Sodium silicate

E550 redirects here. For the Italian locomotive, seeFS Class E550.

Sodium silicate is the common name for compoundswith the formula Na2(SiO2)O. A well knownmember ofthis series is sodium metasilicate, Na2SiO3. Also knownas waterglass or liquid glass, these materials are avail-able in aqueous solution and in solid form. The pure com-positions are colourless or white, but commercial samplesare often greenish or blue owing to the presence of iron-containing impurities.They are used in cements, passive re protection, tex-tile and lumber processing, refractories, and automobiles.Sodium carbonate and silicon dioxide react when moltento form sodium silicate and carbon dioxide:[1]

Na2CO3 + SiO2 Na2SiO3 + CO2

Anhydrous sodium silicate contains a chain polymericanion composed of corner shared {SiO4} tetrahe-dral, and not a discrete SiO32 ion.[1] In addition tothe anhydrous form, there are hydrates with the for-mula Na2SiO3nH2O (where n = 5, 6, 8, 9) whichcontain the discrete, approximately tetrahedral anionSiO2(OH)22 with water of hydration. For example,the commercially available sodium silicate pentahydrateNa2SiO35H2O is formulated as Na2SiO2(OH)24H2Oand the nonahydrate Na2SiO39H2O is formulated asNa2SiO2(OH)28H2O.[2]

In industry, the various grades of sodium silicate are char-acterized by their SiO2:Na2O weight ratio (weight ratioscan be converted to molar ratios by multiplication with1.032), which can vary between 2:1 and 3.75:1.[3] Gradeswith this ratio below 2.85:1 are termed 'alkaline'. Thosewith a higher SiO2:Na2O ratio are described as 'neutral'.

1 HistoryWater Glass[4] was dened in Von Wagners Manual ofChemical Technology (1892 translation) as any of the sol-uble alkaline silicates, rst observed by Jean Baptist vanHelmont circa 1640 as a uid substance made by melt-ing sand with excess alkali.[5][6] Glauber made what hetermed liquor silicum in 1646 from potash and silica.[7]Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs, in 1818, obtained what isnow known as water glass by treating silicic acid with analkali, the result being soluble in water, but not aected

by atmospheric changes.[8][9] Von Wagner distinguishedsoda, potash, double (soda and potash), and xing (i.e.,stabilizing) as types of water glass. The xing type wasa mixture of silica well saturated with potash water glassand a sodium silicate used to stabilize inorganic watercolor pigments on cement work for outdoor signs andmu-rals.

2 PropertiesSodium silicate is a white powder that is readily solu-ble in water, producing an alkaline solution. It is one ofa number of related compounds which include sodiumorthosilicate, Na4SiO4, sodium pyrosilicate, Na6Si2O7,and others. All are glassy, colourless and soluble in wa-ter.Sodium silicate is stable in neutral and alkaline solutions.In acidic solutions, the silicate ion reacts with hydrogenions to form silicic acid, which when heated and roastedforms silica gel, a hard, glassy substance.

3 ProductionSodium silicate is commonly manufactured using a reac-tion in liquid phase or in solid phase. Both processes usealkaline and quartz sand as raw materials.

3.1 Liquid phaseAmixture of caustic soda, quartz sand, and water are pre-pared in a mixing tank, then fed into a reactor, wheresteam is introduced. The reaction isn SiO2 + 2 NaOH Na2OnSiO2 + H2O

3.2 Solid phase (thermal process)Sodium carbonate and sodium sulfate melt at tempera-tures far below that of silica. (1600 C)Either is melted, and silica dissolved into the molten ma-terial, where it reacts to form sodium silicate.

Na2CO3 + x SiO2 (Na2O)(SiO2) + CO2

2 Na2SO4 + C + 2 SiO2 2Na2SiO3 + 2 SO2+ CO2

1

2 4 USES

4 UsesIn 1990, 4M tons of alkali metal silicates were produced.The main applications were in detergents, paper, watertreatment, and construction materials.[3]

4.1 Adhesive

The largest application of sodium silicate solutions is acement for producing cardboard.[3] When used as a pa-per cement, the tendency is for the sodium silicate jointeventually to crack within a few years, at which point itno longer holds the paper surfaces cemented together.

