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    s o ^- / /

    T H I S D O C U M E N T IS THE P R O P E R T Y OF HIS B R I TA N N I C M A J E S T Y ' 8 G O V E R N M E N T 9 2

    Printed for the War Cabinet. October 1944.

    m

    The circulation of this paper h a s been stri ctly l imit ed, i t is issued

    for the personal use of . T ^ r r V ? f ^ f ^ T ^ ^ ,

    TOP SE CR ET Copy No. 31

    W.P. (44 ) 570 .

    13th October, 1944.

    YIAR C A B I N E T .

    S .O .E . A S S I S T A N C E T O " O V E R L O R D . "

    M E M O R A N D U M B Y T H E M I N I S T E R O F E C O N O M I C WA R FA R E .

    I t h ink tha t my co l l eagues wou ld be in t e re s t ed to see the a t t ached accoun t o f

    t he c o n t r i b u t i o n m a d e b y S . O . E . a n d t h e p a t r i o t a r m i e s t o " O v e r l o r d . "

    2 . In p resen t ing i t , I shou ld l i ke to pay a t r ibu te to the zea l and ab i l i t y

    -with wh ic h the officers of my D ep a r tm en t hav e lab ou red th ese fou r ye ar s t o

    ach ieve such r e su l t s , an d a l so to my p redece sso r, Mr . Da l t on , un de r whose aus p ic esthe fou nd a t i on s of t h i s now ve ry l a rg e o r ga n i sa t io n were l a id .

    S .

    Ministry of Economic Warfare, W. 1,13th October, 1944.

    T H E TA S K .

    S.O.E . came in to ex i s t en ce a s the r e s u l t o f a W a r C ab i ne t M em or an du m oft he 1 9 t h J u l y, 1 9 4 0, * w h i c h c o m b i n e d u n d e r t h e M i n i s t e r of E c o n o m i c W a r f a r et he t h r e e s e p a r a t e D e p a r t m e n t s f o r m e r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n S a b o t a g e w o r k , a n d l a i dclown th at t he new or ga ni sa t i on w as " To co-o rd in ate a l l ac t i on, by wa y of subver sion an d sabo t age , ag a i ns t t he enemy ov e r sea s . " I n ca r r y i ng o u t t h i s wo rkS .O.E . wou ld r eceive the co -o pe ra t ion of the Se rv ices In t e l l i gen ce D ep ar tm en t sand of S . I . S . , wou ld be r e spons ib le fo r ob ta in in g the ag ree men t o f t he F or e i gnOffice or o th er Min is t r ie s to op er a t io ns l ikely to affect th ei r in t er es ts , an d by c losel ia ison wi th the Ch ie f s o f S ta ff wou ld ensu re th a t t he p l an n i ng o f i r r e gu la rope ra t ions wa s in s t ep wi th the gen e ra l s t r a t eg ica l con duc t o f t h e wa r.

    2 . So wid e a d i r ec t i ve ha s l ed to the g r ad ua l bu i ld up o f a l a r ge Go ve rn me n tDepa r tmen t wi th ma ny rami f i ca t ion s , i n wh ich offi cer s f rom t he Nav y, A r m y andAi r Force have co l l abo ra t ed wi th d ip l om at i s t s , s c i en t i s t s , eng ine e r s an d c iv i l

    s er v an ts , p e r m a n e n t a s w e ll a s t e m p o r a r y. U n d e rg r o u n d w a r f a r e w a s a n u n k n o w nar t i n En g l an d in 1940 ; the re wer e no t ex t -books fo r newco mers , no o ld ha nd s toini t ia te them into exp er i enc es of the las t w ar . A new te ch ni qu e h a d to be evolvedand l e ssons ha d to be l ea rne d in the h a r d schoo l o f p ra c t i c e . Ne w ins t r um en t s an dweapons ha d to be inve n ted , and fo r t h i s r e s ea r ch s t a t io ns and f ac to r i e s ha d to beprovided. Br i t i s h sub ject ;? w i t h in t i ma te kno wle dg e o f the occup ied t e r r i t o r i e shad to be co l l ec t ed an d t a ug h t th e i r j ob . Abo ve a ll , na t ive s o f t hose cou n t r i e s ha dto be ob ta ine d , t e s t ed a nd t r a in ed .

    I N I T I A L S T E P S .

    3 . I t was ev i den t f ro m the be g i nn in g th a t S .O .E . cou ld no t hop e to fu lf il i t s

    d i rec tive wi th ou t th e sy mp a t hy an d co - ope ra t i on o f the ex i l ed Gov er nm en t s o f* W. P. ( 4 0 ) 2 7 1 .

    [ 2 8 3 6 6 ] B

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    t h e o c c u p i e d c o u n t r i e s , a n d e v e ry e ff or t w a s t h e r e f o r e m a d e t o i m p r e s s u p o n t h emt h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f s u b v e r s i v e w a r f a r e . T h i s w a sn o t a l w a y s a n e a s y t a s k w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h M i n i s t e r s m o r e a c c u s t o m e d t o , a n dm o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n , p o l i t i c a l a n d p r o p a g a n d a w o r k t h a n i n c l a n d e s t i n e s a b o t a g e

    a n d p a r a m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s ; b u t as c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h o c c u p ie d E u r o p e w e rer e - e s t a b l i s h e d , ' t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e f e e l i n g b e c a m e a p p a r e n t , a n d b y 1 94 2S . O . E . c o u l d c o u n t o n t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n o f a l l t h e a u t h o r i t i e s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h eo p p r e s s e d p e o p l e s .

    4. T h e f o u n d a t i o n s of a n y p l a n f o r b u i l d i n g u p r e s i s t a n c e a c t i v i t y w e rec o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d s u p p l i e s . W / T o p e r a t o r s w e r e a m o n g t h e first A g e n t s t o bed e s p a t c h e d t o o c c u p i e d c o u n t r i e s , t h e i r m e s s a g e s a t first b e i n g h a n d l e d b y S . I . S .T h i s t ra ff ic , h o w e v e r, i n c r e a s e d s o m u c h t h a t i n 1 9 4 2 S . O . E . e s t a b l i s h e d i t s o w ns i g n a l s s t a t i o n s t o h a n d l e i t . A t t h e t i m e o f O v e r l o r d " w e h a d a v e r y l a r g en u m b e r o f W / T s e ts i n o p e r a t i o n i n N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n d a s m a n y a s 26 0m e s s a g e s w e r e b e i n g r e c e i v e d i n a d a y , i n c r e a s i n g b y D + 8 0 t o 7 2 0 p e r d a y. As ta ff o f 3 5 0 o p e r a t o r s a n d c y p h e r i n e s w a s n e c e s s a r y t o d e a l w i t h t h i s f r o m t h r e es p e c i a ll y c o n s t r u c t e d s t a t i o n s i n E n g l a n d . B u t in 1 9 4 1 t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t w a so n a v e r y h u m b l e ' s c a le . O t h e r m e t h o d s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w e r e a v e ry l i m i t e dc o u r i e r a n d p a s s e n g e r t ra ff ic m a i n t a i n e d b y " p i c k - u p " o p e r a t i o n s : a L y s a n d e ro r a H u d s o n l a n d i n g i n F r a n c e w a s a b l e t o b r i n g b a ck n o t o n l y a g e n t s b u t a ls op a p e r s a n d r e p o r t s w h i c h c o u l d n o t b e t r a n s m i t t e d by W / T . " L a n d l i n e s "( t h a t i s t o s a y, c h a i n s o f " s a f e " h o u s e s a n d c o u r i e r s ) f o r t h e p a s s a g e o f S . O . E .a g e n t s a n d p a p e r s w e r e a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d b y a S e c t i o n s p e c i a l i s i n gi n c l a n d e s t i n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s .

    E E C E P T I O N C O M M I T T E E S .

    5. S u p p l i e s o f a r m s a n d s a b o t a g e e q u i p m e n t w e r e s e n t b o t h b y s e a a n d b ya i r. B y M . T . B . , f ish in g b o a t a n d f e l l u c c a s t o r e s w e r e d e l i v e r e d i n b u l k , p a r t i c ul a r l y . t o N o r w a y a n d , i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s , t o F r a n c e ; b u t t h e d i ff ic u l ti e s of t h i sm e t h o d of t r a n s p o r t , e n h a n c e d b y t h e i n c r e a s i n g G e r m a n s u r v e i l l a n c e o f th ec o a s t a l a r e a s , r e s t r i c t e d t h e o u t p u t a n d s e r v e d t o p u t t h e e m p h a s i s o n s u p p l yb y a i r. T h i s i n i t s e l f i n v o l v e d a d e v e l o p e d o rg a n i s a t i o n o n t h e g r o u n d , t o la yo n t h e o p e r a t i o n b y W /T a n d t o p r o v i d e a " r e c e p t i o n c o m m i t t e e " t o c on tr ola n d l i g h t u p t h e g r o u n d , a n d t o d i s p o s e o f t h e c o n t a i n e r s .

    6 . T h e r e c e p t i o n c o m m i t t e e h a d t o b e c a r e f u l l y t r a i n e d . I t s p i v o t w a s th eo r g a n i s e r , a n d s e c o n d t o h i m o n l y, t h e W /T o p e r a t o r , w h o h i m s e l f h a d u n d e r g o n em o n t h s o f t r a i n i n g i n E n g l a n d w h i c h i n c l u d e d n o t o n l y m o r s e b u t a l s o c od es ,s e c u r i t y, m a i n t e n a n c e a n d s e l f - d e f e n c e . T h e o r g a n i s e r , h a v i n g c o l l e c te d h i s t ea mo f p a t r i o t s , a n d i n s t r u c t e d t h e m , s e l ec t e d a r e c e p t i o n g r o u n d f a r f r o m a n yb u i l d i n g s a n d w h i c h t h e R . A . F . h a d t o a p p r o v e . T h e n al l a r r a n g e m e n t s we rem a d e b y W / T b e t w e e n t h e o r g a n i s e r a n d S . O . E . L o n d o n f o r t h e d e l i v e r y. T h eo r g a n i s e r w o u l d s t i p u l a t e w h a t " s t o r e s " h e r e q u i r e d , s o m a n y s te n g un s,e x p l o s i v e c h a r g e s , W /T s e t s , t e l e p h o n e w i r e c u t t e r s , s i l e n t p i s t o l s , t i m e f us es ,i n c e n d i a r i e s , & c . T h e s e h a d t o b e c a r e f u l l y p a c k e d i n t h e S . O . E . p a c k i n g s t at i o ni n s p e c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d " c o n t a i n e r s " d e s i g n e d t o fit i n t o t h e b o m b - r a c k s ofa i r c r a f t a n d a t t a c h e d t o p a r a c h u t e s . T h e y m e a s u r e d 5 f e e t 8 i n c h e s b y 1 5 i nc he s,c o n t a i n e d e n o u g h a r m s a n d s t o r e s ( i n c l u d i n g in w i n t e r f o o d a n d c l o t h i n g ) fo r

    s e v e n m e n , a n d w e i g h e d a b o u t 2 c w t . l o a d e d , b u t w e r e m o s t l y m a d e so a s to d iv i d eu p i n t o p o r t a b l e s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n s i m m e d i a t e l y t h e y w e r e r e c e i v e d . W h e n i t isr e a l i s e d t h a t b y m i d - 1 9 4 4 S . O . E . w a s s o m e t i m e s d e s p a t c h i n g a s m a n y a s T.OO0c o n t a i n e r s a n i g h t , i t w i l l b e a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t t h e p a c k i n g a n d d e s p a t c h i n go r g a n i s a t i o n g r e w t o v e r y l a r g e d i m e n s i o n s .

