location, preference and responsibility

Cleaning and maintaining

WASH Committee to be established and trained in Hygiene Promotion. Prior to construction, agree responsibility for cleaning, refilling handwashing water and hygiene awareness in community. (For example: Families rotate the responsible for cleaning and refilling water. The WASH Committee monitors, with agreement as to what they will do if family doesn’t meet responsibility)

Water point At least 30 metres to a water source, to prevent contamination via groundwater. As per sanitary survey for water sources, available on WASH Cluster website.

Desludging Desludging with a shovel is not recommended due to the safety risk.

Agencies to support the community to desludge the latrine at least once, as part of the project cost. This will show community how it is done, and ensure design is suitable for desludging.

Disposal Temporary option: dispose of sludge in a pit (approx. 3 m deep) with at least 0.5 m soil cover. Sludge is not to be disposed in local water source (river, creek etc)

As indicated by the ministry of health, latrine subsidies should be used minimally, only where CLTS cannot be implemented. This means that locations like IDP camps can still be in need of latrines, but other communities should be able to construct their latrines after a CLTS exercise.

All intended target communities should be consulted on the design, siting, and management of latrine prior to the implementation of any latrine construction program.

Latrine nomenclature:

Public Latrine – latrine shared by any number of people – Camps/Urban locations

Shared Family Latrine – latrine shared by more than one family – Camps/Urban locations

Household Latrine – latrine used by one family only – Rural locations

Latrine Rehabilitation

1. Latrine rehab should only be undertaken for public latrines 2. Emptying of old pit, or construction of new offset pit, at least 3m depth with 3m3 of storage

per drop hole 3. There must be a lockable door


27

4. Latrine slab must be washable, either plastic or concrete. If concrete must have a smooth plaster finish, and the surface should slope toward the drop hole. Slabs should have foot rests.

5. Handwashing facilities must be constructed for Public Latrines 6. At public facilities, schools, health centres etc. separate latrines for men and women should

be designated 7. At health facilities with inpatients, latrines with facilities for less able people should be

constructed

Typical cost of Public Latrine Rehabilitation: 400 USD

Emergency/Urban latrine construction:

1. Pit must be at least 3m deep, with a volume of at least 3m3 2. All latrines should be constructed so the pits can be easily emptied. Offset pit latrines are

preferred as they can be more easily emptied. 3. There should be a lid to cover the drophole – unless a VIP latrine is constructed. 4. There must be a lockable door 5. Latrine slab must be washable, either plastic or concrete. If concrete must have a smooth

plaster finish, and the surface should slope toward the drophole. Slabs should have foot rests.

6. Superstructure must be made with local building materials, unless emergency latrines are being constructed. If emergency latrines then corrugated metal sheets should be used (or plastic sheet if acceptable).

7. Handwashing facilities must be constructed for Public Latrines 8. Public latrines must have a trained caretaker who is cleaning the latrine on a regular basis 9. Public latrines and if need be communal latrines 10. Payment for construction of latrines in IDP settings is permissible

Typical cost of Emergency Communal Latrine Construction: 350 USD

School latrine Construction

There be at least 1 toilet for every 30 girls in a school and 1 toilet for every 60 boys. Special consideration should be given in the design and construction to the needs of young children and adequate privacy and security for girls must be ensured.

Sanitation tools kit

For clean-up campaigns, to dig latrine pits, for drainage and flood protection.

• Wheelbarrow (x1)

• Pick axe (x1)

• Shovel / spade (x2)

• Brooms (x4)

• Rakes (x2-4)

• Rope and bucket (to empty pit) Note: Sand-bags for flood protection need to be purchased separately

Typical cost of 1 sanitation kit: 150 USD

Solid Waste Management


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This involves collection and disposal of hazardous waste which if unattended appropriately can pose public health risks and have a negative impact on the environment. The risks involved can arise from breeding of flies or rodents thriving on solid waste. Solid waste block drainages leading to increased risk of flooding, resulting in environmental health problems associated with stagnant and polluted water surfaces and can be a risk for infectious diseases particularly diarrhea. Partners ought to encourage clean up campaigns as well as safe solid waste disposal mechanisms like the digging of garbage pits at communal and household level.