4.2 Drilling uids

Sodium silicate is frequently used in drilling uids to sta-bilize borehole wells and to avoid the collapse of borewalls. It is particularly useful when drill holes passthrough argillaceous formations containing swelling clayminerals such as smectite or montmorillonite.

4.3 Concrete and general masonry treat-ment

Concrete treated with a sodium silicate solution helps tosignicantly reduce porosity in most masonry productssuch as concrete, stucco, plasters. A chemical reactionoccurs with the excess Ca(OH)2 (portlandite) present inthe concrete that permanently binds the silicates with thesurface making them far more durable and water repel-lent. It is generally advised to apply this treatment onlyafter the initial cure has taken place (7 days or so depend-ing on conditions). These coatings are known as silicatemineral paint.

4.4 Detergent auxiliaries

It is used in detergent auxiliaries like complex sodiumdisilicate and modied sodium disilicate. The deter-gent granules gain their ruggedness from a coating ofsilicates.[3]

4.5 Water treatment

Water glass is used as coagulant/occulant agent in wastewater treatment plants. Waterglass binds to colloidalmolecules, creating larger aggregates that sink to the bot-tom of the water column. The microscopic negativelycharged particles suspended in water interact with sodiumsilicate. Their electrical double layer collapses due tothe increase of ionic strength caused by the addition of

sodium silicate (doubly negatively charged anion accom-panied by two sodium cations) and they subsequently ag-gregate. This process is called coagulation/occulation.[3]

4.6 Refractory useWater glass is a useful binder of solids, such asvermiculite and perlite. When blended with the afore-mentioned lightweight aggregates, water glass can be usedto make hard, high-temperature insulation boards usedfor refractories, passive re protection and high tempera-ture insulations, such as moulded pipe insulation applica-tions. When mixed with nely divided mineral powders,such as vermiculite dust (which is common scrap fromthe exfoliation process), one can produce high tempera-ture adhesives. The intumescence disappears in the pres-ence of nely divided mineral dust, whereby the water-glass becomes a mere matrix. Waterglass is inexpensiveand abundantly available, which makes its use popular inmany refractory applications.

4.7 Dye auxiliarySodium silicate solution is used as a xative for hand dye-ing with reactive dyes that require a high pH in orderto react with the textile ber. After the dye is appliedto a cellulose-based fabric, such as cotton or rayon, oronto silk, it is allowed to dry, after which the sodium sili-cate is painted on to the dyed fabric, covered with plasticto retain moisture, and left to react for an hour at roomtemperature.[10]

4.8 Niche and hobby uses4.8.1 Passive re protection (PFP)

Sodium silicates are inherently intumescent. They comein prill (solid beads) form, as well as the liquid, waterglass. The solid sheet form (Palusol) must be water-proofed to ensure long-term passive re protection.Standard, solid, bead form sodium silicates have beenused as aggregate within silicone rubber to manufac-ture plastic pipe restop devices. The silicone rubberwas insucient waterproong to preserve the intumesc-ing function and the products had to be recalled, whichis problematic for restops that are concealed behinddrywall in buildings.Pastes for caulking purposes are similarly unstable. Thistoo has resulted in recalls and even litigation. Only 3M'sExpantrol version, which has an external heat treatmentthat helps to seal the outer surface, as part of its processstandard, has achieved sucient longevity to qualify forDIBt approvals in the US for use in restoppingNot unlike other intumescents, sodium silicate, both inbead form and in liquid form are inherently endothermic,

4.8 Niche and hobby uses 3

Expantrol proprietary sodium silicate suspended in an about 6.5mm thick layer of red rubber, type 3M FS195, inserted into ametal pipe, then heated, to demonstrate hard char intumescence,strong enough to shut a melting plastic pipe.