    7. T h e d r o p h a d t o b e m a d e o n a m o o n l i g h t n i g h t ( w h i c h i n i t s e l f r e d uc edo p e r a t i o n a l t i m e b y 5 0 p e r c e n t . ) , u n t i l l a t e i n 1 9 4 3 s p e c i a l r a d i o a p p a r a t u s a ndt e c h n i q u e w e r e i n v e n t e d t h a t r e n d e r e d p r a c t i c a b l e a l i m i t e d e x t e n t of d a r k n i gh td r o p p i n g . E v e r y d e t a i l h a v i n g b e e n a r r a n g e d a n d c o n fi rm e d o n W / T , t h e p rob l e m r e m a i n e d t h a t t h e w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s m u s t b e s u i t a b l e a n d l o c al e ne my

    a c t i v i t i e s n o t t o o g r e a t . T h e s e f a c t o r s w e r e n o t k n o w n u n t i l a f e w h o u r s b ef oret h e s t a r t of t h e a i r c r a f t , b y w h i c h t i m e i t w a s d if f ic u l t t o a p p r i s e t h e o rg a n i s e r int i m e f o r h i m t o i n f o r m h i s r e c e p t i o n c o m m i t t e e , w h o w e r e s c a t t e r e d a n d o ft enh a d t o c o m e l o n g d i s t a n c e s . T h e r e w a s o n l y o n e w a y of d o i n g t h i s b y p rea r r a n g e d c o d e m e s s a g e s o n t h e B . B . C . e v e n i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n . A w a r m t r ib u t eo f g r a t i t u d e m u s t b e p a i d b y S . O . E . t o t h eB . B . C . f o r t h e i r c o n t i n u e d c o - o p e r a ti o nd u r i n g t h e s e l o n g y e a r s - a c o - o p e r a t i o n g i v e n a t t h e d i r e c t e x p e n s e o f t h e s er vi ce sf o r w h i c h t h e B . B . C . w a s p r i m a r i l y re s p o n s i b l e . O t h e r s w h o l i s t e n e d i n t o th e

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    B.B.C. fo re ign se rv ice mus t o f t en have been pe rp lexe d an d pe rh ap s i r r i t a t ed bylong s t r eams o f inco here n t an d r id i cu l ous sen tences ca l l ed ' ' messages pe r sonn e l s "(by 1944 as ma ny as ei gh ty or ni ne ty ever y nig ht ) such as " Le cha t cle mo n on clea cles ycux bleus " or " Jo se ph in e a ime Vi ct o r. " b ut wh en th e mem be rs of th er e c ep t i o n c o m m i t t e e h e a r d t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r m es s a g e t h e y t r u d g e d f o r t h i n t othe n igh t .

    8 . On the rec ept ion gr ou nd they h ad to w ai t long ho ur s in th e cold, of tenin vain , for somet imes the a i rc ra f t w ou ld get shot down, som eti mes i t wo ul d m is sthe gr ou nd , somet imes i t wo ul d fa i l t o see or no t be sat isf ied wi th t he rec ept io ncommi t tee ' s s ign a l s . Bu t whe n the wa i t in g men he ar d the h u m of the eng in e ,they woul d emerge f rom the shad ows and fl ash wi th e lec t r i c to rches (a ny th in gb r i g h t e r w a s to o d a n g e r o u s ) t h e p r e a r r a n g e d m o r s e l e t t e r a n d t h e a i r c r a f t w o u l danswer . Th en do wn came th e pa ra ch ut es , some of the m be ar in g s tore s , some ofthem bea r in g men . Th e recep t ion commi t tee th e re upo n ha d to h i de an d d i s t r ib u t ethese as qui ckl y as possible , because enem y ag en ts had also he ar d th e a i rc ra f tand would soon be on the search.

    T H ER . A . F.

    9. I n 1940 an d 1941 S . O . E . an d S . I .S . ha d on ly a f l igh t of a i rc ra f t a t th e i rjo in t d i sposa l . Thes e were inc re ased in the wi n t e r o f 194 1-4 2 to a sq ua dr on ;and in Ma rc h 1942 two sq uad ro ns were ass ig ned to S . O . E . a n d S . I . S . o p e r a t i o n s .T h e n a t u r e of t h e w o r k d e m a n d e d s p e ci a l i s e d a i r c r e w t r a i n i n g a n d n a v i g a t i o n o f avery hi gh ord er, an d no pi l ot could achieve such a hi gh pe rc en ta ge of successful"

    dro ps " a t the comm ence ment of his per io d of du ty as a t the end of i t . Th el imi t s o f hu ma n endu ran ce involve t a k i ng p i lo t s off du ty a f t e r a p res c r i bednumber o f op er a t io na l hou rs , so the wo rk was necessa r i l y cons t an t ly be ing don eby newcomers as we l l a s by more exper i enced men . whic h su bs t an t i a l ly redu cedthe nu mb er of successes. Ta ke n as a whole , howev er, the pe rc en ta ge becam e

    s tead i ly be t t e r. W i t h o u t the sus ta i ned e ffor t an d cou rag e o f the R . A. F. indro pp i ng sup p l i es , o f t en a f t e r long jo ur ney s in the face o f adve rse w ea th e rcond i t ions and enemy oppos i t ion , to an inconsp icuous p in -po in t marked by feeb leto rches , Eu ro pe ' s c ry fo r he lp would have gone u na ns wer ed .

    T H E O R G A N I S E R S .

    1 0 . Th e o ff icer s who un de r t oo k th e wor k o f o r ga n i sa t i on , toge the r wi th th e i rsuppor t e r s , kn owi ng ly took r i sk s mor e fea r fu l th an the od ds o f ba t t l e . Fo r th eGes tapo ne t o f ag en t s an d in fo r mer s wa s wide ly th ro wn ; every mee t ing , messag eor mov emen t wa s a sourc e of dan ge r, an d the wir eles s op er at or wa s a sp ecial lyweak l ink on acco un t o f th e r i sk o f be i ng D / F d . No o r ga n i se r in these yea rsever wen t to s l eep wi th ou t wo nd er in g whe th er he wou ld su rv i ve the mo rn in g .Those a r r es t ed we re fo r t un a te i f they wer e k i l l ed in res i s t in g , o r wer e a f t e rw ar dssho t, fo r p ro lon ged and ba r ba ro us to r t u r e aw ai te d the m a t the ha nd s o f th eGes tapo . Ma ny com mi t ted su ic ide in o rd er no t to be t r ay th e i r comra des , a ndo thers d ied wi th th e i r sec re t s inv io la te . Bu t inev i t ab ly these merc i l e ss i n t e r r og at ions p ro duce d some ev idence an d l ed to fu r t he r a r r es t s . Never the l ess , the w or kwent on, an d th e ve ry a t r oc i t i e s o f the enemy emb i t t e r ed an d s t re ng th en edRes i s t ance th ro ug h i t s ma r t y r s . A t the t i me o f " Ove r lo rd " S .O.E . had some293 o rga n i se r s an d age n t s wh o ha d been t r a i ne d in E n g l a n d a t wo rk in t heS .H.A.E .F. a rea . Over 1 ,200 men ha d been sen t to the " f i e l d " s in ce the1st October, 1943, of who m 297 h ad di sa pp ea re d. Of the se , i t i s k no wn th at 64

    had g iven the i r l ives , o f t en in c i rcum stan ces o f g rea t he ro i sm, an d t he fo l l owin gdecorat ions h ad been aw ar de d for gal la nt ry in th e field :

    Di s t in gu i s he d Serv ice Or de r . . . . . . . . . 13Di s t in gu i s he d Serv ice Cross . . . . . . . . . 1M i l i t a r y C r o s s 2 3Or de r o f the Br i t i s h Em pi re . . . . . . . . . 5Mem ber o f th e Br i t i s h Em pi re . . . . . . . . . 11D i s t i n g u i s h e d C o n d u c t Medal ... ... ... 11M i l i t a r y M e d a l 2 4Br i t i s h Emp i re . Me da l . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 .Me nt io n in Des pa t che s . . . . . . 4

    I f fo re igners had been e l ig ib le fo r the Vic to r i a Cross , the re had ce r t a in ly beenact ions whic h ha d wa r r an te d i t s bes towal .

    [ 2 8 3 6 6 ]

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    1 1 . W i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k l a i d d o w n b y t h e W a r C a b i n e t , a n d u p o n t h e t w i np i l l a r s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d s u p p l i e s , S . O . E . b e g a n t o b u i l d u p s u b v e rs i v eo r g a n i s a t i o n s i n a l l t h e o c c u p i e d c o u n t r i e s o f E u r o p e . Coup-de-main a t t a c k sa g a i n s t s p e ci fi c t a rg e t s w e r e t h e f i r st o p e r a t i o n s t o b e m o u n t e d b y S . O . E . , a n d t h er e p o r t s o f t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e t e a m s u p o n t h e i r r e t u r n t o t h i s c o u n t r y g a v e a ne n c o u r a g i n g p i c t u r e o f t h e g e n e r a l h a t r e d of, a n d o p p o s i t i o n t o, t h e G e r m a ni n v a d e r. O f t h e c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n e d , F r a n c e i n e v i t a b l y h e l d a l e a d i n g p l a c e ' i na l l p l a n n i n g a n d p r e p a r a t i o n by r e a s o n o f h e r s i z e a n d o f h e r s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o nb u t o w i n g to h e r s p e c i a l p o l i t i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of R e s i s t a n c et h e r e p r o v e d p a r t i c u l a r l y s l u g g i s h a n d c o m p l i c a t e d . W h e r e a s i n t h e c a s e ofH o l l a n d , B e l g i u m a n d N o r w a y, S . O . E . w e r e a b l e t o c o - o p e r a t e w i t h t h e l e g i t i m a t ea n d a c k n o w l e d g e d G o v e r n m e n t s , i n t h e c a s e o f F r a n c e t h e r e w a s n o s u c h a u t h o r i t yq u a l i f i e d t o s p e a k f o r h e r p e op l e , w h i l e i n t e r n a l l y t h e V i c h y r e g i m e g a v e a ne x c u s e f o r i n a c t i o n a n d a p a t h y. T h e r e i s l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t i n 1 9 4 0 P e t a i nc o m m a n d e d t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g s u p p o r t o f t h e F r e n c h p e o p l e . G e n e r a l d e G a u l l ew a s r e g a r d e d a s a m a d b r i g a d i e r ( s u r r o u n d e d b y a h a n d f u l o f a d v e n t u r e r s ) w h oh a d p i n n e d h i s f a i t h t o t h e b r o k e n r e e d o f E n g l a n d . N o t e v e n t h e B a t t l e of

    B r i t a i n a r o u s e d a n y s p i r i t i n t h e F r e n c h p e o p l e a s a w h o le ,, b u t t h e n c e f o r w a r da t r i c k l e o f t h e b r a v e r h e a r t s b e g a n t o filter o u t o f F r a n c e t o j o i n u s .

    T R A I N I N G O F A G E N T S .

    12 . O n e o f t h e first p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p s t h a t S . O . E . h a d t o t a k e w a s t h er e c r u i t m e n t o f n a t i o n a l s o f t h e o c c u p i e d t e r r i t o r i e s w h o h a d f o u n d s h e l t e r i n t hi sc o u n t r y o r a b r o a d . M o s t o f t h e m c a m e f r o m t h e r e f u g e e " a r m i e s /5 b u t t h e i rs e l e c t i o n w a s a de l i c a t e ma t t e r i n v i ew o f t h e d i f f icu l ty an d sec recy o f t h e work.T h e y h a d t o b e b r a v e , i n t e l l i g e n t y o u n g m e n n o t g i v e n to w i n e o r w o m e n f o rs u c h m e n " t a l k . " T h e i r p a t r i o t i s m h a d t o b e a b o v e s u s p i c i o n . I t w a s t h e r e f o re

    n e c e s s a r y n o t o n l y t o t r a i n t h e m b u t a l s o t o g i v e t h e m a l o n g p e r i o d of t e s t in ga n d p r o b a t i o n b e f o r e w e c o u l d b e s u r e t h a t t h e y w e r e m a d e o f t h e r i g h tstuff.