Basic drainage

Surface water in or near settlements may come from households and water point waste water, rain water or rising flood water. Health risks associated with surface water include contamination of water supplies and living environment damage to shelters/dwellings, vector breeding and drowning.


29

APPENDIXs

APPENDIX 1: General Geological Description

APPENDIX 2: Borehole Completion Record

1. General 2. Drilling Operation 3. Casing and Borehole Completion 4. Borehole Development and Pumping Test Summary 5. Water Quality Summary 6. Lithology

a. Lithological Logging b. Characteristics to be evaluated and assessed during logging of drilling

samples 7. Pumping Test Details

a. Step Drawdown Test b. Constant Rate Test c. Recovery Test

8. Water Quality Analysis Parameters

APPENDIX 3: Solar Water Pumping System


30

APPENDIX 1: General Geological Description

Named Aquifers General Description Water quality issues Recharge

Unconsolidated

Alluvial terrace

deposits -

Pleistocene to

Holocene/Recent

Terrace deposits in major wadis

(ephemeral river beds - called toggas).

Younger Holocene/Recent deposits

often overlie and are in hydraulic

continuity with older Pleistocene

deposits, which can result in very thick

aquifers of over 100 m.

Typically high productivity aquifers, with medium to high permeability and high infiltration capacity. Estimated transmissivity values are commonly in the range 10-2 to 10-3 m²/sec. In the Geed Deeble area (source for the Hargeysa water supply), only one in ten tested boreholes showed a transmissivity of less than 10-3 m²/sec; the others ranged from 2.86 to 5.18 x 10-3m²/sec. Calculated equivalent hydraulic conductivities were in the range 1.4 x 10-4 m/sec to 7.7 x 10-

5 m/sec. Test yields of the production boreholes ranged from 12 to 20 l/s, with drawdowns typically less than 20 m (data provided by Hargeysa Water Utility).

Generally unconfined, but where covered or associated with Quaternary volcanic basalts, they can be confined, sometimes with considerable artesian pressure (e.g. in the Xunboweyle area). In unconfined aquifers the water table is typically 2 to 3 m deep throughout the year, related to seasonal flows along riverbeds. In deeper confined, artesian aquifers in older deposits, the piezometric head does not fluctuate much throughout the year.

Thickness varies from a few metres to over 100 m. At Geed Deeble (source for the Hargeysa water supply), the tapped aquifer depth is over 150 m. Boreholes are typically between 10 m and 50 m deep.

In Somaliland in the north of Somalia, dynamic (sustainable) groundwater reserves in the major alluvial aquifers are estimated at an average flow of

Generally low levels of

mineralisation, with TDS

below 1000 mg/l, and of

moderate to good

drinking water quality.

Water from shallow dug

wells and some springs

often has a conductivity

in the range 2000 to

4000 microS/cm, but

other samples of shallow

groundwater in the

western part of northern

Somalia have

conductivity values of

less than 1500

microS/cm.

High

infiltration

capacity


31

~30 m³/sec.

Alluvial

sediments filling

major valleys and

plateaus -

Pleistocene to

Holocene/Recent

Low to high productivity, depending on

local lithology, thickness and lateral

extent.

Direct

rainfall

recharge,

and

indirect

recharge

from

infiltration

of river

water

Volcanic

Pleistocene

basaltic lava

flows

These are a potential aquifer in some

areas. They contain groundwater only

where fractured and/or weathered, or in

lenses of pyroclastic material between

lava flows. They typically have low to

moderate permeability, but are locally

highly fractured, increasing

permeability. However, they occur

primarily as elevated plateaus, and are

often unsaturated. In some areas, such

as Agabar and Las Dhure, they are

found in the lowlands and may be

saturated, and in this case are likely to

be unconfined. Boreholes drilled in

these areas have intersected water-

bearing zones composed of

sand/pyroclastic lenses and weathered

basalt.