Palusol based intumescent plastic pipe device used for commer-cial restopping.

due to liquid water in the water glass and hydrates in the

prill form. The absence in the US of mandatory agingtests, whereby PFP systems are made to undergo sys-tem performance tests after the aging and humidity ex-posures, are at the root of the continued availability, inNorth America, of PFP products that can become inop-erable within weeks of installation. Indiscriminate useof sodium silicates without proper waterproong mea-sures are contributors to the problems and risk. Whensodium silicates are adequately protected, they functionextremely well and reliably for long periods. Evidenceof this can be seen in the many DIBt approvals for plas-tic pipe restop devices using Palusol, which use water-proofed sodium silicate sheets.

4.8.2 Food preservation

World War I poster suggesting the use of waterglass to preserveeggs (lower right).

Sodium silicate was also used as an egg preservation agentthrough the early 20th century with large success. Whenfresh eggs are immersed in it, bacteria which cause theeggs to spoil are kept out and water is kept in. Eggs canbe kept fresh using this method for up to ve months.When boiling eggs preserved this way, it is well advisedto pin-prick the egg to allow steam to escape because theshell is no longer porous.[11]

4 4 USES

4.8.3 Metal repair

Sodium silicate is used, along with magnesium silicate, inmuer repair and tting paste. When dissolved in water,both sodium silicate and magnesium silicate form a thickpaste that is easy to apply. When the exhaust system of aninternal combustion engine heats up to its operating tem-perature, the heat drives out all of the excess water fromthe paste. The silicate compounds that are left over haveglass-like properties, making a temporary, brittle repair.

4.8.4 Automotive repair

Sodium silicate is also used currently as an exhaust sys-tem joint and crack sealer for repairing muers, res-onators, tailpipes and other exhaust components, withand without berglass reinforcing tapes. In this applica-tion, the sodium silicate (60-70%) is typically mixed withkaolin (40-30%), an aluminium silicate mineral, in orderto make the sodium silicate glued joint opaque. Thesodium silicate, however, is the high temperature adhe-sive; the kaolin serves simply as a compatible high tem-perature coloring agent. Some of these repair compoundsalso contain glass bres to enhance their gap-lling abili-ties and reduce brittleness.Sodium silicate can be used to ll gaps within the headgasket. Commonly used on aluminum alloy cylinderheads, which are sensitive to thermally induced surfacedeection, and can be caused by many things includ-ing head-bolt stretching, decient coolant delivery, highcylinder head pressure, over-heating, etc.Liquid glass (sodium silicate) is added to the systemthrough the radiator, and allowed to circulate. Sodiumsilicate is suspended in the coolant until it reaches thecylinder head. At 100105 C sodium silicate loses watermolecules to form a glass seal with a re-melt temperatureabove 810 C.A sodium silicate repair will last two years, sometimeslonger. The repair occurs rapidly, and symptoms disap-pear instantly. This repair only works when the sodiumsilicate reaches its conversion temperature at 100105C. Contamination of engine oil is a serious possibil-ity in situations in which a coolant-to-oil leak is present.Sodium silicate (glass particulate) contamination of lu-bricants is detrimental to their function.Sodium silicate solution is used to inexpensively, quickly,and permanently disable automobile engines. Runningan engine with about 2 liters of a sodium silicate solu-tion instead of motor oil causes the solution to precipi-tate, catastrophically damaging the engines bearings andpistons within a few minutes.[12] In the United States, thisprocedure was used to comply with requirements of theCar Allowance Rebate System (CARS) program.[12][13]

4.8.5 Homebrewing

Sodium silicate occulant properties are also used toclarify wine and beer by precipitating colloidal parti-cles. But as a clearing agent sodium silicate (water glass)is sometimes confused with isinglass which is preparedfrom collagen extracted from the dried swim bladders ofsturgeon and other shes. Eggs preserved in a bucket ofwaterglass gel, and their shells, are sometimes also used(baked and crushed) to clear wine.[14]

4.8.6 Aquaculture

Sodium silicate gel is also used as a substrate for algalgrowth in aquaculture hatcheries.

4.8.7 Safe construction

A mixture of sodium silicate and sawdust has been usedin between the double skin of certain safes. This not onlymakes them more re resistant, but also makes cuttingthem open with an oxyacetylene torch extremely dicultdue to the smoke emitted.