    13 ! Vo l u n t e e r s w e r e c a ll e d f o r t o s e r v e a s " P a r a t r o o p s . " W h e n t h e y h a db e e n a c c e p t e d a f t e r i n t e r v i e w , t h e y w e r e s e n t t o s c h o o ls i n t h e c o u n t r y w h e r et h e y w e r e t a u g h t p a r a m i l i t a r y f i g h t i n g i n s u c c e s si v e s t a g e s . A l l t h i s t i m e t he yw e r e b e i n g c a r e f u l l y w a t c h e d . I f t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d u n s u i t a b l e , t h e y w e rer e t u r n e d t o t h e i r u n i t s ; if t h e y m a d e g o o d , t h e y w e r e p a s s e d o n t o t h e s u cc e ss iv es c h oo l s w h e r e t h e y l e a r n e d p a r a c h u t e d r o p p i n g , W / T , c o d e s, s e c u r i t y, s ab o t ag e ,sec re t i n ks , cy ph e r s , &c . I t w as no t un t i l t h e final s t ag es t h a t t h ey w er e to ldw h a t t h e y w e r e r e a l l y w a n t e d f o r , a n d a s k e d if t h e y w o u l d v o l u n t e e r f o r t hew o r k . T h i s v e r y e l a b o r a t e s i f t i n g a n d t r a i n i n g w a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f S .O .E .

    w o r k , a n d u l t i m a t e s u c ce s s h a s a m p l y j u s t i f i e d t h e s y l l a b u s , b u t t h e s y st eminvo lved long m on th s o f t r a in in g , a n d the" e s t a b l i sh m en t o f ove r fifty s choo ls ,b e c a u s e f o r s e c u r i t y r e a s o n s n e i t h e r t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s n o r t h e v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l i t i e sc o u l d b e m i x e d . T h e y a l l h a d t o b e k e p t s e p a r a t e . T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e w o r k th a tf e l l t o S . O . E . i n t h i s r e s p e c t w a s t h e r e f o r e v e r y g r e a t , a n d i t m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e dt h a t n o t o n l y t h e p u p i l s b u t a l s o t h e i n s t r u c t o r s h a d t o b e t r a i n e d .

    1 4 . A c o r o l l a r y o f t h e t r a i n i n g o f a g e n t s w a s t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of f or ge dp a p e r s , p a s s p o r t s , r a t i o n c a r d s , & c , f o r t h e m . A f o r g i n g f a c t o r y w a s t h e r e f o ree s t a b l i s h e d t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e s p e c i a l m a n u f a c t u r e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t s o r t s o f p a p e rr e q u i r e d . H e r e t h e m o s t b e a u t i f u l f o r g e r i e s w e r e t u r n e d o u t t h a t w o u l d h a vep r o v o k e d t h e e n v y o f P r o f e s s o r M o r i a r t y . O f t h e t h o u s a n d s o f f o r g e d d o c u m e n tse m a n a t i n g f r o m t h i s f a c t o r y n o t 1 p e r c e n t , w a s e v e r d e t e c t e d b y t h e e n e m y. T h ea g e n t s al s o h a d t o b e p r o v i d e d w i t h l o c a l c u r r e n c y. S u p p l i e s o f t h e s e c u r r e n c ie si n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m w e r e e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d o r n o n - e x i s t e n t a n d S . O . E . t he r ef o r e h a d r e c o u r s e t o d e a l i n g s o n t h e B l a c k M a r k e t of E u r o p e . B e f o r e lo ngd e m a n d s w e r e a l so r e c e iv e d f r o m t h e S e r v i c e D e p a r t m e n t s f o r c u r r e n c y p a r t i c ul a r l y f r o m t h e A i r M i n i s t r y f o r " E s c a p e P u r s e s " f o r a i r c r e w s . To d a t eS.O.E. ' ss u r r e p t i t i o u s p u r c h a s e s i n c l u d e : '

    7 0 0 m i l l i o n F r e n c h f r a n c s . 2 2 - 5 ,, B e l g i a n f r a n c s .

    8 - 5 ,, D u t c h G u l d e n .4 ,, N o r w e g i a n K r o n e r .6 -5 , , Fce i chsmark .

    N e a r l y a l l t h e s e n o t e s a r e i n s m a l l d e n o m i n a t i o n s a n d i t h a s b e e n n o m e a n f ea tt o o b t a i n s u c h a b u l k c l a n d e s t i n e l y f r o m t h e c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n e d a n d b r i n g t hen o t e s s a f e l y t o t h i s c o u n t r y. B u t t h i s i s a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e s t o r y.

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    T H E ' B R I T I S H A ND F R E N C H S E C T I O N S I N F R A N C E . '

    15 . B y M a r c h 1 9 4 1, S . O . E . ' s f i r s t r e c r u i t s w e r e r e a d y t o g o t o t h e fie ld.T h e i r a c t i v i t ie s a n d r e p o r t s c o n v i n c e d G e n e r a l d e G a u l l e t h a t R e s i s t a n c e w a s af or ce t o b e r e c k o n e d w i t h , a n d a f t e r s o m e p e r s u a s i o n , t h e F i g h t i n g F r e n c hp r o c e e d e d t o m a k e t h e i r o w n c o n t a c t s t h r o u g h S . O . E . A s e c o n d F r e n c h S e c t i o nw a s a c c o r d i n g l y c r e a t e d t o w o r k i n l i a i s o n w i t h G e n e r a l d e G a u l l e ' sstaff. T h eB r i t i s h c i r c u i t s a l r e a d y i n b e i n g w e r e , h o w e v e r , m a i n t a i n e d a n d e x p a n d e d , s i nc ei t w a s r e c o g n i s e d i n t h i s c o u n t r y t h a t m a n y F r e n c h m e n , a l t h o u g h , d e f i n i te l y a n t i -G e r m a n w e r e n o t p r o - d e G a u l l e , a n d f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g H i s M a j e s t y ' sG o v e r n m e n t r e s e r v e d i t s r i g h t t o c o n t a c t a n y R e s i s t a n c e e l e m e n t s i n F r a n c e o fw h a t e v e r p o l i t i c a l f a c t i o n , w h i l e g i v i n g G e n e r a l d e G a u l l e s u c h f a c i l i t i e s a s h en e e d e d fo r h i s o w n w o r k .

    1 6 . T h e c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e o f t h e B r i t i s h - c o n t r o l l e d c i r c u i t s b e c a m e a b o n eof c o n t e n t i o n b e t w e e n G e n e r a l d e G a u l l e a n d H i s M a j e s t y ' s G o v e r n m e n t , b u t t h es o u n d n e s s o f o u r p o l i c y w a s p r o v e d b y t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e s e c t i o n a n d t h e e x t e n tof t h e s u p p o r t g iv e n b y F r e n c h m e n in F r a n c e . A s e c on d r e a s o n f or m a i n t a i n i n gt h e B r i t i s h s e c t io n i n F r a n c e w a s t h e v e r y l o w s e c u r i t y " s t a n d a r d of F i g h t i n gF r e n c h H e a d q u a r t e r s . S e c u r i t y i s a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e c o n d i t i o n o f e x i s t e n c e t oc l a n d e s t i n e o r g a n i s a t i o n s , a n d t h e B r i t i s h S e c t i o n w a s a b le t o b e n ef it a l l t h e t i m ef ro m i t s m o r e s t r i n g e n t p r e c a u t i o n s b o t h a t H e a d q u a r t e r s a n d i n t h e field. I f a l lt h e s u b v e r s iv e o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n F r a n c e h a d b e e n u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f F i g h t i n gF r e n c h F l e a d q u a r t e r s , i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t a n e t w o r k o f e ff ic ie nt a n d a c t i v e c i r c u i t sc o ul d n e v e r h a v e b e e n m a i n t a i n e d in t h e f a c e o f t h e r e p e a t e d G e s t a p o d r i v e s . A si t w a s , t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e t w o o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n F r a n c e a l l o w e d f o r c o m p l e m e n t a r ya c t i v i t i e s , a n d t h e y w e r e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e a s s i s t a n c e t o e a c h o t h e r . T h e B r i t i s hS e ct io n b e c a m e k n o w n t h r o u g h o u t u n d e r g r o u n d F r a n c e a s t h e ' ' R e s e a u B u c km a s t e r " f r o m t h e n a m e of t h e B r i t i s h c o l o ne l w h o c o m m a n d e d i t a n d w h o a l s oh a d t h e h o n o u r o f b e i n g " P u b l i c E n e m y N o . 1 " o n t h e G e s t a p o l i s t. T h e r e w e r es om e s e v e n t y B r i t i s h o ffic ers s e r v i n g t h e S e c t i o n i n F r a n c e ; m o s t o f t h e m w e r eB r i t i s h s u b j e c t s , w h o w e r e , o f c o u r s e , b i l i n g u a l , b u t a b o u t a q u a r t e r w e r e F r e n c hm e n w h o w e r e g i v e n B r i t i s h c o m m i s s io n s . O n t h e L i b e r a t i o n o f F r a n c e G e n e r a ld e G a u l l e p a i d u s t h e c o m p l i m e n t o f o f f e r i n g a l l t h e s e of fic er s c o m m i s s i o n s i n t h eF r e n c h A r m y of t h e s a m e r a n k a s t h e y h e l d i nS . O . E . a g r a c e f u l t r i b u t e t o t h e i rt r a i n i n g a n d e f fi c ie n c y.

    1 7 . T h e m e t h o d s u s e d b y t h e t w o s e c t i o n s w e r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t. T h e n u c l e u sof t h e B r i t i s h c i r c u i t w a s th e O r g a n i s e r w i t h h i s W /T o p e r a t o r , a n d r o u n d t h e s en u c le i s m a l l w a t e r t i g h t c i r c u i t s w e r e g r a d u a l l y b u i l t u p a l l o v e r F r a n c e . I f t h eG e s t a p o s u c c e e d e d i n b r e a k i n g u p a c i r c u i t , a n e w o r g a n i s e r w o u l d - b e s e n t t o t h ea r e a c o n c e r n e d a n d t h e w o r k w o u l d b e g i n a g a i n . I n g e n e r a l , t h e s i z e o f t h ec i r c u i t s w a s l i m i t e d ; i n s o m e c a s e s i t b e c a m e c o n s i d e r a b l e , b u t a l a rg e , o r g a n i s at io n n e a r l y a l w a y s p r o v e d i n s e c u r e i n t h e l o n g r u n , a n d t h e o r g a n i s e r s w e r e t o l dt o c on fi ne t h e m s e l v e s t o e s t a b l i s h i n g s m a l l b o d i e s o f w e l l - t r a i n e d a n d e n t i r e l yr e li ab le , m e n . F i g h t i n g F r e n c h H e a d q u a r t e r s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f o r p o l i t i c a lr e a s o ns a i m e d a t r e a c h i n g t h e m a s s e s o f t h e F r e n c h p e o p l e . G e n e r a l d e G a u l l e ,h a v i n g f a i l e d t o c r e a t e h i s o w n R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t r e s p o n s i b l e d i r e c t l y t o h i m ,b e g an i n 1 9 4 2 t o t r y t o m a k e c o n t a c t w i t h th o s e i n d i g e n o u s R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t sa l r e a d y i n e x i s t e n c e . To t h i s e n d F r e n c h l i a i s o n o ff ic er s a n d W /T o p e r a t o r s w e r ed e s p a t c h e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h a c o - o r d i n a t o r t o c o n t r o l t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , a n dR e s i s ta n c e l e a d e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s r e p r e s e n t i n g e v e r y s h a d e o f F r e n c h p o l i t i c a lo p i n i o n w e r e b r o u g h t b a c k t o t h i s c o u n t r y . B y t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r m o s t of t h eg r e at R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t s h a d a g r e e d t o r e c o g n i s e d e G a u l l e ' s m i l i t a r y , t h o u g hn ot h i s p o l i t i c a l , l e a d e r s h i p .