In some

areas,

vertical

fractures

resulting

from

cooling of

the basalts

may occur,

and are

likely to

form

primary

recharge

routes.

Sedimentary - Intergranular and Fracture Flow

Upper

Cretaceous

Yessoma

Formation

(Nubian

sandstone)

The Yessoma Formation is of Nubian

sandstone type and can form a high

productivity aquifer. The coarsest

grained part of the formation occurs

between 140 m and 180 m depth.

Calculated aquifer transmissivity is

around 2 x 10-3 m²/sec (220 m²/day),

with an average specific capacity of 7.5

m³/hour/m. Most boreholes penetrating

the formation can sustain a yield of

more than 30 m³/hour.

Groundwater of good

quality is generally

supplied by dug wells in

the weathered part of

the aquifer.

Recharge

is

estimated

to be

approximat

ely in the

range of 3

to 5% of

annual

rainfall

(Van der

Plac

2001).


32

Jurassic

sandstones

Jurassic sedimentary rocks in the south

of Somalia are likely to be dominated

by sandstone. Their groundwater

potential is not well known.

Groundwater storage and flow may be

by both intergranular and fracture flow.

Low to moderate yields may be

possible.

Sedimentary - Fracture Flow

Tertiary:

Iskushuban

Formation

(Miocene);

Mudug Formation

(Oligocene/Mioce

ne); Daban

Formation

(Oligocene)

These form moderate productivity aquifers. Fractures act as pathways for rapid groundwater flow, but permeability and groundwater storage are small.

A borehole drilled into the Miocene Iskushuban Formation in Timirishe in the Bari area yielded 5 l/s for a drawdown of some 50 m, with a calculated transmissivity of 4.5 x 10-

4m²/sec.

Boreholes in the Oligocene/Miocene

Mudug Formation are drilled to 180 to

220 m deep, and provide yields of 3 to

5 l/s for drawdowns in the range 3 to 24

m. Transmissivity values of 3.1 x 10-

3 to 2.9 x 10-4 m²/sec were calculated.

Recharge

is

estimated

to be

approximat

ely in the

range of 3

to 5% of

annual

rainfall

(Van der

Plac

2001).

Cretaceous

undifferentiated:

sandstones,

conglomerates,

limestones and

evaporitic rocks

Little is known about the aquifer

properties of these rocks.

Sedimentary - Karstic

Eocene Karkar,

Taalex and

Auradu

limestones

The Eocene limestone (Karkar and Auradu) and limestone/evaporite (Taalex) formations are often karstic, and are among the most significant aquifers in the north of Somalia, in the Somaliland and Puntland regions.

The Karkar limestone represents the most promising fresh groundwater resource for further development in the Sool and Hawd plateaus in the north of Somalia. It typically forms a moderately

Groundwater in the Karkar karst aquifer is slightly mineralised, with an SEC (conductivity) value typically between 1500 and 1800 micromhos/cm.

The Taalex aquifer usually yields moderately to highly mineralised groundwater, derived


33

productive aquifer.

The Auradu limestones can form a high productivity aquifer, with good quality groundwater, although more investigation is needed. If groundwater is present, the overlying Taalex aquifer should be sealed off to prevent inflow of lower quality water. Many boreholes abstract from the aquifer, particularly in the Puntland region, with an average transmissivity of 10-3m²/sec (860 m²/day). Other boreholes over 200 m deep are drilled in limestones in the Garoowe area. Where these limestones are overlain by the Karkar formation, they are often semi-confined, with low sub-artesian pressure.

The depth to water table in unconfined parts of these aquifers is usually between 5 and 15 m throughout the year.

Fresh groundwater reserves in the

Auradu aquifer in the Somaliland and

Puntland regions are estimated as

equivalent to an average flow of 63.4

m³/sec. The estimated fresh

groundwater reserve in the Karkar

aquifer is lower at approximately 10

m³/sec.

from geogenic evaporitic minerals. Ca or CaSO4 type groundwater is dominant, with TDS usually greater than 3800 mg/l. SEC (conductivity) levels are generally very high, from 890 to 7270 microS/cm. Sulphate concentrations are in the range 125 mg/l up to 3100 mg/l, with an average of 1300 mg/l. Many boreholes have been abandoned because of a high salinity content.