4.8.8 Crystal gardens

When crystals of a number of metallic salts are droppedinto a solution of water glass, simple or branchingstalagmites of coloured metal silicates are formed. Thisphenomenon has been used by manufacturers of toys andchemistry sets to provide instructive enjoyment to manygenerations of children from the early 20th century tillthe present. An early mention of crystals of metallicsalts forming a "chemical garden" in sodium silicate isfound in the 1946Modern Mechanix magazine.[15] Metalsalts used included the sulfates and/or chlorides of cop-per, cobalt, iron, nickel and manganese.

4.8.9 Pottery

Sodium Silicate is used to create a crackle eect in pot-tery, usually wheel-thrown. A vase or bottle is thrownon the wheel, fairly narrow and with thick walls. Sodiumsilicate is brushed on a section of the piece. After 5 min-utes, the wall of the piece is stretched outward with a ribor hand. The result is a wrinkled or cracked look.It is also the main agent in magic water, which is usedwhen joining clay pieces, especially if the moisture levelof the two diers.[16]

4.9 Sealing of leaking water containingstructures

Sodium silicate with additives was injected into theground in order to harden it and thereby to prevent further

5leakage of highly radioactive water from the FukushimaDaiichi nuclear power plant in Japan in April, 2011.[17]The residual heat carried by the water used for cooling thedamaged reactors accelerated the setting of the injectedmixture.On June 3, 1958, the USS Nautilus, the worlds rst nu-clear submarine, visited Everett and Seattle. In Seattle,crewmen dressed in civilian clothing, were sent in to se-cretly buy 140 quarts of an automotive product contain-ing sodium silicate (originally identied as Stop Leak) torepair a leaking condenser system. The Nautilus was enroute to the North Pole on a Top Secret mission to crossthe North Pole submerged.[18]

4.9.1 Cartridges

A historical use of the adhesive properties of sodium sili-cates is the production of paper cartridges for black pow-der revolvers produced by Colts Manufacturing Com-pany during the period from 1851 until 1873, especiallyduring the American CivilWar. Sodium silicate was usedto seal combustible nitrated paper together to form a con-ical paper cartridge to hold the black powder, as well asto cement the lead ball or conical bullet into the open endof the paper cartridge. Such sodium silicate cementedpaper cartridges were inserted into the cylinders of re-volvers, thereby speeding the reloading of cap and ballblack powder revolvers. This use largely ended with theintroduction of Colt revolvers employing brass-cased car-tridges starting in 1873.[19][20] Similarly, sodium silicatewas also used to cement the top wad into brass shotgunshells, thereby eliminating any need for a crimp at thetop of the brass shotgun shell to hold a shotgun shell to-gether. Reloading brass shotgun shells was widely prac-ticed by self-reliant American farmers during the 1870s,using the same waterglass material that was also used topreserve eggs. The cementing of the top wad on a shotgunshell consisted of applying from 3 to 5 drops of waterglasson the top wad to secure it to the brass hull. Brass hullsfor shotgun shells were superseded by paper hulls start-ing around 1877. The newer paper-hulled shotgun shellsused a roll crimp in place of a waterglass cemented jointto hold the top wad in the shell. However, whereas brassshotshells with top wads cemented with waterglass couldbe reloaded nearly indenitely (given powder, wad, andshot, of course), the paper hulls that replaced the brasshulls could be reloaded only a few times.

5 References[1] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chem-

istry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.ISBN 0080379419.

[2] Wells A.F. (1984) Structural Inorganic Chemistry 5th edi-tion Oxford Science Publications ISBN 0-19-855370-6

[3] Gerard Lagaly, Werner Tufar, A. Minihan,A. Lovell Silicates in Ullmanns Encyclope-dia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, 2005.doi:10.1002/14356007.a23_661

[4] See also: Leopold Wol, Das Wasserglas: Seine Darstel-

lung, Eigenschaften und seine mannichfache An-wendung in den technischen Gewerben [Water-glass: its preparation, properties, and its manifolduses in technical commerce] (Leipzig, (Germany):Quedlinburg, 1846).

Emile Kopp (1857) Sur la prparation et les pro-prits du verre soluble ou des silicates de potasse etde soude; analyse de tous les travaux publis jusqu'ace jour sur ce sujet (On the preparation and prop-erties of water-glass or the silicates of potash andsoda; analysis of all works published until today onthis subject) Le Moniteur scientique, 1 : 337-349,366-391.