    T H E P U R P O S E O F S A B OT A G E .

    18 . 1 9 4 1 a n d 19 4 2 w e r e t h e l e a n y e a r s f o r R e s i s t a n c e . E u r o p e h a d b e e ns t un n e d b y t h e l i g h t n i n g G e r m a n a d v a n c e s . A p a t h y a n d c o n f u s i o n w e r e s t i l lw i d e s p r e a d . A s t h e m o n t h s w e n t b y, h o w e v e r , G e r m a n d o m i n a t i o n w i t h i t sr e s t r i c t i o n s a n d b r u t a l i t i e s i t s e l f a c t e d a s a s t i m u l u s t o r e v o l t . B u t t i m e w a sn e e d e d f o r a c t i o n a n d r e a c t i o n t o d e v e l o p t o a s t a g e a t w h i c h S . O . E . c o u l dta ke a d v a n t a g e o f a w i d e s p r e a d a n t i - G e r m a n f e e li n g . M e a n w h i l e , t h e b u i l d i n gh p of s u b v e r s i v e g r o u p s p r o v e d a s l o w p r o c e s s , p r o l o n g e d a l w a y s b y t h e s p e c i a lr is ks a n d c a s u a l t i e s o f u n d e r g r o u n d w a r f a r e , i n w h i c h o n e a r r e s t w o u l d w i p e o u tm o n th s o f p a t i e n t w o r k . F u r t h e r , t h e a m o u n t o f m a t e r i a l t h a t S . O . E . ' s v e r yl im i t e d a i r t r a n s p o r t r e s o u r c e s e n a b l e d i t t o d e s p a t c h to t h e field w a s t a n t a l i s i n g l ysm all; A l t h o u g h o u r o u t p u t o f a i r c r a f t w a s n o w m o u n t i n g r a p i d l y , a n d t h e A i r

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    M i n i s t r y w e r e e v e r a n x i o u s t o h e l p S . O .E . , n e w c l a i m a n t s f o r a i r c r a f t w e r ei n c r e a s i n g e v e n m o r e r a p i d l y , a n d S . O . E . f o u n d t h e a n t i - U - b o a t c a m p a i g nc o m p e t i n g w i t h i t f o r l o n g - r a n g e b o m b e r s .

    19. S a b o t a g e w a s u n d e r t a k e n f o r t w o p u r p o s e s : F i r s t , t o a t t a c k s el ec te de n e m y t a rg e t s o f m i l i t a r y o r e c o n o m i c s i g n i f i c a n c e ; s e c o n d l y, a n d e v e n m o r e

    i m p o r t a n t , to c r e a t e a n d f o s t e r t h e s p i r i t o f r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e A x i s . T h e h o u n d sw i l l n o t . f o l lo w u n l e s s t h e h o r n is b l o w n . J u s t a s t h e Y u g o s l a v s r a l l i e d r o u n d Ti t ob e c a u s e h e g a v e t h e m t h e l e a d , a n d d e s e r t e d t h e s u p i n e M i h a i l o v i c , s o o c c u p i e dE u r o p e g a t h e r e d i n e v e r - g r o w i n g c i r c le s r o u n d t r a i n e d S . O . E . a g e n t s w h o s ho w e dt h e m h o w t h e y c o u l d s t r i k e b l o w s f o r t h e i r l i b e r t y. G e r m a n r e p r e s s i o n o n l y a d d e dfue l t o th e f l am es .

    2 0 . A t h i r d r e s u l t g r a d u a l l y e m e r g e d a n d p r o v e d o f h i g h i m p o r t a n c e to" O v e r l o r d . " T h e f e r m e n t c r e a t e d a m o n g t h e o p p r e s s e d p o p u l a t i o n s b y t hea l t e r n a t e p r o c e s s o f s a b o t a g e a n d r e p r e s s i o n f o r c e d H i t l e r t o s p r e a d h i s f o rc e sa l l o v e r E u r o p e to p r o t e c t h i s i n s t a l l a t i o n s a n d t o t e r r o r i s e t h e p o p u l a c e . T h u sD - d a y f o u n d t h e G e r m a n s i n su f fi c ie n tl y c o n c e n t r a t e d . H o w S . O . E . a n d t h eF . F . I . t h e n a s s i s t e d t o d e l a y t h e G e r m a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n w i l l b e r e l a t e d l a t e r .

    , O . S . S .2 1 . I n 1 9 4 2 t h e e n t r y of A m e r i c a i n t o t h e w a r le d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f an

    A m e r i c a n o r g a n i s a t i o n u n d e r G e n e r a l D o n o v a n (a p r o m i n e n t N e w Yo r k l a w y er )k n o w n a s O . S . S . w i t h a d i r e c t i v e a n a l o g o u s t o t h o s e o f S . O . E . , S . I . S . a n d P . W . E .c o m b i n e d . I t a c c o r d i n g l y b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t f o r S . O : E . t o c o - o r d i n a t e i t s a c ti v i t i e sw i t h o u r n e w A l l i e s , b e c a u s e n o t h i n g w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e d i s a s t r o u s t h a nc o m p e t i n g a n d c o n f l ic t i n g A m e r i c a n " l i n e s " o v e r E u r o p e . T h e t a s k w a s no ta l w a y s e a s y. H o w e v e r , v e r y c o r d i a l p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d , a n d ac o - o r d i n a t i o n m a i n t a i n e d w h i c h w a s f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n sw e r e u n a b l e t o p r o v i d e a n y p r o p e r l y t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l , a n d u n t i l t h e l a s t s t a g e sw e r e t h e r e f o r e o b l i g e d t o l e a v e n e a r l y a l l t h e w o r k t o S . O . E . T h e y c o u ld ,h o w e v e r , c o n t r i b u t e s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o t h e l a r g e a i r l i f t r e q u i r e d t o p r e p a r e t he" fie ld " f o r D - d a y a n d t h e i r a i r b o r n e r e s o u r c e s w e r e of v e r y m a t e r i a l h e l p t o t heF . F . I . a t t h a t s t a g e .

    T H E T I D E T U R N S .

    2 2 . B y t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1 9 4 3 , S . O . E . h a d s u c c e e d e d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g s ubv e r s i v e g r o u p s i n a l l t h e o c c u p i e d c o u n t r i e s o f W e s t e r n E u r o p e . T h i s h a d m e a n ta g r e a t e x p a n s i o n of t h e H o m e o r g a n i s a t i o n t o m e e t t h e g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d d e m a n df o r s e r v ic e s f r o m a b r o a d . N e w w e a p o n s h a d b e e n d e v i s e d a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d ,

    a n d e v e r m o r e p o w e r f u l a n d s m a l l e r w i r e l e s s s e t s c a m o u f l a g e d i n m a n y d if fe r en tw a y s . A c a m o u f l a g e f a c t o r y w a s s t a r t e d t o c a t e r f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s ofe v e r y c o u n t r y . N o t o n l y w i r e l e s s s e t s b u t a l l s o r t s o f " s t o r e s " w e r e c a m o u f l a g e dt o a s s u m e t h e m o s t i n n o c e n t a p p e a r a n c e . T h e i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e A l l i e d f o r tu n e sh a d g i v e n n e w h o p e . T h e w i l l t o r e s i s t h a d s t r e n g t h e n e d , a n d s a b o t a g e w a s ont h e i n c r e a s e i n N o r w a y, H o l l a n d , B e l g i u m a n d D e n m a r k . I n F r a n c e t h e B r i ti s hS e c t io n w a s i n c r e a s i n g t h e n u m b e r o f i t s c i r c u i t s a n d i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e i r a c t i v it i e s .T h e F i g h t i n g F r e n c h o r g a n i s a t i o n i n t h e field h a d t a k e n d e f i n i t e s h a p e : t heS u p r e m e R e s i s t a n c e C o u n c i l , p r e s i d e d ov e r b y a p e r s o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ofG e n e r a l d e G a u l l e , c o n t r o l l e d t h e c i v i l i a n , p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s o f t h eR e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t s t h r o u g h a r i g i d s t r u c t u r e of Z o n a l a n d R e g i o na lC o m m i t t e e s ; b u t w h i l e t h e p o l i t i c a l s i d e o f t h e w o r k h a d p r o g r e s s e d w e l l, t hee ff o rt s o f S . O . E . t o o rg a n i s e s a b o t a g e a n d p a r a m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s i n c o - o p e r a t i o nw i t h F i g h t i n g F r e n c h H e a d q u a r t e r s h a d , e x c e p t f o r t h e b l o w i n g u p of R a d i oP a r i s , m e t w i t h l i t t l e s u c c e s s. T h e e ff ec t o f t h e i n v a s i o n a n d l i b e r a t i o n o f N o r t hA f r i c a w a s t o e n h a n c e t h e F r e n c h s e n se o f a l l i a n c e a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a n d m a k e a v a i l a b l e e n l a r g e d r e s o u r c e s o f p e r s o n n e l a n d n e w b a s e s . T h e c o n s e q u e n t G e r m a no c c u p a t i o n of S o u t h e r n F r a n c e , w h i l e i m m e d i a t e l y d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s a s i t r e s ul te di n m a n y a r r e s t s , c a u s e d a p o w e r f u l r e s u r g e n c e o f R e s i s t a n c e f e e l i n g of w h i c hS . O . E . w a s n o t s lo w t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e f o r m e r A r m e e der A r m i s t i c e n o w b e g a n t o c o m e i n t o t h e o p e n a n d t o m a k e c o n t a c t w i t h S .O .E .o r g a n i s e r s ( a l t h o u g h o n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t G e n e r a l d e G a u l l e w a s n o t t o bei n f o r m e d o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n ) , a n d t h e i r n u m b e r s s w e l l e d t h e r a n k s o f t h e r e s i s t a n t sb y s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d .

    1 9 4 3 P L A N S .

    2 3 . I n t h e i r d i r e c t i v e f o r 1 9 4 3 t h e C h i e f s o f Staff, w h i l e s t i l l e m p h a s i s i n gt h e p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e of p l a n n e d s a b o t a g e , i n s t r u c t e d S . O . E . t o s t re n g t h e nt h e p a r a m i l i t a r y s i d e o f t h e i r o r g a n i s a t i o n s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s s i d e or

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    8/17

    S . O .E . w o r k w a s a c c o r d i n g l y i m p r e s s e d u p o n t h e G o v e r n m e n t s of t h e o c c u p i e dc o u n t r i e s a n d u p o n t h e R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s . I n a l l t h e c o u n t r i e s o fWe s t e r n E u r o p e t h e tempo o f R e s i s t a n c e q u i c k e n e d , i n s p i r e d , i n p a r t b y t h e b e l i e ft h a t t h e A l l i e s w o u l d i n v a d e t h e c o n t i n e n t t h a t y e a r . I n F r a n c e t h e R e s i s t a n c eM o v e m e n t s s h o w e d m o r e w i l l i n g n e s s to r e s p o n d t o d i r e c t i v e s o n t a r g e t p r i o r i t i e s ,a n d t h e r a t e o f s a b o t a g e i n c r e a s e d e n o r m o u s l y. B y t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 4 3 t h e d a i l ya v e r a g e o f b l o c k s , r a i l c u t s a n d d e r a i l m e n t s h a d r i s e n t o o v e r 1 0 0 , a n d t h i s w a sa c c o m p a n i e d by a s e a s o n a l o u t b r e a k of a g r i c u l t u r a l s a b o t a g e o f c r o p s , f a r mm a c h i n e r y, & c . A t t a c k s o n e l e c t r ic i t y i n s t a l l a t i o n s , o n G e r m a n D e t a c h m e n t s a n dc o l l a b o r a t o r s a l s o i n c r e a s e d , a n d S . O . E . w e r e s u c c e s s f u l i n c a r r y i n g o u t t w o m a j o rs a b o t a g e o p e r a t i o n s : t h e first a g a i n s t t h e G i g n y b a r r a g e on t h e S a o n e , w h i c hp r e v e n t e d t h e t r a n s p o r t s o u t h w a r d of G e r m a n n a v a l c r a f t f o r five w e e k s a t t h et i m e o f t h e i n v a s i o n o f S i c i l y, a n d t h e s e c o n d a c o n c e r t e d a t t a c k o n t h e p o w e rs u p p l y o f L e C r e u s o t . I n o r d e r to s a v e F r e n c h li v e s , a n a g r e e m e n t w a s r e a c h e dw i t h t h e A i r M i n i s t r y t h a t R . A . F . a t t a c k s o n l o c o m o t i v e s s h o u l d c ea s e, w h i l eS .O . E. , t h r o u g h i t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e " f i e l d , " i n s t r u c t e d t h e r a i l w a y w o r k e r sto s a b o t a g e t h e i r o w n e n g i n e s . T h i s p o l i c y w a s t o t h e m u t u a l a d v a n t a g e of t h e

    F r e n c h a n d o f F i g h t e r C o m m a n d a n d p r o v e d v e r y s u cc e ss fu l . B o t h t h e B r i t i s ha n d t h e F i g h t i n g - F r e n c h c i r c u i t s to o k p a r t i n t h e i n c r e a s e d a c t i v i t y a n d t h eG i r a u d i s t g r o u p s o f t h e A r m e e d e 1 ' A r m i s t i c e w e r e b y n o w a l so f u l l y o p e r a t i o n a la g a i n s t t h e e n e m y.

    T H E R E L E V E AN D T H E M A Q U I S .

    2 4 . A b o u t t h i s t i m e t h e G e r m a n s a n d L a v a l i n s t i t u t e d t h e ' ' R e l e v e ' ' u n d e rw h i c h F r e n c h m e n w e r e p r e s s - g a n g e d t o w o r k i n G e r m a n y. ' T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t w a sp a r t i c u l a r l y d a n g e r o u s t o R e s i s t a n c e , s i nc e i t r e s u l t e d in t h e r e m o v a l t o G e r m a n yof t h e y o u n g m e n w h o w e r e t h e m o s t a c t i v e e l e m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a n d m a n yof t h e m c h o se o u t l a w r y in t h e m o u n t a i n s r a t h e r t h a n d e p o r t a t i o n . S . O . E . p o l i c yw a s n o t to e n c o u r a g e o p e n g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e , s i n ce t h i s w a s p r e m a t u r e i n e v e r y

    s en s e, b u t t o c o n t a c t s u c h M a q u i s g r o u p s a s h a d f o r m e d t h e m s e l v e s i n s u i t a b l ea r e a s a n d t o s u p p l y t h e m w i t h s uf fic ie nt m a t e r i a l t o m a i n t a i n m o r a l e . L i a i s o nm i s s i o n s o f B r i t i s h , A m e r i c a n a n d F r e n c h o ffic er s w e r e d e s p a t c h e d t o c o n t a c t t h el a r g e s t g r o u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e m o u n t a i n o u s c o u n t r y E a s t o f t h e R h o n e , w i t hi n s t r u c t i o n s t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e s o u n d e l e m e n t s a n d o r g a n i s e t h e m f o r p a r a m i l i t a r yw o r k .

    2 5 . S . O . E . a l so f o r g e d m a n y t h o u s a n d s o f F r e n c h R a t i o n c a r d s a n dp r o v i d e d m a n y m i l l i o n s o f F r e n c h F r a n c s ( s in c e r e p a i d ) t o e n a b l e i s o l a t e d r e f u g e e sf r om t h e R e l e v e t o s u s t a i n t h e m s e l v e s o n f a r m s w i t h t h e h e l p o f e l d e r m e n o rw o m e n w h o w e r e i n t h i s w a y e n a b l e d t o b u y n e c e s s a r i e s o n t h e i rb e h a l f . T h u s t h eM a q u i s m o v e m e n t c a m e i n t o b e i n g a n d c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w .

    2 6 . T h r o u g h o u t 1 9 4 3 t h e A i r M i n i s t r y w e r e a b l e t o p l a c e m o r e a i r c r a f t a to u r d i s p o s a l a n d s t o r e s d e l i v e r i e s i n c r e a s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e y n e v e r s a t i s f ie d t h ee n o r m o u s a n d g r o w i n g a p p e t i t e o f t h e " f i e l d . " A t t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r , an u m b e r o f a i r c r a f t b a s e d i n N o r t h A f r i c a w e r e m a d e a v a i l a b l e t o S . O . E . , a n dt he se w e r e a b le t o n i a k e d e li v e r i e s t o S o u t h e r n F r a n c e . R e g u l a r W /T c o mm u n i c a t i o n s w e r e m a i n t a i n e d a n d t h e l i n k s b e t w e e n t he S . O . E . H e a d q u a r t e r s a n dt h e fie ld w e r e s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e v i s i t s o f S . O . E . o ff ic e rs t o t h e f i e ld o n t o u r so f i n s p e c t i o n .

    T H E G E S T A P O S T R I K E S .

    2 7 . T h e i n t e n s i v e a c t i v i t y i n F r a n c e d u r i n g 1 9 4 3 w a s c e r t a i n , w i t h i n t h en o r m a l c y cl e o f R e s i s t a n c e , t o p r o v o k e s t r o n g G e r m a n c o u n t e r - m e a s u r e s . I n J u n et he G e s t a p o s t r u c k : f i ft e e n p r i n c i p a l sv a n d s e v e r a l h u n d r e d s u b o r d i n a t e s o f t h eF i g h t i n g F r e n c h o r g a n i s a t i o n w e r e a r r e s t e d . G e n e r a l d e G a u l l e ' s p e r s o n a lr e p r e s e n t a t i v e is b e l i e v e d t o h a v e d i e d u n d e r t o r t u r e , a n d i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h ee n em y, b y i n f i l t r a t i o n a n d b e t r a y a l , h a d o b t a i n e d e x t e n s i v e k n o w l e d g e o f t h ec e n t r a l s e t u p o f t h e G a u l l i s t o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d o f i t s l e a d e r s . A t t h e s a m e t i m ea c o n c e n t r a t e d G e s t a p o d r i v e s u c ce e d e d i n b r e a k i n g u p t h e v e r y i m p o r t a n t B r i t i s h

    i c o n t r o l l ed c i r c u i t b a s e d o n P a r i s , b u t " i n s o m u c h a s t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e S . O . E .I sy s te m Avas c o n t r o l f r o m L o n d o n b y W /T a n d w a t e r t i g h t c i r c u i t s i n F r a n c e , t h e! p e n e t r a t i o n w a s c o n f in e d t o t h a t a r e a a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e B r i t i s h o r g a n i s a t i o n w a sI u n i m p a i r e d .

    2 8 . O ffic ers s e n t f r o m E n g l a n d t o t h e F i g h t i n g F r e n c h o r g a n i s a t i o n w e r ea ble t o h o l d t o g e t h e r t h e e s s e n t i a l e le m e n t s o f R e c e p t i o n C o m m i t t e e s a n d c o mm u n i c a t i o n s , a n d S . O . E . t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e o c c a s i o n t o i n s i s t o n t h e i n s t i t u t i o nof a n e w s y s t e m o n a r e g i o n a l b a s i s , a v o i d i n g t h e o v e r - c e n t r a l i s a t i o n w h i c h w e h a d

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    c o n s t a n t l y c r i t i c i s e d a n d w h o s e f a i l u r e h a d b e e n s o d i s a s t r o u s . I n t h e c a s e o f t h eB r i t i s h S e c t i o n , a n S . O . E . off ic er w a s s e n t t o P a r i s t o r e v i e w t h e p o s i t i o n , a n da s a r e s u l t o f h i s r e p o r t , p a r t o f t h e o l d g r o u p w a s r e c o n s t i t u t e d , w h i l e a r r a n g em e n t s w e r e m a d e f o r t h e d e s p a t c h of n e w o r g a n i s e r s t o t h a t a r e a . T h e b l o w w a sa s e v e r e o n e , e s p e c i a l l y i n i t s e ffe ct o n p a r a m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s , b u t R e s i s t a n c e is

    e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y r e s i l i e n t a n d t h e w a v e o f s a b o t a g e d i d n o t a b a t e .l o w C O U N T R I E S A N D S C A N D I N AV I A .

    2 9 . I n t h e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s o f W e s t e r n E u r o p e t h e s t o r y w a s , i n g e n e r a l ,t h e s a m e . S e v e r e l os se s w e r e i n f l ic t e d i n B e l g i u m , N o r w a y ' a n d D e n m a r k , a n dp a r t i c u l a r l y i n H o l l a n d w h e r e t h e G e s t a p o w e r e s u c c es s fu l in p e n e t r a t i n g o u ro r g a n i s a t i o n a n d w o r k i n g th e W /T c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f o r s o m e t i m e b e f o r e t h e yw e r e d i s c o v e r e d . N e w o r g a n i s e r s w e r e , h o w e v e r, s e n t t o t h e field , t o r e s t a r t t h ew o r k . T h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r sa b o t ag e ' ' i n c r e a s e d , a n d i n D e n m a r k e s p e c ia l l y am a j o r c a m p a i g n w a s p l a n n e d a n d c a r r i e d o u t w i t h m a r k e d s u c ce s s.

    3 0 . O u r c h i e f o r g a n i s e r in D e n m a r k is a r e m a r k a b l e m a n . A t t h e t i m e oft h e i n v a s i o n o f h i s c o u n t r y h e w a s e n g a g e d i n c o m m e r c e i n a - B r i t i s h c o l o n y, a n dw a s a t o n c e i n t e r n e d by t h e B r i t i s h a u t h o r i t i e s a s a p o s s i b le F i f t h C o l u m n i s t .H a v i n g c l e a r e d h i m s e l f a f t e r s e v e r a l m o n t h s ' e ff or t, h e o b t a i n e d h i s r e l e a s e a n du l t i m a t e l y s u c c e e d e d i n w o r k i n g h i s p a s s a g e t o t h i s c o u n t r y . D i r e c t l y h e a r r i v e di n E n g l a n d h e w a s , o f c o u r s e , t a k e n o v e r b y t h e R o y a l P a t r i o t i c S c h o o l s , a n d a g a i np l a c e d i n d e t e n t i o n , f r o m w h i c h h e w a s r e s c u e d b y t h e h e a d of t h e S . O . E . D a n i s hS e c t i o n o n t h e l o ok o u t f o r n e w r e c r u i t s . A lo n g p e r i o d of i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n gf o ll o w e d in w h i c h h i s o u t s t a n d i n g q u a l i t i e s m a n i f e s t e d t h e m s e l v e s a n d h e w a sg i v e n a B r i t i s h c o m m i s s i o n . I t w a s n o t u n t i l A p r i l 1 9 43 . t h a t h e w a s d r o p p e di n t o D e n m a r k , a n d by A u g u s t h e h a d t h e w h o l e c o u n t r y a b l a z e . H e h a s we lle a r n e d t h e D . S . O . w h i c h h a s b e e n a w a r d e d h i m .

    C O R S I C A .

    3 1 . A s t h e c a m p a i g n i n I t a l y d e v el o p e d , t h e r a r e o p p o r t u n i t y p r e s e n t e di t s e lf o f a s m a l l - s c a l e d r e s s r e h e a r s a l f o r " O v e r l o r d . " C o r s i c a h a d b e e n a l l o t t e dt o S . O . E . a s a field of a c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e s h o r t a g e o f s h i p p i n g p r e c l u d e d a r e g u l a ri n v a si o n . C o n d i t i o n s w e r e i d e a l. " M a q u i s" i s a C o r s i c a n w o r d m e a n i n g t heg r e a t t r a c t s o f m o u n t a i n o u s s c r u b t h a t e x i s t i n t h a t i s l a n d , th e p o p u l a t i o n l a rg e l yc o n s i s t o f h i g h - s p i r i t e d h e r e d i t a r y g u e r i l l a s , a n d t h e b u l k of t h e o c c u p y i n g f o rc e sw e r e s e c o n d - g r a d e I t a l i a n s . A f t e r a n i n i t i a l s e t -b a c k , t h e m a n w a s f o u n d w h ow o u l d u n i t e t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f a l l t h e c l a n s a n d p a r t i e s , a n d t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a n da r m i n g o f t h e g r o u p s f r o m t h e A l g i e r s b a s e (b y s u b m a r i n e a s w e l l a s b y a i r c r a f t )

    w e n t f o r w a r d r a p i d l y . W h e n t h e I t a l i a n s u r r e n d e r c a m e , S . O . E . s t r u c k , a n d t heG e r m a n s h a d n o l o n g e r a n y p o s s i b i l i t y o f h o l d i n g t h e i s l a n d . T h e C o r s i c a n s ro set h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y a n d i n f l ic t ed s o m e 2 ,0 0 0 c a s u a l t i e s o n t h e w i t h d r a w i n ge n e m y. B r i t i s h p r e s t i g e r o s e t o t h e e m b a r r a s s i n g p o i n t t h a t m a n y C o r s i c an sd e m a n d e d t h a t t h e i r c o u n t r y s h o u l d j o i n t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e !

    " O V E R L O R D " P L A N N I N G .

    3 2 . T h e first a n d m o s t d i ff ic u l t t a s k i n t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f R e s i s t a n c e t h er a i s i n g o f m o r a l e f r o m t h e s l o u g h o f V i c h y d e f e a t i s m , a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t ofw i d e s p r e a d c i r c u i t s s u ff ic ie n tl y d e e p - r o o t e d t o s u r v i v e t h e G e s t a p o i n q u i s i t i o n s h a d b y n o w i n t h e m a i n b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d . I n t h e a u t u m n o f 1 9 4 3 t h e C h i e fs

    o f S ta f fs d i r e c t i v e s t o S . O . E . b e g a n t o p l a c e i n c r e a s i n g e m p h a s i s o n t h e a s s i s t a n c et h a t c o u l d b e g i v e n b y R e s i s t a n c e t o t h e m i l i t a r y i n v a s i o n o f t h e C o n t i n e n t , a n da c c o r d i n g l y S .O . E . p l a n n i n g b e c a m e o r i e n t a t e d m o r e a n d m o r e t o w a r d s D - d ay.I n S e p t e m b e r , p e n d i n g t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f t h e S u p r e m e C o m m a n d e r , S .O . E . inW e s t e r n E u r o p e w a s p l a c e d u n d e r th e o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l of C O S S A C , u n d e rw h o s e d i r e c t i o n ( a n d l a t e r t h a t o f S . H . A . E . F. ) a l l p l a n s w e r e t h e n c e f o r t h d r a w nu p . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 4 4 t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s e c ti o n s o f S . O . E . a n d of O . S . S . w e rei n t e g r a t e d t o c o n s t i t u t e a c o m b i n e d H e a d q u a r t e r s c o v e r in g R e s i s t a n c e i n W e s t e rnE u r o p e , l a t e r k n o w n as S p e c i a l F o r c e ' H e a d q u a r t e r s ( S . F. H . Q . ) . A s i m il a ri n t e g r a t i o n w a s e ff ec te d a t A l g i e r s t o c o v e r t h e A . F . H . Q . a r e a .

    P R E L I M I N A R Y P H A S E .

    3 3 . S . O .E . a s s i s ta n c e t o " O v e r l o r d " w a s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o s ta g e sp r e l i m i n a r y a t t a c k s o n t h e G e r m a n w a r m a c h i n e i n t h e W e s t , a n d p r e p a r a t i o n sf o r a c t i o n o n a n d a f t e r t h e a s s a u l t . F o r t h e f o r m e r , S .O . E . a l r e a d y h a d t h e m e a n st o h a n d f o r n o r m a l s a b o t a g e w o r k , a n d d u r i n g t h e s i x m o n t h s b e f o r e D - d a y

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    a c t i v i t i e s w e r e i n t e n s if i e d a n d d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t a r g e t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r p r i o r i t y.T h e e ff or ts o f t h e G e r m a n s t o r e p a i r t h e d a m a g e g a v e e v i d e n c e of t h e i m p o r t a n c eof t h e t a r g e t s , m a n y o f w h i c h w e r e a t t a c k e d a g a i n w h e n r e p a i r e d , t h u s a d d i n g t ot h e s t r a i n i m p o s e d o n t h e e n e m y. I n d u s t r i a l w o r k s o f v a l u e t o t h e G e r m a n a r m yw e r e a t t a c k e d b y g r o u p s i n t h e field a n d b y s p e c i a lcoup-de-main p a r t i e s ; d o z e n s

    o f f a c t o r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y a l u m i n i u m , b a l l - b e a r i n g , r u b b e r a n d l i q u i d o x y g e n , w e r es a b o t a g e d . B e t w e e n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 4 3 a n d J u n e 1 9 4 4, 9 8 m a j o r a t t a c k s w e r ec a r r i e d o u t a g a i n s t v i t a l i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s , a n d t h o u s a n d s of m i n o r a c t s o fs a b o t a g e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e f u r t h e r d i s o r g a n i s a t i o n of t h e G e r m a n w a r e ff or t.A " B l a c k m a i l " c a m p a i g n r u n i n c o n ju n c t i o n w i t h B o m b e r C o m m a n d w a ss u c c e s sf u l i n i n d u c i n g a n u m b e r of f a c t o r y m a n a g e m e n t s t o s a b o t a g e t h e i r o w nf a c t o r i e s r a t h e r t h a n s uff er a i r b o m b i n g , t h e P e u g e o t M o t o r W o r k s a n d t h eTi m k e n b a l l - b e a r i n g f a c t o r y, a m o n g s t o t h e r s , b e i n g p u t o u t o f a c t i o n i n t h i sm a n n e r . A t t a c k s o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w e r e g i v e n h i g h p r i o r i t y, a n d t h e i n t en s i fi e dc a m p a i g n a g a i n s t l o c o m o t iv e s a c h i e v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e s u c c es s . B y D - d a y 1 ,0 00l o c o m o ti v e s h a d b e e n s a b o t a g e d , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t b y t h e r a i l w a y m e n t h e m s e l v e s .I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e w e r e i n n u m e r a b l e a t t a c k s o n t u r n t a b l e s , c r a n e s a n d o t h e r r a i l

    t a r g e t s a n d c o u n t l e s s d e r a i l m e n t s a n d r a i l c u t s . I n D e n m a r k o n t w o o c c a s i o n ss y s t e m a t i c r a i l c u t t i n g o v e r a w i d e a r e a p a r a l y s e d tr af fi c f o r s e v e r a l d a y s . T h em a i n i n l a n d w a t e r - w a y s y s t e m s o f B e l g i u m a n d F r a n c e w e r e c o n t i n u a l l y u n d e ra t t a c k , a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s o r g a n i s a t i o n w a s c a u s e d b y t h e f r e q u e n t c l o s i n g o fk e y c a n a l s . T h e R h i n e - R h o n e t ra ff ic , a l r e a d y o n c e s u s p e n d e d b y t h e d e s t r u c t i o nof t h e G i g n y b a r r a g e i n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 4 3 , w a s o n c e m o r e h e l d u p b y a s e c o n da t t a c k i n J a n u a r y . A t o n e m o m e n t M . E . W . a n d t h e A d m i r a l t y r e p o r t e d t h a to nl y o n e w a t e r - w a y r e m a i n e d o p e n t o s e rv e t h e i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r i a l N o r t h - E a s tof F r a n c e , a n d w i t h i n a f e w d a y s S . O . E . s u c c e e d e d i n c u t t i n g t h a t l a s t l i n k a l s o .

    3 4 . E l e c t r i c i t y i n s t a l l a t i o n s w e r e f a v o u r i t e t a r g e t s : i n t h e n i n e m o n t h sb e f or e D - d a y, 5 2 m a j o r a t t a c k s o n t r a n s f o r m e r s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t , a t l e a s t fivep o w e r s t a t i o n s w e r e d a m a g e d , a n d h u n d r e d s of h i g h - t e n s i o n c ab l e s a n d p y l o n sw e r e d e s t r o y e d . P a r t i c u l a r l y e ff ec ti ve w e r e a t t a c k s o n t h e h y d r o e l e c t r i c p o w e rs u p p l i e s f o r P a r i s . M a n y f a c t o r i e s w e r e f o r c e d t o c l os e d o w n a s a r e s u l t o f t h er e d u c t i o n i n e l e c t r i c i t y o u t p u t a n d t h e d i ff ic u lt ie s of d i s t r i b u t i o n t h u s e ff ec t ed .G e r m a n t r a n s p o r t p l a n s w e r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y e m b a r r a s s e d b y t h e c o n s e q u e n te x h a u s t i o n o f c o a l s t o c k s . A t t a c k s o n p e t r o l a n d o i l w e r e h i g h i n p r i o r i t y, a n dm a n y r e p o r t s w e r e r e c e i v e d o f t h e s a b o t a g e o f t r a i n s , m o t o r t r a n s p o r t a n d s h i p sc a r r y i n g t h e s e m a t e r i a l s . O n e p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e i s r e p o r t e d o f 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 l i t r e s o fo il a n d 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 l i t r e s o f p e t r o l b e i n g d e s t r o y e d .

    35 . S . O . E . h a d b e e n a s k e d t o c a r r y o u t s a b o t a g e d e s i g n e d t o i m p e d e t h eG . A . F. , b u t i t w a s f o u n d i m p o s s i b l e t o a t t a c k G e r m a n a i r c r a f t o n t h e i r a i r f i e l d s .

    N i n e m a j o r a t t a c k s w e r e , h o w e v e r , c a r r i e d o u t o n f a c t o r i e s m a k i n g a i r c r a f t p a r t sa n d a c c e s s o r i e s, o f w h i c h a n o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e w a s t h e s a b o t a g e of t h e R a t i e ra i r s c r e w f a c t o r y a t To u l o u s e , a s a r e s u l t o f w h i c h t h e G e r m a n s l o s t a n o u t p u t o f3 00 v a r i a b l e p i t c h a i r s c r e w s p e r m o n t h . S h i p p i n g w a s a t t a c k e d t h r o u g h o u t t h ep e r io d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s . I n t h e n i n e m o n t h s b e f o r eD - d a y a t o t a l o f 1 8 s h i p s w e r e s u n k , 1 4 i n D e n m a r k a n d 4 i n N o r w e g i a n p o r t s .M o s t o f t h i s w a s a c h i e v e d b y ' ' L i m p e t s ' ' w h i c h a r e t i m e - f u s e o p e r a t e d b o m b st h a t a d h e r e t o s h i p ' s b o t t o m s u n d e r w a t e r by p o w e r f u l m a g n e t s . T h e y a r e p l a c e di n p o s i t i o n w h i l e t h e s h i p s a r e i n h a r b o u r b y d i v e r s o r m e n l e a n i n g o v e r t h e s i d e sof r o w i n g b o a t s o n d a r k n i g h t s .

    36 . E v e r y eff ort w a s m a d e t o w e a k e n G e r m a n m o r a l e by p r o p a g a n d a , b y t h e

    d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f a l se R a t i o n C a r d s a n d b y m o r e d i r e c t a t t a c k s . I n F r a n c e a l o n ec o n f i rm a t i o n w a s r e c e iv e d o f t h e e x e c u t i o n by R e s i s t a n c e of 1 0 3 G e s t a p o a g e n t sa n d 5 1 c o l l a b o r a t o r s , a n d t h e d e r a i l m e n t , w i t h h e a v y c a s u a l t i e s , o f a t l e a s t12 t r o o p t r a i n s . T h e e v i d e n c e o f c a p t u r e d G e r m a n d o c u m e n t s s e em s t o s h o w t h a ta l a r g e m e a s u r e o f s u c c es s w a s a c h i e v e d b y t h e s e a t t a c k s , a n d t h e G e r m a n s b e c a m ei n c r e a s i n g l y c o n s c i o u s a n d a f r a i d o f t h e u n r e l e n t i n g h o s t i l i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n s o ft h os e c o u n t r i e s t h e y h a d p r o f e s s e d t o " l i b e r a t e . " T h e d i s p e r s a l o f e n e m y t r o o p sa n d t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a r e a s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e b r i d g e h e a d b e c a m e o n e o f t h em o st i m p o r t a n t t a s k s d e m a n d e d o f S . O . E . U n r e s t a n d s a b o t a g e t h r o u g h o u to c c u pi e d t e r r i t o r i e s f o r c e d t h e G e r m a n s n o t o n l y t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r f o r c e s oft r o o p s a n d p o l i c e i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , b u t a l s o t o d i s p e r s e t h e m w i d e l y i n t h e t o w n sa n d v i l l a g e s t o e n a b l e t h e m to m a i n t a i n o r d e r a n d p r o t e c t i n s t a l l a t i o n s . I n a r e a sw h e re t h e M a q u i s h a d a l r e a d y s t a r t e d o v e r t r e s i s t a n c e , t h e y w e r e f o rc e d t o m o u n tp u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s d u r i n g w h i c h t h e y s uf fe re d a p p r e c i a b l e c a s u a l t i e s . I nD e n m a r k t h e r e w a s a g a r r i s o n of 4 d i v i s i o n s i n A u g u s t 1 9 4 3 . B y J a n u a r y t h i sh a d b e e n i n c r e a s e d t o 6 , b y M a r c h t o 8 , a n d i n A u g u s t 7 d i v i s i o n s w e r e s t i l l t h e r e .

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    I N C R E A SE D A I R L I F T .

    3 7 . The second phase of S . O . E . ass i s tance to " Over lord ," cover ing ac t iv i t i eson a n d a f te r D-day , involved f ir st the p r ep ar a t io n of rese rved p lan s a im in g a th a m p e r i n g a n d o b s t r u c t i n g e n e m y r e i n f o r c e m e n t m o v e m e n t s , p r i n c i p a l l y b y t h ed is rup t io n , a t a g iven moment , o f h i s communi ca t i ons wherev er vu lnerab le ,wh et he r by road , ra i l , t e lephone or t e le gr ap h; and secondly the es tab l i shm ent insu i t ab le a rea s o f fo rces equ ipp ed to un de r t ak e gue r r i l l a wa r f a r e an d so to d iver tenemy t roop s f rom the br i dge hea d du r i ng the v i t a l per iod imm edi a te ly a f te rD - d a y . To car ry ou t th i s S . H . A . E . F . di rec t ive , i t was essen t ia l tha t de l iver iesof suppl ies , to th e f ield shou ld be vast ly inc rea sed . A t the beg in ni ng of the yeartwo squ adr ons of L i be ra to rs were a l lo t ted to O. S . S . : th i s b r ou gh t our resourcesup to a to ta l of fou r sq ua dr on s based in En gl an d. I n ad di t i on , a very Largesu ppl eme nt ary effort f rom Bomber Co mma nd (3 Gro up) and A . E . A . F . (38 Group)wa s ma de ava i lab l e ea r l y in the yea r a t the d i re c t io n of the Pr i me Mini s te r .Del iver ies were a imed a t cover ing the rese rved D - d a y pl ans as f i rs t p r io r i ty ,whi l e the su pp le men ta ry e ffor t was employed pr in c i pa l l y on ope ra t ion s to theM a q u i s a r e a s o f S o u t h - E a s t a n d C e n t r a l F r a n c e . I t w a s n o s i m p l e m a t t e r t oincr eas e del ive ries at such a rat e . Ma n y new rec ept ion commit tees wereimmediately required and i t took them some t ime to become eff icient a t thedri l l . Ab ou t 5 pe r cent , of th e la rg e del iver ies of ar ms fel l int o th e ha nd s ofthe Ge rm an s wh o ha d ta ke n to s t a t io n i ng fa l se rece p t ion co mmit te es a t like lyspot s wi th tor che s wh ic h th ey f lashed at a i rc ra f t . B u t in spi te of thes e setbacksan d of very bad we a t he r a s tead i ly mou nt in g to ta l of s to res was despa tch ed andcont a in ers were now cou nted by the th ou sa nd ins tea d of by t ihe hu nd re d . Inp l a n n i n g a n d s u p p l y, p r i o r i t y w a s n a t u r a l l y g i v e n t o F r a n c e .

    T H E M A Q U I S ' s P A R T .

    3 8 . Resistance groups in the immediate coastal zones could not be countedup on to give mu ch ass is t anc e, owi ng to th e pres enc e of so ma ny enem y troo ps,an d this , ha d also ma de th ei r eq ui pm en t speci al ly diff icul t. Efforts wer e the refore conc ent r a ted on bu i ld ing up Res i s t anc e in the a re as o f Ger ma n localrese rves , wi th the ob jec t o f in te r f e r i ng w i t h the movemen ts o f enemy arm ourby cau s in g se r ious d i s loc a t ion on the ra i l wa ys an d ro ad s ; and in the s t ra te g ic ,b a c k a r e a f o r t h e a t t a c k o n s u p p l y d u m p s , i n s t a l l a t i o n s a n d h e a d q u a r t e r s . O nthe ins t ruc t ions o f the Pr ime Minis te r, spec ia l a t t en t ion had been pa id to bu i ldin g up s t ron g Res i s t anc e Forces in the mou nt a i nou s count ry eas t o f the Rhoneva l ley in o rder to cause a maj or d i ver s io n ; whi le , a t the same t ime , p r ep ar a t io nswer e ma de for the-de ve l opme nt o f l a rge Ma qu is g rou ps in o th er su i tab l e a re assuch as the Vosges , Mas s i f Ce nt r a l an d Br i t t a ny .

    P E N E T R AT I O N OF A D M I N I S T R A T I O N S .

    3 9 . In the o th er coun t r i es of We s t e r n Eu ro pe Res i s tan ce wa s deve loped andma in ta in ed a t fu l l s t re ng th in o rder to fo rce the Ge rm an s to re ta in l a rge t roopfor mat ion s in these a re as , an d to a id decep t ion . Res i s t anc e the re wa s no t in tende dto be cal led into the open , but wa s to co nt in ue w i t h sabot age a n d clan dest ineac t i v i t i es , th us co ns t i tu t i ng a cons tan t th r ea t o f a l a rge-sca le r i s i ng in th e enemy 'sr e a r. I n t h e L o w C o u n t r i e s a c t i v i t i e s w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d a g a i n s t e n e m y c o m m u n ic a t i o n s , a n d i n S c a n d i n a v i a a g a i n s t t h e e n e m y ' s p r o d u c t i o n o f w a r m a t e r i a l .

    4 0 . In a l l count r ies ano ther t echnique was be ing deve loped a t the same t imet he pe ne t r a t io n of ad mi n i s t ra t i ve se rv ices such as po l ice , f i re -br igade s , r a i lw ayma na ge me nt o r un i ons . I n every cou nt r y the t r an sp or t wo rk er s were in the vano f R e s i s t a n c e a n d t h e i r o rg a n i s a t i o n s d i r e c t e d t h e c a m p a i g n . A t e l l i n g e x a m pl eof the uno bt r us i ve techni ca l sabotage ca r r ie d ou t by th e ra i l wa ym en came to l igh twhen a Canadian off ice r v i s i t ed the round house a t Dieppe immedia te ly a f te r i t sc a p t u r e i n o r d e r t o r e - e s t a b l i s h t r a n s p o r t on t h e i m p o r t a n t s u p p l y r o u t e toNeuf cha te l . S i x eng i nes wer e in the shed , a l l be ar in g p l ac ar ds s t a t in g the i rdefe c t s ; the mi n i mu m re pa i r per io d was s t a t ed a t th r ee mon ths . A s the officer wasexp res s in g h i s d i sgu s t th e fo rem an came in to the shed a n d took dow n the p laca rds ,s a y i n g " P o u r le s A l l i e s d e m a i n s o i r. " T h e p o l ic e w e r e m o r e p a t c h y, t h o u g hof ten he lpf u l , an d in De nm ar k con s t i tu t ed an inva luab le sh ie ld . Thes e types ofac t i vi ty wer e th e mos t diff icul t for th e Ge rm an s to comba t , an d the ir res ul t s cannotbe assessed even now, tho ug h the im po r t an t pa r t p la yed by the po l ice wa s demons t r a t e d i n t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f P a r i s .

    T H E E V E O F D - D A Y.

    4 1 . By th e be g i nn in g of J u n e 1944 th ree ma in p l an s fo r ac t i on a ga i ns tra i lwa ys , roa ds an d te le comm unic a t io ns wer e rea dy in de t a i l . I n Fr an ce 570

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    r a i l w a y t a r g e t s , 3 0 r o a d c u t s o n i m p o r t a n t r o u t e s a n d 3 2 t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o nt a r g e t s w e r e p r e p a r e d f o r i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n , w h i l e a v e r y l a r g e n u m b e r , i na d d i t i o n , h a d b e e n p l a n n e d a n d w o u l d be e x e c u t e d if t h e n e c e s s a r y e x p l o s i v e s a n dw e a p o n s c o u l d b e d e l i v e r e d . E a c h p l a n h a d i t s g e n e r a l s t a n d - b y m e s s a g e a n d e a c hi n d i v i d u a l t a r g e t i t s a c t i o n m e s s a g e a l l t o b e t r a n s m i t t e d o v e r t h e B . B . C . I n t h eM a q u i s a r e a s , R e s i s t a n c e w a s p r e p a r e d a n d e a g e r f o r o p e n w a r f a r e a g a i n s t t h e

    e n e m y. I t w a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e F r e n c h f o r c e s o f R e s i s t a n c e n u m b e r e d 2 7 6 , 0 0 0 ,o f w h i c h 1 5 2 , 0 00 w e r e a r m e d . T h e F r e n c h h a d a t l a s t l e a r n e d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o rl o c al d e v o l u t i o n a n d f o r d e s p a t c h i n g g o o d o ff ic er s t o t a k e c o m m a n d , a n d i n s p e ct i o n s b y F r e n c h a n d B r i t i s h of fic er s f o u n d ef fi ci en c y r a p i d l y i m p r o v i n g .

    - 4 2 . I n B e l g i u m t h e t w o m a i n R e s i s t a n c e o r g a n i s a t i o n s , o n e m i l i t a r y a n do n e " c i v i l , " w e r e r e a d y t o p l a y t h e i r p a r t . T h e B e l g i a n p l a n w a s d i v i d e d i n t ot h r e e p h a s e s :

    ( i ) C l a n d e s t i n e s a b o t a g e o f t h e k e y r a i l w a y s , t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n db r i d g e s .

    ( ii ) G e n e r a l h a r a s s i n g a c t i o n b y i n d e p e n d e n t s a b o t a g e a n d m i n o r g u e r r i l l a, a c t i o n .

    ( i i i ) G u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e b a s e d on c h o s e n s t r o n g p o i n t s or l a a g e r s u n d e r t h ec o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e m i l i t a r y o r g a n i s a t i o n .

    T h e t o t a l s t r e n g t h o f R e s i s t a n c e i n B e l g i u m w a s r e t u r n e d a t 65 , 0 0 0 , o f w h o m i th a d o n l y b e e n p o s s i b l e t o a r m 7 - 8 , 0 0 0 .

    4 3 . A t t e m p t s t o c o n t a c t t h e D u t c h R e s i s t a n c e M o v e m e n t s a f t e r t h e b r e a ku p o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n i n t h a t c o u n t r y h a d f a i l e d a n d i t w a s t h e r e f o r e i m p o s s i b l et o m a k e a n y f o r w a r d p l a n s f o r t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t . I n N o r w a y 2 0 ,0 0 0 a n d i nD e n m a r k 1 8 , 0 0 0 m e n w ^ere r e a d y f o r a c t i o n , b u t of t h e s e o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e l yo n e - q u a r t e r w e r e a r m e d . T h e d a y s o f p r e p a r a t i o n w e r e o v er a n d R e s i s t a n c et h r o u g h o u t o c c u p i e d E u r o p e w a s a w a i t i n g t h e c a l l t o a c t io n .

    " J E D B T J R G H S . "

    4 4 . P l a n s w e r e a ls o m a d e f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a d e q u a t e l i a i s o n w i t h t h e v a r i o u sm i l i t a r y f o r m a t i o n s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e field a n d t o t h i s e n d " S p e c i a l F o r c e " s t af f sof B r i t i s h , C a n a d i a n a n d A m e r i c a n offic ers w e r e r e c r u i t e d a n d t r a i n e d f o r a t t a c hm e n t t o A r m y G r o u p s a n d A r m i e s . T h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s e S t af fs w e r e t o p r o v i d et he c o m m a n d e r of th e f o r m a t i o n t o- w h i c h t h e y w e r e a t t a c h e d w i t h i n f o r m at i o n a n d a d v i c e o n r e s i s t a n c e a n d i t s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , a n d t o s e n d b a c k t oS . F. H . Q . i n d i c a t i o n s o f o p e r a t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d a s s i s t t h e a r m i e s . O n t h e o t h e rh a n d , i n o r d e r t o g u a r d a g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a b r e a k d o w n o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n sw i t h t h e field, s p e c i a l l y t r a i n e d r e s e r v e s w e r e p r e p a r e d a n d h e l d r e a d y i n E n g l a n da n d N o r t h A f r i c a . T h e s e w e r e o f f o u r t y p e s : s m a l l t e a m s o f B r i t i s h , F r e n c ha n d A m e r i c a n o ff ic ers w i t h a W /T o p e r a t o r n a m e d " J e d b u r g h s , " w h o c o u ld bed r o p p e d t o R e s i s t a n c e G r o u p s n e e d i n g a s s i s t a n c e , a n d w h o s e f u n c t i o n w a s t op r o vi d e l e a d e r s h i p , W /T c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d u p - t o - d a t e o r d e r s f r o m S . F . H . Q . ;A m e r i c a n O p e r a t i o n a l G r o u p s , c o n s i s t i n g o f h i g h l y t r a i n e d p a r a t r o o p s w i t hW / T o p e r a t o r s ; " B a r d s e a " t e a m s w h o c o u l d b e s e n t t o r e i n f o r c e t h e P o l i s hR e s i s t a n c e g r o u p s i n t h e L i l l e a r e a o f N o r t h e r n F r a n c e , w h e r e s o m e 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 P o l e sw o r k i n t h e m i n e s ; a n d l a s t l y, a n u m b e r o f t r a i n e d o r g a n i s e r s w h o w e r e h e l d i nr e a d i n e s s f o r s p e c i a l m i s s i o n s . '

    T H E B . B . C . C A L L S .

    4 5 . B y t h e S p r i n g o f 1 9 4 4 a r m s d e l i v e r i e s h a d b e c o m e s o f r e q u e n t t h a t t h e

    " m e s s a g e s p e r s o n n e l s " o n' t h e B . B . C . w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e i r t r a n s m i s s i o n st o F r a n c e a t 1 3 3 0 , 1 4 3 0 , 1 9 3 0 a n d 2 11 5 h o u r s . T o t h e s e t h e l e a d e r s o f t h eR e s i s t a n c e G r o u p s u s e d t o l i s t e n w h e n e v e r t h e y c o u l d , n o t o n ly w h e n t h e y w e r ee x p e c t i n g a d e s p a t c h of a r m s t o t h e i r g r o u p , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e t h e y k n e w t h a t i nt h is w a y t h e y w o u l d b e w a r n e d w h e n t h e ' A l l i e d i n v a s i o n w a s c o m i n g . E a c hg r o u p h a d i t s a l l o t t e d t a r g e t s a n d e a c h w a s e x p e c t i n g a ' ' s t a n d - b y ' ' m e s s a g e a sw e l l a s a s u b s e q u e n t " a c t i o n " m e s s a g e .

    4 6 . A t 1 - 3 0 p . m . o n t h e a f t e r n o o n o f t h e 1 s t J u n e , 1 9 4 4, t h e R e s i s t a n c el e a d e rs l i s t e n i n g t o t h e i r h o m e w i r e l e s s se t s o r t o t h e m i d g e t c o m m u n i c a t i o n sr e c e iv e r s w h i c h S . O . E . h a d s e n t o u t f o r t h e p u r p o s e , s u d d e n l y h e a r d t h e m e s s a g et he y h a d m e m o r i s e d fo r m o n t h s , a n d w h i c h S . H . A . E . F. h a d n o w i n s t r u c t e d S . O . E .t o t r a n s m i t . I t w a s t h e " S t a n d - b y ! " C o u l d i t a t l a s t b e t r u e ? T h e w o r dq u i c kl y w e n t r o u n d . M o r e e a r s w e r e l i s t e n i n g t o t h e 2 - 3 0 p . m . b r o a d c a s t a n da g a i n t h e r e w a s t h e " S t a n d - b y . " I t w a s r e p e a t e d a t 7- 3 0 p . m . a n d a t 9 - 1 5 p . m .

    [ 2 8 3 6 6 ] D

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    T he next- da y on al l four t r ans mis si ons the same ' ' St an d- by ' ' mes sages camealong . Even the n Res is t anc e Gr ou ps could scarcely bel ieve i t . Th e da te hadbeen so long pos tp on ed ; the Ge rm an s seemed so s t r ong . Bu t they ma de t heirpr ep ar a t io ns , the i r t a rge t s were reconn oi t red , the i r a r ms were dug up f rom the i rh i d i ng p laces . Th en came the 3rd Ju ne . The re were p len ty of " me ss ag esp e r s o n n e l s , " b u t n o n e of t h e m w e r e " s t a n d - b y " o r " a c t i o n " m e ss a ge s . T h esame th in g occur red on the 4 th Ju ne . W h a t ha d ha pp en ed ? . H a d the p lanmis car r ie d? Wa s . t h e wea the r in the channe l too ba d? Everyone was l i s ten i ngag ai n at . l -30 p.m. on the 5th Ju ne , but a ga in the re we re no " s tand -by " messagesan d no " act ion " message s. Th e ne xt two tr ans mis si on s wer e th e same. Thenat 9-1 5 p.m . on th e ev en in g of the 5t h Ju n e the re came th e " act ion " messages,whi ch Re si s t an ce ha d been wa it in g for for thr ee ye ars and more. Th e ho ur hadat las t come!

    4 7 . Res i s tan ce wen t in to ac t io n a t once ; the t r an s i t i on be tween the twophases , f rom sabotage to guer r i l l a war fa re , was c lea r ly marked by the execu t ionof D-d ay pl ans . I n Fr an ce , whe re the gr eat es t im me di at e effor t wa s expected,Resis tance was now uni ted into a s ingle federat ion as the " Forces Franchises del T n t e r i e u r " E . F. I . - a n d i t s c o m m a n d w a s v es t e d b y S . H . A . E . F. i n G e n e r a lKoenig and passed ou t o f the d i rec t opera t iona l con t ro l o f S . F . H . Q . and of S . O . E .

    4 8 . . The great gamble was no longer on the spir i t nor even on the preparedness of th e Fre nch , bu t on the Ge rm an react i on. Wo ul d they, in an t i ci pa t i on orconcur ren t ly, t ake such repress ive and puni t ive methods as to overwhelmR e s i s t a n c e e n t i r e l y ? I n the event the Ge rm an s rea cte d as ta rd i l y an d inefficient lyaga ins t the in t e r i o r as aga ins t the ex t e r i o r enemy. This , combined wi th theincreased suppl ies and a wave of en thus iasm throughout the occupied count r ies ,ensured a degree of success beyond the dreams even of S . O . E .

    T H E F. F. I . S T R I K E .

    4 9 . I n Fra nc e the D-d ay pla ns we re exec uted wi th eff ic iency and despatch-Prear ranged ra i lway ta rge t s were a t t acked a l l over the count ry, and the genera lchaos wa s enh anc ed by spo nta neo us acts . Th e local conges t ion bui l t up valuableta rge t s for the Ai r Forc e ; fo r ins ta nce , ' a t L i l l e 51 t r a i ns were he ld up a t once .Mes sag es from the field re po rt ed 486 succes sful r ai l cut s in Fr an ce an d theder a i l ment of 180 Ger ma n t r a i ns in the immedi a te ly pos t -D-d ay per iod .Moreover, th i s l eve l of sabotage was ma in ta in ed . I n mi d- Ju ly the n in e mainar te r i es in the No rt h were s t i l l bei ng cut f rom two to five t imes da i l y; an d byAu g us t 668 locomotives ha d been des tro yed an d 2,900 at ta ck s on ra i l wa ys hadbeen rep ort ed . Th e confusion on the rai lw ay s drov e the enemy to the employment o f road t ranspor t , and here aga in the F.F. I . were wai t ing for them.Sign pos t s were chan ged rou nd to po in t the wr on g wa y; in many p laces the t a l lpo pl ar t rees th at orn am en t Fr en ch road s wer e fel led across th em ; scores ofth ou sa nd s of mi dg et mines the s ize of a pi l l -box, desi gne d in the S.O.E. researchstat ion and known as " tyre bursters " (which make a hole the s ize of an orangein any ty re th at passes over the m), wer e s t re wn on al l the roa ds the Ge rm an s werel ikely to use. Convoys of vehicles an d ma rc hi ng t ro ops suffered numer ouscas ual t ie s in ambus hes, and we re co nt i nu al ly force d to ha l t and dri ve back thepa t r io t fo rces before p rocee d ing . By Au gu s t 220 im po r t an t road and ra i l b r idgeshad been ei ther destroyed or badly damaged and t raff ic everywhere wasslowed down.

    5 0 . Th e th i r d D-day p la n wa s a l so be in g execu ted . By Au gu s t 380 cu ts onte lec ommun ica t i ons had been rep or t ed and num ero us power l ines ha d been pu tou t o f ac t ion , par t i cu la r ly those converg ing on Bordeaux , Tarbes , Lyons , Dole ,Le Man s , Or leans , L i l l e an d Pa r i s . A t the requ es t of 21 Ar my Gr ou p , success fula t t ack s were ca r r i ed ou t by Res i s t anc e on mi l i t a ry te lecomm unica t ions in theimm edi a te ne igh bour hood of the b r id ge he ad a t such cen t r es as S t . Lo , Avranches ,Caen, Rouen and Amiens, and the enemy was forced to make extensive use ofw i r e l e s s f o r o p e r a t i o n a l m a t t e r s .

    T H E G E R M A N P I N N E D .

    5 1 . Th e effect of th is ac t iv i t y, combine d wit h the act io n of the All ied Ai rForces , was t re men dou s . The Ge rma n t roops movi ng to the br i dge hea d a re a foundthe i r communica t ions everywhere in a s ta te o f chaos , and i t was es t imated tha tthe no rm al dela y on the fo rw ar d mov ement of th ei r adv anc e was betwe en 48 and72 ho ur s, wh il e in ex ce pt io na l cases it wa s mu ch lon ger . W h e n the y finally rea che dthe ba t t l e a