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SOLAR OPERATED RAILWAY TRACK
CRACK DETECTOR
PROJECT REPORT 2008-2009
Submitted by:
(team name)
Guided by:
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the
Award of Diploma in
-----------------------------------------
By the State Board of Technical Education
Government of
Tamilnadu, Chennai.
COLLEGE LOGO
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Department :College name:Place:
COLLEGE NAME
COIMBATORE
DEPARTMENT
PROJECT REPORT-2008-2009
This Report is certified to be the Bonafide work done by
Selvan/Selvi ---------------- Reg.No.------------ of VI
Semester class of this college.
Guide Head of the Department
Submitter for the Practical Examinations of the board of
Examinations,State Board of Technical Education,Chennai,
TamilNadu.On --------------(date) held at the ------------
(college name),Coimbatore
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Internal Examiner External Examiner
DEDICATED TO OUR BELOVED
PARENTS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At this pleasing movement of having successfully
completed our project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks
and gratitude to the management of our college and our
beloved chairman------------------------.who provided all the
facilities to us.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to our
principal ------------------for forwarding us to do our project and
offering adequate duration in completing our project.
We are also grateful to the Head of Department
prof., for her/him constructive suggestions
&encouragement during our project.
With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest
&sincere thanks to our guide --------------------, Department of
Mechanical for her/him kind guidance and encouragement
during this project we also express our indebt thanks to our
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TEACHING staff of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,
---------- (college Name).
SOLAR OPERATED RAILWAY
TRACK CRACK DETECTOR
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CONTENTS
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO TITLE
SYNOPSIS
LIST OF FIGURES
NOMENCLATURE
1 Introduction2 Literature review
3 Description of equipments
3.1 Battery
3.2 IR sensor
3.3 DC Motor
3.4 Gears3.5 Railway track
3.6 Control unit
4 Design and drawing
4.1 General machine Specifications
5 fabrication
6 Working principle
7 Merits
8 applications
9 List of materials10 Cost Estimation
11 Conclusion
Bibliography
photography
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LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Number Title
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1 Stand
2 Track
3 Motor
5 Gear 6 Wheel
7 Wheel rod
8 Battery
9 I. r. sensor
10 Overall Diagram
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NOMENCLATURE
NOMENCLATURE
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D=Diameter of shaft(mm)
w=width of the track (mm)
L=Length of the track(mm)
N=speed of the motor (rpm)
P=power of the motor(w)
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SYNOPSIS
SYNOPSIS:
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The project relates to the detection of cracks in the railway
tracks using IR sensor and solar panel. According to a possible
embodiment, the railway carriage carrying the control equipments is
provided with sensor orientated to detect the crack.
This project pertains to a process for monitoring the condition of
rail on train tracks and more specifically has the object of the
identification of defects detected by monitoring equipment on the
tracks to be checked to allow maintenance crews to subsequently
find these defects.
Two medal sensors are fixed in the wheels of the train is used
to find out the crack on the rail. Each sensor will produce the signal
related position with the rail. If the track is said to be normal on its
position when both the sensor gives the constant sensed output. If
any one misses their output condition to fail then there is defect on
that side. It will inform this by giving alarm. Where sensors and alarm
should connected to the microcontroller I/O lines and microcontroller
is programmed to our needs.
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CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
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INTRODUCTION
There are many reasons why rail tracks crack. In bygone days,
it was common for a rail crack to start near the joint between discreterail segments. Manufacturing defects in rail can cause fissures.
Wheel burns can also contribute to rail cracks by changing the
metallurgy of a rail. Rails are also more likely to crack when the
weather is cold, when the ballast and ties/sleepers aren't providing as
much support as they should, and when ground or drainage condition
is such that 'pumping' occurs under heavy load. All of these
conditions can contribute to a broken rail, and in turn a possible
derailment.
MANUFACTURING DEFECTS IN RAIL:
The quality of rail steel has improved dramatically since the
early days of railroading. The trend toward using continuously welded
rail (CWR) requires a higher quality rail, due to the cyclic thermal
expansion and contraction stresses that a CWR would be required to
endure. In addition, rail operations in general have been trending
toward higher speed and higher axle-load operation. Under these
operating conditions, rail pieces rolled in the 19th century would likely
break at an unacceptable rate. Despite the improved rail quality and
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rail metallurgy, if impurities find their way into rail steel and are not
detected by the quality assurance process, they can cause rail breaks
under certain conditions.