Hermann Krtzer, Wasserglas und Infusorienerde,deren Natur und Bedeutung fr Industrie, Technikund die Gewerbe [Water-glass and soluble earths,their nature and signicance for industry, tech-nology, and commerce] (Vienna (Wien), Austria:Hartleben, 1887).

Hermann Mayer, Das Wasserglas; Sein Eigen-schaften, Fabrikation und Verwendung auf Grundvon Erfahrungen und Mitteilungen der FirmaHenkel & Cie. [Water-glass: Its properties, pro-duction, and application on the basis of experiencesand communications of the rm of Henkel & Co.](Braunschweig, Germany: Vieweg, 1925).

Morris Schrero,Water-glass: A Bibliography (Pitts-burgh, Pennsylvania: Carnegie Library, 1922).

[5] Johannes van Helmont, Opuscula medica inaudita,(Cologne (Coloni Agrippin), (Germany): Jost Kalck-hoven (JodocumKalcoven), 1644), part I: De Lithiasi. Onpage 53, van Helmont mentions that alkalis dissolve sili-cates: Porro lapides, gemmae, arenae, marmora, silices,&c. adjuncto alcali, vitricantur: sin autem plure alcalicoquantur, resolvuntur in humido quidem: ac resoluta,facili negotio acidorum spirituum, separantur ab alcali,pondere pristini pulveris lapidum. (Furthermore, stone,gems, sand, marble, silica, etc., become glassy by the ad-dition of alkali: but if roasted with more alkali, they aredissolved in moisture: and the former weight of the stonepowder is separated from the alkali and released by simplyadding acid.)

[6] A number of other alchemists supposedly discoveredpotassium silicate before van Helmont. See:

Giambattista della Porta in his bookMagia naturalissive de miraculis rerum naturalium (1567), men-tions that cream of tartar (tartari salis) causes pow-dered quartz (crystallum) to melt at a lower temper-ature. See: Baptista Porta, Magia naturalis sive demiraculis rerum naturalium, libri iiii [Natural magicor on the miracles of nature, in four books] (Lyon(Lugdunum), France: Guillaume Rouill (Guliel-mum Rovillium), 1569), pages 290-291, Crystal-lus, ut fusilis at (quartz, so made molten).

6 7 EXTERNAL LINKS

There is some evidence that the alchemist BasilValentine prepared potassium silicate in 1520. See:Kohn, C. (1862) Die Erndung des Wasserglas imJahre 1520 (The invention of waterglass in the year1520), Zeitschrift des Oesterreichischen Ingenieur-Vereins (Journal of the Austrian Engineer Associ-ation), 14 : 229-230.

However, subsequently an article pointed out that the sub-stance prepared by Basil Valentine in 1520, by Agricolain 1550, by van Helmont in ca. 1640, and by Glauber in1648 was not the waterglass that Fuchs produced in 1818.See:

Anon. (1863) Die Erndung desWasserglases im Jahre 1520, Kunst-und Gewerbe-Blatt, 49 : 228-230.

Reprinted in: Anon. (1863) DieErndung des Wasserglases im Jahre1520, Polytechnisches Journal, 168 :394-395.

Reprinted in: Anon. (1863) Die ange-bliche Erndung des Wasserglases imJahre 1520 (On the alleged inventionof waterglass in the year 1520), NeuesRepertorium fr Pharmacie, 12 : 271-273.

[7] Johann Rudolf Glauber, Furni Novi Philosophici [Newphilosophical furnace] (Amsterdam: Johan Jansson,1646). In the 1661 German-language edition, see Chap-ter LXXIX. Wie durch Hl eines reinen Sandes oderKilings / au Sale Tartari ein krtiger Spiritus kan er-langet werden. (How with the help of a pure sand or sil-ica / a powerful solution can be gotten from cream of tar-tar). Glaubers recipe for liquor silicum (potassium sili-cate) appears on pages 164-166. The recipe is simple:Potassium hydrogen tartrate (cream of tartar, Sale tartari,Weinstein ) is heated in a furnace until its converted topotassium carbonate. The potassium carbonate is mixedwith sand in a crucible and heated until the mixture melts.The mixture is maintained in a liquid state until it ceasesto bubble (due to the release of carbon dioxide from thepotassium carbonate). The mixture is allowed to cooland then pulverized to a ne powder. When the powderis exposed to moist air, it gradually forms a viscous liq-uid, which Glauber called Oleum oder Liquor Silicum,Aren, vel Crystallorum (i.e., oil or solution of silica,sand or [quartz] crystal).

[8] See:

Joh. Nep. Fuchs (1825) Ueber ein neues Pro-dukt aus Kieselerde und Kali (On a new productfrom silica and potassium), Archiv fr die gesammteNaturlehre, 5 (4) : 385-412. On page 386, Fuchsstates that he rst prepared potassium silicate in1818: Ich erhielt es zuerst, vor ungefhr 7 Jahren," (I rst obtained it about 7 years ago, ); sincethe Fuchs paper was published in 1825, 7 years ear-lier would be 1818.

Reprinted in: Joh. Nepomuk Fuchs (1825) Ueberein neues Produkt aus Kieselerde und Kali; unddessen nzliche Anwendung als Schuzmittel gegen

schnelle Verbreitung des Feuers in Theatern, alsBindemittel, rniartigen Anstrichen u.s.w. (Ona new product from silica and potassium; and itsuseful application as a protection against the rapidspread of re in theaters, as a glue, varnish, etc.)Polytechnisches Journal, 17 : 465-481.

[9] VonWagner, Rudolf (1892 translation of 13th edition byWillian Crookes) Manual of Chemical Technology

[10] Burch, Paula (March 22, 2010). Sodium silicate as a x-ative for dyeing. Retrieved March 22, 2010.

[11] How To Store Fresh Eggs

[12] Helliker, Kevin. "The Killer App for Clunkers BreathesFresh Life Into 'Liquid Glass" The Wall Street Journal, 4August 2009.

[13] Engine Disablement Procedures for the CARS program,cars.gov

[14] SM Tritton (1956) Amateur wine making.

[15] Magic garden. Mechanix Illustrated: 88. April 1946.

[16] http://lakesidepottery.com/HTML%20Text/Tips/pottery-magic-mud-magic-water-paper-clay.htm

[17] Daily Mail Reporter. Liquid glass successfully plugs ra-dioactive leak at crippled Fukushima nuclear plant, MailOnline News, April 6, 2011, accessed April 7, 2010.

[18] Commander William R. Anderson with Clay Blair Jr.,Nautilus 90 North (Cleveland and New York: TheWorld Publishing Co., 1959), pp. 133-137; Comman-der William R. Anderson with Clay Blair Jr., Nautilus 90North (New York: The New American Library, 1959),89-90

[19] Tom Kelley (August 1995). Making and using com-bustible paper pistol cartridges.

[20] Kirst, W.J. (1983). Self consuming paper cartridges for thepercussion revolver. Minneapolis, Minnesota: NorthwestDevelopment Co.

6 Other reading Ashfords Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals, thirdedition, 2011, page 8369.

7 External links Centre Europen d'Etudes des Silicates International Chemical Safety Card 1137 ChemSub Online : Silicic acid, sodium salt ChemSub Online : Sodium metasilicate

78 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses8.1 Text

Sodium silicate Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium%20silicate?oldid=654760305 Contributors: Docu, Stone, Dysprosia, Bkell,Rsduhamel, Dratman, Mboverload, SoWhy, Beland, The MoUsY spell-checker, Iantresman, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Brianhe, ArnoldRein-hold, Fluzwup, Ylee, Bobo192, Kx1186, Hooperbloob, Mdd, Alansohn, Oasisbob, Keenan Pepper, Benjah-bmm27, Velella, Trlblzr,Mindmatrix, Seansheep, DePiep, Rogerd, Alcarreau, SchuminWeb, BjKa, Physchim62, DVdm, YurikBot, Janke, Zzuuzz, Bridgman,Cmglee, Groyolo, Attilios, SmackBot, