Soil Fertility Management ZEF IPADS Joint Lecture …akokada/soil/files/03...Soil Fertility...

Soil Fertility Management(3) Cropping systems

ZEF and IPADS Joint Lecture (18‐22 Jan. 2016)

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IPADS Soil Fertility Management(3) Cropping systems

Department of Global Agricultural Sciences

IPADS

Kensuke OKADA

([email protected]‐tokyo.ac.jp)

ipads.jp/soil

1(Llanos Orientales in Colombia, photo by KO)

International Program in Agricultural Development Studies (IPADS) 19 January 2015

Contents

1. History of cropping systems

2. Fallow

3. Crop Rotation

4. Crop pasture system

5. Inter/mixed cropping systems

1. HISTORY OF CROPPING SYSTEM

Two‐field system （二圃式農業）

• This system was employed in Europe and middle East in ancient times (until the age of the Roman empire, etc.). It then started to be taken over by the tree‐field system.

• In the fallow, the livestock are allowed to graze on the stubble and enrich the soil with droppings.

Wheat /Barley /Rye

Fallow(休閑）1styear

2ndyear

Wheat /Barley /Rye

Fallow

Three‐field system（三圃式農業）

• Winter crop : wheat, rye(ライ麦)

• Summer crop : barley, oat(エンバク、カラス麦、オーツ麦), faba(ソラマメ), pea(エンドウ)

• The animal was grazed in permanent pasture and kept in the pen(柵) to collect droppings(糞, manure, faces)

• Could not ensure the fodder(飼料) during winter season.

When the Roman empire was expanded to the middle Europe, the two‐field system for winter rain climate was modified to the summer rain climate

WinterCrop

SummerCrop

Fallow

Pasture

Convertible husbandry（穀草式農法

• A part of the common pasture was enclosed and converted to the private forage field

• Higher forage production increased animal production. • It also increased the soil fertility of the crop land

Several years’ crop production followed by several years’ forage production

WinterCrop

SummerCrop

SummerCrop

Forage

Forage

Forage（飼料畑）

Forage



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Norfolk rotation（輪裁式農法、ノーフォーク農法）

• In this system, all the common pasture and fallow was discontinued, and forage turnip and red clover (legume) were introduced.

• This enabled multi group feeding and drylot feeding（舎飼）.

Mid of 18ct, most intensive rotation system was established in Norfolkarea in England.

SummerCrop

(Barley)

Red clover(annual forage)

WinterCrop(Wheat)

Root crop(ForageTurnip)

History of the development of cropping systems

The factors which increased the productivity in the new cropping systems are:

1. Livestock manure droppings in fallow (three‐field)

2. Forage and manure (convertible)

3. Legumes (Norfolk)

4. Root crops (Norfolk)

BourgeoisRevolution

市民革命

AgrarianRevolution

農業革命

(England)

Three‐field systemNorfolk rotation

2. FALLOW

•Fallow as soil fertility recovery measures

•Improved fallow

Field of pearl millet (トウジンビエ）

Fallow land（休閑地）

(Photo by K. Okada)

Rainy season in Niger, West Africa

Crop land and fallow land

Rainy season

Dry season

(Niger)

Effect of fallow on total N in the Sahel region

0

100

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FY

M10

FY

M5 H

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-C

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-S

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(m

g kg

-1)

BZ

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d d

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ccd

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FYM : Transferred manureH : House compoundMC, CC : CorrallingF : FallowRF : Reserved fallowNT : Continuous millet(numbers are the year of continuation)

Farmers’ fields in Banizumbou village in Niger



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Fallow lands in Burkina Faso

40 years’ fallow(Higher standing biomass including tree, but the chemical indices of the soils were low)

Grass fallow in dry season(Standing residue is

considered to function as trap for dust mineral)

Effect of “fallow band system” on soil fertility recover in Sahel

Fallow inprevious year

Cropping inprevious year





(Ikazaki)

Improved fallow

(Kanmegne et al 2003)

Inga edulis Calliandra calothyrsus

3. CROP ROTATION

1. Legume rotation

2. Effect of legume rotation other than N

3. Legume rotation and soil carbon

4. (Effect of mycorrhizae （菌根菌）→ dealt in the following lecture)

Legume mixed cropping in the world

• Maize with Bean (Central and South America)

• Rice with Soybean (Asia)

• Rice with Mungbean (Asia)

• Sorghum with Pigeonpea (India)

• Pearl millet with cowpea (Africa)

Low consumption of legumes compared with cereals

→ Low planting density of legumes compared with cereals

F+M

Effect of crop rotation(1)• Long-term exp at Burkina Faso (2006) 46 days after sowing

• Upper-Continuous sorghum, Lower-Sorghum-Cowpea rotation

Control f(Fertilizer low) f+CR(crop res)

A. Mori



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Effect of crop rotation(cont.)

f

F+M

F(Fertilizer high) f+m(manure low）

A. Mori

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1000

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3000

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5000

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

ソル

ガム

子実

収量

(kg

ha-

1)

Control連作

輪作

5年平均(連作)

5年平均(輪作)

CaO 施用

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1000

2000

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5000

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

ソル

ガム

子実収量

(kg

ha

-1)

f

0

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2000

3000

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5000

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

ソル

ガム

子実

収量

(kg

ha

-1)

年

f + CR

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

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1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

F

0

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1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

f + m

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2000

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1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005年

F + M

Long‐term trend in sorghum yield in continuous cropping and in rotation with cowpea

(1960‐2004年)

(Mori 2010)

Continuous vs. Rotation

N credit

• It was known in corn‐belt in US, that the requirement of N for maize after soybean is less than that after maize.

Decrease in N demand = N credit

Usually N credit has been attributed to the nitrogen fixation by soybean

• “However, the N credit theory has been questioned because estimates of N fixation and subsequent removal with the grain suggest that soybean actually results in a net removal of N from many soils (Heichel and Barnes, 1984)”

Martens et al 2006

• “After grain removal, it was estimated that the growth of cv. Chippewa in this soil led to a net soil depletion of 54 kg N/ha.”

Zapata et al 1987

Then experiments with non‐nodulated soybean was conducted

Effect of previous soybean on maize crop in Illinois, US

Gentry et al 2001)



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Effect of previous soybean on maize crop in Illinois, US

(Bergerou et al 2001)

Effect of previous crop and rate of applied N on grain yield of maize.

Effects of previous soybean on sorghum yield (Nebraska, US)

2003 : (6.7‐5.1)/(6.7‐2.1)=0.35 N2‐fix contribution=35%

2004 : (7.7‐5.9)/(7.7‐3.3)=0.41 N2 fix contribution=41%

Contribution of N2‐fixation is only 35‐41%

• “These data suggest that biological N fixation effects of soybean accounted for approximately 35% of the grain yield enhancement due to rotation in 2003 and 41% in 2004, thus most of the rotation benefit was due to effects other than biologically fixed N by the preceding soybean crop, ‐‐‐‐, this is the similar to the findings of Gentry et al. (2001) and Bergerou et al. (2004) for maize‐soybean rotation.

(Kaye et al. 2007)

Other possible mechanisms

• Immobilization/mineralization of soil Organic N(Smith and Sharpley 1990, Green and Blackmer 1995)

• Decrease in diseases(Bagayoko et al 2000)

• Increase in VA mycorrhizal infection(Bagayoko et al 2000)

• Improvement of soil physical characteristics(Gakale and Clegg 1987)

• Change in soil microbial biomass(Roder et al 1988)

Parasitic nematodes decreased by rotation with legumes (?)

(Bagayoko et al 2000)

VAM infection increased with legume rotation (?)

(Bagayoko et al 2000)



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• “The improved growth of maize following soybean, i.e., the soybean N credit, was largely the result of a decrease in net soil mineralization in continuous maizeproduction. “

• Bergerou et al. 2004

(Drinkwater et al. 1989)

Cropping systems with LEGUMES increase the C3 carbon in the soils

(Drinkwater 1998)

Total soil carsonLeft :1981、Right:1995

NMR : Manure as N sourceLEG : Legumes as N sourceCNV : Conventional

Others：C3 origin

Dark: ：C4 origin

Carbon derived from legume roots increased total soil C in sorghum/cowpea rotation

(Mori 2010)

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

Fal

low

Co

nti

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Control f f+CR F f+m F+M

Dis

trib

utio

n o

f C

(g k

g-1

)

C3-derived C

C4-derived C

Figure - Quantitative distribution of C3- and C4-derivedsoil C. Values are mean of 3 replications and standard errors ofthe mean in parenthesis.

4. CROP‐PASTURE SYSTEM

Example of rice‐pasture system from Llanos Orientales(Eastern Savanna) in Colombia

Native pasture in Llanos Orientales, Colombia



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Combination of rice and pasture species for Rice-Pasture system in Llanos, Colombia

Upland rice was drill‐sown with the 34 cm distance of rows, pasture seeds were broadcasted.

Rice cv. + Grass + Legume

Combination 1 OrizicaSabana 6

Brachiariadictioneura

Centrocemaacutifolium

(Density) (60 kg/ha) (3 kg/ha) (4 kg/ha)

Combination 2 OryzicaSabana 6

Andropogongayanus

Stylosanthescapitata

(Density) (60 kg/ha) (10 kg/ha) (3 kg/ha)

Preparation of field and applying fertilizers Emergence of upland rice seedlings

At maturity(Rice+Centrocema+Brachiaria)

At vegetative stage Rice‐pasture system at maturity of rice(Rice + Brachiaria + Centrosema)



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Harvest of rice by large combine(Rice + Andropogon) Just after the harvest of rice

Rapid growth of pasture after the harvest of riceEstablishing improved pasture at next rainy season

Average size of farmland with rice‐pasture system (2000 ha)



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‘Rice-Pasture System’

Economically feasible technique for:

(1)Introducing improved pasture into nativepasture

ーー→ Economic development

(2) Renovation of degraded pasture

ーー→ Sustainable and Economical development

Requirement

● New Pasture species

● New Rice Variety

● New Agronomy

Effect of crop‐pasture rotation and direct sowing on soil OM content

• wheat/ soybean/ temperate pasture/ maize

• soybean/ rice/ temperate pasture/ soybean/ rice

• rice/ temperate pasture/ tropical pasture/ rice

• soybean/ wheat/ tropical pasture/ soybean

The main crop‐pasture systems are:

(Kerridge 2001)

http://isa.ciat.cgiar.org/catalogo/listado_tools.jsp?tema=forages

Free PDF available

$45

$35$35

$35

http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/catalogue/index.htm



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5. INTERCROPPING, MIXED CROPPING

•Various intercropping

•Yield advantages of intercropping

Intercropping (Sorghum/cowpea)

Intensive sorghum‐cowpea intercropping in northern Nigeria (at the suburb of Kano in Nigeria)

(photo by K Okada)

(photo by K Okada)

Pearl millet / hibiscus mixed croppping

(Niger, photo by K Okada) Hybrid sorghum improved at ICRISAT

Intercropping

Short‐duration pigeonpea

(cv. ICPL 87)Intercropping of sorghum and medium‐duration pigeonpea in semi‐arid tropics



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Intercropping of sorghum and pigeonpea in a farmer’s field

After sorghum harvest (pigeonpea are remaining)

Intercropping of hybrid sorghum and pigeonpea(improved medium‐duration variety).

1ha

1ha

1ha

P

S

P

S

1.6 t/ha

2.5 t/ha

1.8 t/ha

2.8 t/ha

P : 1.6/1.8=0.89 (PLER, P)

S : 2.5/2.8=0.89 (PLER, S)

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐

Intercrop 1.78 (TLER)

Land Equivalent Ratio(LER)

PLER : Partial LERTLER : Total LER

Exercise (Assignmenｔ). Calculate LER for two intercropping (1:1, 3:1).<The data are the grain yield (kg/ha)>1986, ICRISAT Deadline 25 May 2014 (Sun) 20:00 by mail to Okada ([email protected]‐tokyo.ac.jp)

SorghumSole

PigeonpeaSole

IntercroppingS1:P1

IntercroppingS3:P1

Field Sorghum Ppea Sorghum Ppea Sorghum Ppea

Vertisol(BP1)

970 1710 540 1410 780 1050

Alfisol‐1(RP16)

2780 1750 2470 1560 2790 900

Alfisol‐2(RCE14)

2310 1710 1445 1400 1950 863



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Mechanisms of yield advantage of intercropping

•Risk diversification•Complementary resource utilization•Reducing diseases, nematodes, insect pests

Maize‐bean intercrop

Reading : Lv, Y. et al. 2014. Maize‐soybean intercropping interactions above and below ground. Crop Science 54:914‐922.

Maize and Bush beanMaize and climbing bean

Soil Fertility Management ZEF IPADS Joint Lecture …akokada/soil/files/03...Soil Fertility...

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