Recent rail-making processes have also been trending toward a
harder rail, requiring less frequent replacements under heavy loads.
This has the side-effect of making the rail more brittle, and thus more
susceptible to brittle fracture rather than plastic deformation. It is
therefore imperative that unintentional impurities in rail be minimized.
WHEEL BURN-RELATED RAIL CRACKS:
When a locomotive wheel spins without moving the train
forward (also known as slipping), the small section of rail directly
under the wheel is heated by the forces of friction between the wheel
and itself. The wheel rests on an area of rail no larger than a dime in
size, so the heating effect is very localized and occurs very quickly.
While wheel burn typically does not cause the entire rail section to
melt, it does heat the steel to red-hot temperatures. As the locomotive
stops slipping and starts moving--or worse still, slips forward by a
matter of inches and heats a different piece of rail--the heated spot
cools down very quickly to normal temperature, especially when the
weather is cold.
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This heat-quench process results in annealing of the rail steel
and causes substantial changes to its physical property. It can also
cause internal stresses to form within the steel structure. As the rail
surface cools, it may also become oxidized, or undergo other
chemical changes by reacting with impurities that are on the surface
of the rail. The net result of this process is that an area of the rail that
is more susceptible to crackage is created.
WHEEL FLAT-RELATED RAIL CRACKS:
If the brakes are dragging or the axle ceases to move on a rail
vehicle while the train is in motion, the wheel will be dragged along
the head of the rail, causing a 'flat spot' to develop on the wheel
surface where it contacts the rail. When the brakes are subsequently
released, the wheel will continue to roll around with the flat spot,
causing a banging noise with each rotation. This condition is known
as wheel out of round.
The banging of flat wheels on the rail causes a hammering
action that produces higher dynamic forces than a simple passage of
a round wheel. These dynamic forces can exacerbate a weak rail
condition and cause a rail crack.
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CHAPTER-2
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LITERATURE REVIEW
LITERATURE SURVEY
Railway track:
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Track-caused derailments are often caused by wide gauge. Proper
gauge, the distance between rails, is 56.5 inches (four feet, eight-
and-a-half inches) on standard gauge track. As tracks wear from train
traffic, the rails can develop a wear pattern that is somewhat uneven.
Uneven wear in the tracks can result in periodic oscillations in the
truck, called 'truck hunting.' Truck hunting can be a contributing
cause of derailments.
A rail breaks cleanly, it is relatively easy to detect. A track
occupancy light will light up in the signal tower indicating that a track
circuit has been interrupted. If there is no train in the section, the
signaler must investigate. One possible reason is a clean rail break.
For detecting the rail break this way, one has to use signal bonds that
are welded or pin brazed on the head of the rail. If one uses signal
bonds that are on the web of the rail, one will have a continued track
circuit.
If a rail is merely cracked or has an internal fissure, the track
circuit will not detect it, because a partially-broken rail will continue to
conduct electricity. Partial breaks are particularly dangerous because
they create the worst kind of weak point in the rail. The rail may then
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easily break under load--while a train is passing over it--at the point of
prior fissure.
RENEWABLE ENERGY:
Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources
such as sunlight wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat which are
renewable (naturally replenished). In 2006, about 18% of global final
energy consumption came from renewable, with 13% coming from
traditional biomass, such as wood-burning. Hydroelectricity was the
next largest renewable source, providing 3%, followed by solar hot
water/heating, which contributed 1.3%. Modern technologies, such as
geothermal energy, wind power, solar power, and ocean energy
together provided some 0.8% of final energy consumption.
Climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices, peak oil and
increasing government support are driving increasing renewable
energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. European Union
leaders reached an agreement in principle in March 2007 that 20
percent of their nations' energy should be produced from renewable
fuels by 2020, as part of its drive to cut emissions of carbon dioxide,
blamed in part for global warming. Investment capital flowing into
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renewable energy climbed from $80 billion in 2005 to a record $100
billion in 2006.
BENEFITS OF NATURAL ENERGY
It is cheap
Readily available in abundance
Pollution free
Less maintenance
Doesnt cause global warming
SOLAR ENERGY:
Solar electricity is generated directly from sunlight using solar or
photo-voltaic cells.the word photo voltaic refers to an electric voltage
caused by light. The solar cell is made up of semiconductor, in that
most solar cells are made of form of silicon semiconductor materials,
in that most solar cells are made of a form of silicon semiconductor.
This is a hard material that is either dark blue or red in
appearance .the blue cells are made as thin discs or squares, which
are quite fragile. the red type of silicon is coated on a glass as a thin
film, as sunlight shines on the surface of the silicon, electricity is
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generated by a process known as the photo voltaic effect, as in
physics.
Each silicon solar cell produces about 0.5V,so just several
batteries are needed to built the voltage up, solar cells are connected
together to produce a higher voltage that is more useful. Connected
in this way, they are often called solar panels but the name used by
the suppliers is solar cell modules. Photo-voltaic modules or just PV
modules.
SOLAR CELL:
A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a wide area electronic device that
converts solar energy into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic is the field of technology and research related to the
application of solar cells as solar energy. Sometimes the term solar
cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy
from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the
source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar
modules, or photovoltaic arrays.
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APPLICATION OF SOLAR CELL:
Cells are used for powering small devices such as electronic
calculators.
Photovoltaic arrays generate a form of renewable electricity,
particularly useful in situations where electrical power from the
grid is unavailable such as in remote area power systems,
Earth-orbiting satellites and space probes, remote
radiotelephones and water pumping applications.
Photovoltaic electricity is also increasingly deployed in grid-tied
electrical systems. Similar devices intended to capture energy
from other sources include thermo photovoltaic cells,
betavoltaics cells, and optoelectric nuclear batteries.
ULTIMATE AIM
The aim of this project is to find out the cracks developed on
the railway tracks, due to continuous use or while manufacturing. This
is achieved by installing IR (Infra red) sensor and solar power to the
maintenance crews wagon.
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CHAPTER-3
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
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CHAPTER-3
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS
3.1 BATTERY:
Battery is use for storing the energy produced from the solar
power. The battery used is a lead-acid type and has a capacity of
12v; 2.5A.the most inexpensive secondary cell is the lead acid cell
and is widely used for commercial purposes. A lead acid cell when
ready for use contains two plates immersed in a dilute sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) of specific gravity about 1.28.the positive plate (anode) is of
Lead peroxide (PbO2) which has chocolate brown colour and the
negative plate (cathode) is lead (Pb) which is of grey colour.
When the cell supplies current to a load (discharging), the chemical
action that takes place forms lead sulphate (PbSO4) on both the
plates with water being formed in the electrolyte. After a certain
amount of energy has been withdrawn from the cell, both plates are
transformed into the same material and the specific gravity of the
electrolyte (H2so4) is lowerd.the cell is then said to be discharged.
There are several methods to ascertain whether the cell is discharged
or not.
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To charge the cell, direct current is passed through the cell in
the reverse direction to that in which the cell provided current. This
reverses the chemical process and again forms a lead peroxide
(PbO2) positive plate and a pure lead (Pb) negative plate. At the
same time, (H2so4) is formed at the expense of water,restoring the
electrolyte (H2so4) to its original condition. The chemical changes that
Occur during discharging and recharging of a lead-acid cell
BATTERY CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM DETAILS:
In our project we are using secondary type battery. It is
rechargeable Type. A battery is one or more electrochemical cells,
which store chemical energy and make it available as electric current.
There are two types of batteries, primary (disposable) and secondary
(rechargeable), both of which convert chemical energy to electrical
energy. Primary batteries can only be used once because they use
up their chemicals in an irreversible reaction. Secondary batteries can
be recharged because the chemical reactions they use are reversible;
they are recharged by running a charging current through the battery,
but in the opposite direction of the discharge current. Secondary, also
called rechargeable batteries can be charged and discharged many
times before wearing out. After wearing out some batteries can be
recycled.
Batteries have gained popularity as they became portable and
useful for many purposes. The use of batteries has created many
environmental concerns, such as toxic metal pollution. A battery is a
device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy it
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consists of one or more voltaic cells. Each voltaic cell consists of two
half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte.
One half-cell is the positive electrode, and the other is the
negative electrode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are
electrically connected by the electrolyte, which can be either solid or
liquid. A battery can be simply modeled as a perfect voltage source
which has its own resistance, the resulting voltage across the load
depends on the ratio of the battery's internal resistance to the
resistance of the load.
When the battery is fresh, its internal resistance is low, so the
voltage across the load is almost equal to that of the battery's internal
voltage source. As the battery runs down and its internal resistance
increases, the voltage drop across its internal resistance increases,
so the voltage at its terminals decreases, and the battery's ability to
deliver power to the load decreases.
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3.2 ir sensor:
Ir transmitter:
PLASTIC INFRARED LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:
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SCHEMATIC:
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DESCRIPTION:
The QED22X is an 880nm AIGAAS LED encapsulated in clear,
purple tinted, plastic T-1 package.
FEATURES:
=880nm
Chip material :AIGAAS
Package type:T-1 (5mm lens diameter)
Matched photo sensor: QSD 122/123/124
Medium wide emission angle: 40
High output power
Package material and colour: clear, purple tinted plastic.
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PLASTIC INFRARED LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:
Q221 Q222 Q223
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS: (TA=250c unless otherwise
specified)
PARAMETER SYMBOL RATING UNITOperating
temperature
TOPR -40 to100 0C
Storage
temperature
TSTG -40 to100 0C
Solderingtemperature(iron)
TSOL-I 240 for 5 sec 0C
Soldering
temperature
(flow)
TSOL-F 260 for 10sec 0C
Continuous
forward current
IF 100 mA
Reverse voltage VR 5 VPower
dissipation
PD 200 mW
Peak forward
current
IF peak 1.5 A
Electrical /optical characteristics (TA =250C)
PARAMETERS TEST SYMBOL MIN TYP MAX UNITS
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CONDITIONSPeak emission
wavelength
IF=100mA PE - 880 - nm
Emission angle IF=100mA - +20 - deg
Forwardvoltage
IF=100mA,tp=20ms VF - - 1.7 V
Reverse
current
VR=5V IR - - 10 A
Radient
Intensity
QED221
IF=100mA,tp=20ms IE 10 - 20 mW/sr
RadientIntensity
QED222
IF=100mA,tp=20ms IE 16 - 32 mW/sr
Radient
Intensity
QED223
IF=100mA,tp=20ms IE 25 - - mW/sr
Rise time IF=100mA tr - 800 - nsFall time IF=100mA tf - 800 - ns
1. Derate power dissipation linearly 2.67 mW/C above 25C.
2. RMA flux is recommended.
3. Methanol or isopropyl alcohols are recommended as cleaning
agents.
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4. Soldering iron 1/16 (1.6mm) minimum from housing.
5. Pulse conditions; tp = 100 S, T = 10 ms.
IR RECEIVER:
PHOTO DIODE:
SPECTRALRANGE
TYPE TECHNOLOGY CASE
VISIBLE-RED EPD-660-5 AIGAAS/AIGAAS/GAAS
5mmPLASTICLENS
DESCRIPTION:
Narrow response range (660nm peak)
Single hetrostruture on the substrate
APPLICATIONS:
Optical communications
Safety equipment
DRAWING FOR IR RECEVER:
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MAXIMUM RATING:
PARAMETERS VALUE UNITStorage temperature -40 +90 0COperating
temperature
-40 +85 0C
Soldering
temperature
240 0C
OPTICAL AND ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
Temperature =25oC unless otherwise specified
PARAMETERS TEST
CONDITIONS
SYMBOLS MIN TYP MAX UNIT
Active area A 0.13 Mm2
Peak sensitivity smax 620 660 700 nmSpectral
bandwidth at
A 0.5 25 nm
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50%Acceptance
angle at 50% S
40 deg
Responsivity at
660 nm
Vr=0 V Se 0.42 A/W
Short-circuit
current
VR = 0,Ee=1mW/cm
ISC 0.85 A
Dark current VR = 5 V,
Ee=0
ID 40 200 pA
Reverse voltage IR = 10 A VR 10 VJunction
capacitance
VR = 0,
Ee=0
40 pF
Rise time
Fall time
RL = 50 ,
VR = 5 V
Tr
Tf
15
30
ns
Light source is an AIGaAs LED with a peak emission wavelength of
660 nm.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF IR TRANSIMITTER AND RECEIVER
CIRCUIT:
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Infrared transmitter is one type of LED which emits infrared rays
generally called as IR Transmitter. Similarly IR Receiver is used to
receive the IR rays transmitted by the IR transmitter. One important
point is both IR transmitter and receiver should be placed straight line
to each other.
The transmitted signal is given to IR transmitter whenever the
signal is high, the IR transmitter LED is conducting it passes the IR
rays to the receiver. The IR receiver is connected with comparator.
The comparator is constructed with LM 741 operational amplifier. In
the comparator circuit the reference voltage is given to inverting input
terminal. The non inverting input terminal is connected IR receiver.
When interrupt the IR rays between the IR transmitter and receiver,
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the IR receiver is not conducting. So the comparator non inverting
input terminal voltage is higher then inverting input. Now the
comparator output is in the range of +12V. This voltage is given to
base of the transistor Q1. Hence the transistor is conducting. Here
the transistor is act as switch so the collector and emitter will be
closed. The output is taken from collector terminal. Now the output is
zero.
When IR transmitter passes the rays to receiver, the IR receiver
is conducting due to that non inverting input voltage is lower than
inverting input. Now the comparator output is -12V so the transistor is
cutoff region. The 5v is given to 40106 IC which is the inverter with
buffer. The inverter output is given to microcontroller or PC. This
circuit is mainly used to for counting application, intruder detector etc.
3.3. MOTOR:
D.C.MOTOR PRINCIPLE:
A machine that converts direct current power into mechanical
power is known as D.C Motor. Its generation is based on the principle
that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
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the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The direction if this
force is given by Flemings left hand rule.
WORKING OF A DC MOTOR:
Consider a part of a multipolar dc motor as shown in fig. when the
terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of dc
supply;
(i) The field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S
poles.
(ii) The armature conductors carry currents. All conductors
under N-pole carry currents in one direction while all the
conductors under S-pole carry currents in the opposite
direction.
Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane
of paper and those under S-pole carry current out of the plane of
paper as shown in fig. Since each armature conductor is carrying
current and is placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on
it. Applying Flemings left hand rule, it is clear that force on each
conductor is tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction.
All these forces add together to produce a driving torque which sets
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the armature rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of
the brush to the other, current in the conductor is received and at the
same time it comes under the influence of next pole which is of
opposite polarity. Consequently the direction of force on the
conductor remains same.
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PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION:
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism.
A current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is
then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force
proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the
external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with
magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while
like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal
configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic
interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external
magnetic field to generate rotational motion.
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Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red
represents a magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while
green represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).
Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (armature), stator,
commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC
motors, the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength
permanent magnets. The stator is the stationary part of the motor --
this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent
magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached
commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of
windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically
connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common
motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.
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The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor
windings are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the
energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the
rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field
magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the
next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our
example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current
through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic
field, driving it to continue rotating.
In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles
(three is a very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead
spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with our example
two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation
(perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there.
Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the
commutator shorts out the power supply. This would be bad for the
power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well.
Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would
exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could
produce is cyclic with the position of the rotor).
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So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker
with the workings of one via an interactive animation (JavaScript
required):
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A few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time
(but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions
from one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly
collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs
within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this
later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the
coil windings' series wiring:
There's probably no better way to see how an average DC motor is
put together, than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is
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tedious work, as well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly good
motor.
The guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-PN motor (the same
model that Solarbotics sells) are available for (on 10 lines / cm graph
paper). This is a basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2 brushes and three
commutator contacts.
The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite
common, and has a number of advantages. First off, the iron core
provides a strong, rigid support for the windings -- a particularly
important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also
conducts heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be
driven harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core
construction is also relatively inexpensive compared with other
construction types.
But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron
armature has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration.
This construction also results in high winding inductances which limit
brush and commutator life.
In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a
'coreless' armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire
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itself for structural integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and
the permanent magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil.
Coreless DC motors have much lower armature inductance than iron-
core motors of comparable size, extending brush and commutator
life.
The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller
motors; meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless
motors are somewhat prone to overheating. As a result, this design is
generally used just in small, low-power motors. Beamers will most
often see coreless DC motors in the form of pager motors.
Again, disassembling a coreless motor can be instructive -- in this
case, my hapless victim was a cheap pager vibrator motor. The guts
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of this disassembled motor are available (on 10 lines / cm graph
paper). This is (or more accurately, was) a 3-pole coreless DC motor.
3.4. GEAR:
The gear is made out of nylon. The gears used in this project are spur
gears. Spur gears are the simplest and most common type of gear.
Their general form is a cylinder or disk. The teeth project radially, and
with these "straight-cut gears", the leading edges of the teeth are
aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can only mesh
correctly if they are fitted to parallel axles
WHEEL AND PINION:
Whenever two toothed wheels are in mesh. The large wheel is
called as the gear and the smaller one as the pinion, regardless of
which one is the driver.
GEAR MATERIAL:
Numerous nonferrous alloys, cast irons, powder-metallurgy and
even plastics are used in the manufacture of gears. However steels
are most commonly used because of their high strength to weight
ratio and low cost. Plastic is commonly used where cost or weight is a
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concern. A properly designed plastic gear can replace steel in many
cases; It often has desirable properties. They can tolerate dirt, low
speed meshing, and "skipping" quite well. Manufacturers have
employed plastic to make consumer items affordable. This includes
copy machines, optical storage devices, VCRs, cheap dynamos,
consumer audio equipment, servo motors, and printers.
3.5 RAILWAY TRACK:
Rail tracks are used on railways (or railroads), which, together
with railroad switches (or points), guide trains without the need for
steering. Tracks consist of two parallel steel rails, which are laid upon
sleepers (or cross ties) that are embedded in ballast to form the
railroad track. The rail is fastened to the ties with rail spikes, lag
screws or clips such as Pandrol clips.
The type of fastener depends partly on the type of sleeper, with
spikes being used on wooden sleepers, and clips being used more on
concrete sleepers.
Usually, a base plate tie plate is used between the rail andwooden sleepers, to spread the load of the rail over a larger area of
the sleeper. Sometimes spikes are driven through a hole in the base
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plate to hold the rail, while at other times the base plates are spiked
or screwed to the sleeper and the rails clipped to the base plate.
Steel rails can carry heavier loads than any other material.
Railroad ties spread the load from the rails over the ground and also
serve to hold the rails a fixed distance apart (called the gauge.)
Rail tracks are normally laid on a bed of coarse stone chippings
known as ballast, which combines resilience, some amount of
flexibility, and good drainage. Steel rails can also be laid onto a
concrete slab (a slab track). Across bridges, track is often laid on ties
across longitudinal timbers
3.6CONTROL UNIT:
In our project the main device is micro controller. It is help to
control the whole unit of this project. In this we are using the motor to
run the rear wheel to move on the track. In the front of the front wheel
they are placed the sensor, which is connected through the control
unit. The unit is connected with the battery.
Microcontrollers are destined to play an increasingly important
role in revolutionizing various industries and influencing our day to
day life more strongly than one can imagine. Since its emergence in
the early 1980's the microcontroller has been recognized as a
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general purpose building block for intelligent digital systems. It is
finding using diverse area, starting from simple children's toys to
highly complex spacecraft. Because of its versatility and many
advantages, the application domain has spread in all conceivable
directions, making it ubiquitous. As a consequence, it has generate a
great deal of interest and enthusiasm among students, teachers and
practicing engineers, creating an acute education need for imparting
the knowledge of microcontroller based system design and
development. It identifies the vital features responsible for their
tremendous impact; the acute educational need created by them and
provides a glimpse of the major application area.
A microcontroller is a complete microprocessor system built on
a single IC. Microcontrollers were developed to meet a need for
microprocessors to be put into low cost products. Building a complete
microprocessor system on a single chip substantially reduces the
cost of building simple products, which use the microprocessor's
power to implement their function, because the microprocessor is a
natural way to implement many products. This means the idea of
using a microprocessor for low cost products comes up often. But the
typical 8-bit microprocessor based system, such as one using a Z80
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and 8085 is expensive. Both 8085 and Z80 system need some
additional circuits to make a microprocessor system. Each part
carries costs of money. Even though a product design may require
only very simple system, the parts needed to make this system as a
low cost product.
To solve this problem microprocessor system is implemented
with a single chip microcontroller. This could be called
microcomputer, as all the major parts are in the IC. Most frequently
they are called microcontroller because they are used they are used
to perform control functions.
The microcontroller contains full implementation of a standard
MICROPROCESSOR, ROM, RAM, I/0, CLOCK, TIMERS, and also
SERIAL PORTS. Microcontroller also called "system on a chip" or
"single chip microprocessor system" or "computer on a chip".
A microcontroller is a Computer-On-A-Chip, or, if you prefer, a
single-chip computer. Micro suggests that the device is small, and
controller tells you that the device' might be used to control objects,
processes, or events. Another term to describe a microcontroller is
embedded controller, because the microcontroller and its support
circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control.
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Today microcontrollers are very commonly used in wide variety
of intelligent products. For example most personal computers
keyboards and implemented with a microcontroller. It replaces
Scanning, Debounce, Matrix Decoding, and Serial transmission
circuits. Many low cost products, such as Toys, Electric Drills,
Microwave Ovens, VCR and a host of other consumer and industrial
products are based on microcontrollers.
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CHAPTER-4
DESIGN AND DRAWING
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CHAPTER-IV
DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT AND DRAWING
4.1 COMPONENTS AND ITS SPECIFICATION
The railway track crack detector consists of the following
components to full fill the requirements of complete operation of the
machine.
1. Track2. Battery
3. Control unit
4. Motor
5. Gears
4.1 GENERAL MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS:
TRACK:
Length of the track = 1770mm
Height of the track = 45mm
Width of the track = 230mm
Material of the track: mild steel
STAND:
Height of the stand = 280mm
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Width of the stand: 230mm
Length of the stand = 325mm
Material of the stand: mild steel
Quantity =1
WHEEL:
Inner diameter of the wheel = 60mm
Outer diameter of the wheel = 70mm
Inner thickness of the wheel = 5mm
Outer thickness of the wheel = 2mm
Material of the wheel: mild steel
Quantity =4
WHEEL ROD:
Length of the rod = 225mm
Diameter of the rod =8mm
Material of the rod = mild steel
Quantity = 2
DRIVE GEAR:
Diameter of the gear =30mm
Thickness of the gear =10mm
No of teeth = 24
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Material of the gear: nylon
Quantity = 1
SPUR GEAR:
Diameter of the gear = 55mm
Thickness of the gear = 10mm
No of teeth =50
Material of the gear: nylon
Quantity = 1
MOTOR:
Length of the motor = 170mm
Height of the motor = 60mm
Dia of the motor = 60mm
Quantity =1
General unit
Size of machine (L x H x W) :325mm x280mm x 230mm
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DRAWING
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SOLAR OPERATED RAILWAY TRACK CRACK
DETECTOR
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Chapter-5
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FABRICATION
CHAPTER-V
FABRICATION
METHOD OF FABRICATION:
Here we are finding the cracks in the railway track with the help
of sensors. In our project the sensor is placed in the front of the front
wheel. When the model is moving in the track with the help of motor
with gear arrangement to the rear wheel. The motor is runs with
power supply it gets from the battery. The model is move on the track
the sensor is send the signal where the crack is occur are not ,on the
time of crack is find out it will send the signal to the control unit. The
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control unit is also is controlled by the battery.the lead acid battery
charging by solar power.this solar panel fixed horizontal another
rectangle plate.
Chapter -6
WORKING PRINCIPLE
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CHAPTER-VI
WORKING PRINCIPLE
In this project we are using the sensor to find out the crack in
the track; this will be useful for the production of track and Track
maintenance. Track needs regular maintenance to remain in good
order, especially when high-speed trains are involved. Inadequate
maintenance may lead to a "slow order" being imposed to avoid
accidents Track maintenance was at one time hard manual labour,
requiring teams of labourers who used levers to force rails back into
place on steep turns, correcting the gradual shifting caused by the
centripetal force of passing trains. Currently, maintenance is
facilitated by a variety of specialized machines.
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In our project we are using the machine with the help of sensor
used to find the crack in the track. The sensor is placed in the front of
the front wheel and the controlled by the control unit. When the
moving of the rear wheel with the help of motor with the gear
arrangement the total model is move on that time the sensor send the
signal to the control unit where the crack is in the track are not.
CHAPTER -7
MERITS AND DEMERITS
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CHAPTER-VII
MERITS
Low cost
Reliable
Compact in size
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Chapter-8
APPLICATIONS
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CHAPTER-VIII
APPLICATIONS
It is applicable in the production industries and the
track maintenance
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CHAPTER-9
LIST OF MATERIALS
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CHAPTER-IX
LIST OF MATERIALS
FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS
The various factors which determine the choice of material are
discussed below.
1. Properties:
The material selected must posses the necessary properties for
the proposed application. The various requirements to be satisfied
Can be weight, surface finish, rigidity, ability to withstand
environmental attack from chemicals, service life, reliability etc.
The following four types of principle properties of materials
decisively affect their selection
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a. Physical
b. Mechanical
c. From manufacturing point of view
d. Chemical
The various physical properties concerned are melting point, thermal
Conductivity, specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific
gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic purposes etc.
The various Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile,
Compressive shear, bending, torsional and buckling load, fatigue
resistance, impact resistance, eleastic limit, endurance limit, and
modulus of elasticity, hardness, wear resistance and sliding
properties.
The various properties concerned from the manufacturing point
of view are,
Cast ability
Weld ability
Surface properties
Shrinkage
Deep drawing etc.
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2. Manufacturing case:
Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or
surface qualities obtainable by the application of suitable coating
substances may demand the use of special materials.
3. Quality Required:
This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately
the material. For example, it would never be desirable to go casting of
a less number of components which can be fabricated much more
economically by welding or hand forging the steel.
4. Availability of Material:
Some materials may be scarce or in short supply. It then
becomes obligatory for the designer to use some other material which
though may not be a perfect substitute for the material designed. the
delivery of materials and the delivery date of product should also be
kept in mind.
5. Space consideration:
Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the
forces involved are high and space limitations are there.
6. Cost:
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As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of
material plays an important part and should not be ignored.
Some times factors like scrap utilization, appearance, and non-
maintenance of the designed part are involved in the selection of
proper materials.
S.No DESCIRPTION QTY Material
1 Stand 1 M.S2 Wheels 4 M.S3 Wheel rod 2 M.S4 Motor 1 Cast iron
5 I.R sensor 1 Electronic6 Control unit 1 Electronic7 Spur Gear 1 nylon8 Drive gear 1 nylon
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Chapter-10
COST ESTIMATION
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Chapter-x
COST ESTIMATION
1. MATERIAL COST.
S.No DESCRIPTION QTY MATERIAL AMOUNT
(Rs)
1 Stand 1 M.S2 Wheels 4 M.S3 Wheel rod 2 M.S4 Motor 1 Cast iron5 I.R sensor 1 Electronic
6 Control unit 1 Electronic7 Spur Gear 1 nylon8 Drive gear 1 nylon
2. LABOUR COST:
Lathe, drilling, welding, grinding, power hacksaw, gas cutting cost
3. OVERGHEAD CHARGES:
The overhead charges are arrived by manufacturing cost
Manufacturing Cost =Material Cost +Labour Cost
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=
=
Overhead Charges =20%of the manufacturing cost
=
4.TOTAL COST:
Total cost = Material Cost +Labour Cost +Overhead Charges
=
=
Total cost for this project =
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Chapter-11
CONCLUSION
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CHAPTER-XI
CONCLUSION
The project carried out by us made an impressing task in the
field of railway department. It is very useful for the workers work in
the production of track.
This project will reduce the cost involved in the concern. Project
has been designed to perform the entire requirement task at the
shortest time available.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Design data book -P.S.G.Tech.
2. Machine tool design handbook Central machine tool
Institute, Bangalore.
3. Strength of Materials -R.S.Kurmi
4. Manufaturing Technology -M.Haslehurst.
5. Design of machine elements- R.s.Kurumi
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PHOTOGRAPHY
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