Groundwater from the

Auradu limestones is

typically of sulphate-

bicarbonate type with

moderate to high

mineralisation, and an

SEC (conductivity) value

generally lower than

1000 micromhos/cm.

Sulphate is the dominant

element in almost all

samples with a range

from 3 to 220 mg/l.

Jurassic

limestones

The Jurassic limestones in the north of the country have the greatest potential for groundwater development in the country. There is usually pure limestone in the upper part of the formation, with marly levels and calcareous sandstones in the lower part. The upper parts in particular are usually characterised by a high degree of fracturing and probably karstic cavities, and groundwater circulation probably develops mainly in this zone. The limestones can be highly permeable, with a transmissivity value from one test borehole at Borama of 3.1 x 10-3 m²/sec (270 m²/day).

The depth to water table in unconfined parts of the aquifer is usually between 5 and 15 m throughout the year.

Groundwater reserves in the Jurassic

limestone aquifer in the Awadal region

Groundwater in the

Jurassic aquifer is

generally of bicarbonate

type with low levels of

mineralisation, with SEC

(conductivity) commonly

in the range 600

microS/cm to 1200

microS/cm.

Approxima

te

estimates

of

recharge

are

between

35% of

annual

rainfall for

the Karkar

aquifer to

50% of

rainfall for

the

Jurassic

limestone

aquifer.


34

are estimated as equivalent to an

average flow fo 18.9 m³/sec.

Basement

Forms a low productivity aquifer or an

aquitard, depending on the

development of permeability by

weathering/fracturing.

Groundwater has low to

moderate mineralisation,

with conductivity often

between 300 mS/cm and

1400 mS/cm, up to a

maximum of 3570

mS/cm in some shallow

wells. More than 70% of

analysed waters have

good characteristics

according to WHO

standards for drinking

water in arid regions.


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APPENDIX 2: Borehole Completion Record


36


37


38


39


40


41


42


43


44


45


46


47


48


49

APPENDIX 3: Solar Water Pumping System

This Instructable will help you to setup a fully functional Solar Water Pumping System. The Solar Water Pump System can be used for residential water requirements and also for commercial uses. This system can also be used for irrigation of Agricultural Land. The Solar Panel Array can also be used without the water pump and can power houses or apartment. The Instructable will act as a guide in helping you understand the principles required to pump water using solar energy.

Solar Power

Photovoltaic (Solar) systems do not use any Fuel. They last for 20+ years. They are cost effective and

are independent from a countries electricity grid. The cost of installation is almost the only cost.

Solar Power is a Green Renewable energy that will produce electricity as long as the Sun rises every

morning. Solar systems require low maintenance.

Why go for a Solar Water Pump System?

Well sunlight is free and abundant. Humans are dependent on water for survival. In order to obtain

their daily water requirements we pump our water from wells, dams, rivers, ponds, etc. Since the

system is OFF-Grid, it can always pump water even in an apocalypse.

Parts & Skill List

Standard System

The specifications of the Metal Stand (Angle), Solar Capacity, Pump output have been optimized to

requirements and location. Depending on the requirement and capacity of the system, the

specifications and quantity of each part could defer. This Instructable will act as a standard guide

which help you in understanding how to build the Solar Panel Stand, Estimating the Number of

Panels & Other Parts required, Electrical Connections, etc. Hence you may have to buy parts

according to your specific requirements. The main factors involved in choosing parts are: Solar

Output, Cable Size, and Pump: Power, voltage, current, speed, flow rate, efficiency and Pipe: Length,

Diameter.

Parts

1. Anti-Corrosion Paint.

2. 4X 11ft I-beams.

3. 2X 7ft I-beams.

4. 3X 24.46ft C-channels.

5. 2X19.63ft C-channels.

6. 5X 20.84ft C-channels.

7. 6X20.18ft C-channels.

8. 21X Solar Panels

• 280W

• 35V

• 1960X990X42 (mm)

9. Solar Pump System Controller

• Max Input Voltage: 238V

• Output: 3-phase(60-240V0, 3kW)


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10. Solar Pump

• Submersible

• 3-phase

• Output:22m^3/hr

11. Cable (Depending on depth of well,etc)

12. 6X Circuit Breakers.

13. Concrete/Cement Mixture.

Tools

1. Welding machine and welding rods.

2. Screwdrivers.

3. Drills.

4. Wire Cutters.

5. Digital Multimeter.

6. Spirit Level Bottle.

Skills

1. Basic Understanding of Electrical Wiring and Electronics.

2. Basic Understanding of Structural Design.

3. Basic Welding.

Solar Panel Stand

The Solar Panel is a Metal framework consisting of I-beams and C-channel that help support the

solar panel and keep them inclined at the required angle. In the next couple of steps, the

Instructable will teach you how too setup the metal framework. But before you start building the

metal stand or framework you must determine the optimum angle at which you must place you

solar panels in order to get the maximum efficiency from the solar system.

Once you have determined the optimum angle at which the solar panels must be placed at, you can

start building the metal stand. In this step you will need to mix concrete for the foundation.

1. Start by digging a hole into the ground of the dimensions: 2ft X 2ft X 2ft.

2. Add some concrete into the hole and spread it evenly.

3. Place the I-beam into the hole such that it is perpendicular to the surface. Ensure

that the I-beam is vertical by using a Level Bottle.

4. Once 2ft of the I-beam is placed inside the hole vertically, fill the hole completely

with cement.

5. Do the same for another I-beam separated from the first I-beam at a distance

of 24.46ft

6. The total height of each I-beam from the ground surface is 11ft.

Next step, you will attach a 24.46ft C-channel to the two I-beams.

1. Ensure the C-channel is parallel to the ground surface with the help of a Level Bottle.

2. Bolt each end of the C-channel to the I-beams.

3. Make sure you use Stainless Steel nuts and bolts.


51

Next step you will add 2 X 7ft I-beams on top of the two 11ft I-beams. You will also attach a 24.46ft

C-channel to the I-beams. The procedure is specified in the layout diagram. If you do not wish to add

an '11ft+7ft' I-beam design you can instead add an 18ft I-beam.

1. Place the lower Base-plate of the 7ft I-beam on top of the higher Base-plate of the

11ft I-beam.

2. Make sure that the 7ft I-beam is perpendicular to the ground surface with the help

of a Level Bottle.

3. Follow the same steps for the placement of the Second 7ft I-beam.

4. Bolt the Base-plates of the I-beams with Stainless Steel nuts and bolts or weld them

together.

5. Attach both sides of the 24.46ft C-channel to the top of the two 7ft I-beams

respectively with the help of Stainless Steel nuts and bolts.

Next step you will place 2 X 11ft I-beams at the remaining two corners.

1. The procedure for the placement and foundation is same as that of the first two I-

beams.

2. Ensure that the I-beams are perpendicular to the ground surface using a Level

Bottle.

Next step you will be using 2X 19.63ft C-channels and also 1X 24.46ft C-channel.

1. Start by attaching either side of one 19.63ft C-channel to the top of the Lower I-

beams by bolting them together. Refer to the Layout diagram.

2. Do this for the other 19.63ft C-channel.

3. Next attach either side of the 24.46ft C-channel to the the top of the Lower I-beams

by bolting them together. Refer to the Layout Diagram.

4. Ensure that the C-channel are parallel to the ground surface with the help of a Level

Bottle.

Next step you will be using 5X 20.84ft C-channel. This step also involves welding.

1. Start by placing one of the C-channel at each end as shown in the layout diagram.

2. Next place one of the C-channel at the centre as shown in the layout diagram.

3. Place one C-channel between the Centre and outermost C-channel on either side.


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Weld all the joints using a Welding Machine. Use all necessary welding and safety equipment. Keep a

fire extinguisher around in case of a fire.

Note: If you do not wish to weld, you can attach the inclined C-channel by bolting it to the entire

structure.

Next step you can either use C-channel or Aluminium Box Channel. In this step you will be using 6x

20.18ft C-channel.

1. Start by placing the C-channel from one side of the structure horizontally such that

they are parallel to each other as shown in the layout diagram.

2. The spacing between two C-channel should be 3ft.

3. One placed and aligned properly as shown in the layout diagram, weld or bolt them

to the structure.

In this step you will be using 21 solar panels.

Solar Panel Specifications: 1. Power: 280W. 2. Voltage at Pmax: 35V. 3. Length X Breadth X Height (mm): 1960 X 990 X 42.

4. Detailed specifications of the solar panels are given in the solar panel datasheet.

5. 1. Start by bolting the solar panels to the C-channel.

6. 2. The distance between two panels on each side will be 0.25ft.

7. 3. Refer to the Layout Diagram for more details.

Connecting the Solar Panels

1. Start by opening the Solar Panel connector Box. 2. Use a multimeter to determine the polarity of the solar panel. 3. Form one string of solar panels by connecting 7 solar panels in series. Form 3 such

strings.

Electrical Connections

Before connecting the Solar array to the Solar Pump System Controller we must connect a Circuit Breaker (CB) between them.

1. Place 6 Circuit Breakers (CB) in a PVC Box.


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2. Connect the Positive wire from each string to one end of a separate CB.(Input of CB)

3. Connect the Negative wire from each string to one end of a separate CB.(Input of CB)

4. Connect the output of the 3 Positive CB's together.

5. Connect the output of the 3 Negative CB's together.

6. Now connect these to the inputs of a screw terminal.

7. Connect additional wires from the output of the screw terminals to the input 'Power IN' of

the Solar Pump System Controller.

8. Connect wires from the 'L1, L2, L3' & 'Ground' terminals of the solar pump system controller

to the matching numbers on the pump leads. Note: Other combinations may cause reverse

rotation!

9. Some pumps come along with additional connections such as Low Water Probe, Float

Switch, Battery System, etc. Follow the manual instructions for more details.

10. Connect the Water output of the pump to a long pipe and ensure that it is secured properly.

Lower the pump into the water source and switch it on.3

Solar Pump System Controller

The Solar Pump System controller is the brain of the entire project. It basically regulates the current supplied to the pump from the solar panels. The Power IN, L1, L2, L3 and Ground connector terminals are in the controller.

Most Solar Pump System Controllers come along with LED indicators. Given below are the descriptions of the LED indicator functions of the controller that I have used.

System (green)

When the LED is Green, the controller is switched on and the power source is present. In low-power conitions, the light may show even if there is not enough power to run the pump.

Pump ON (green)

Motor is turning. Sequence of flashing indicates pump speed. Pump speed (RPM) can be read of the flashing sequence of the Pump ON LED as follows:

LED ON > 900

1 flash > 1,200

2 flashes > 1,600

3 flashes > 2,000

4 flashes > 2,400

5 flashes > 2,800

If the Pump Overloads, the LED will change to red.

Source Low (red)

If the water source has dropped below the level of the low water probe. After the water level recovers, the pump will restart, but this light will slowly flash until the sun goes down, power is interrupted, or the power switch is reset. This indicates that the water source ran low at least once since the previous off/on cycle.

Tank Full (red)


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Pump is turned off by action of the remote float switch.

Solar Water Pump specification

1. Submersible Pump.

2. 3-Phase.

3. Flow Rate: 22m^3/hr

The pump basically uses the power supplied from the solar panel array inorder to pump water from the source. Mostly the pumps come with four wires: 3 wires for each phase and one wire for Ground.

The Motor Power, Motor Voltage, Motor current, Motor Speed, Flow Rate, Efficiency, etc are vary from different pumps and manufacturers. Choose a suitable pump depending on your requirement.

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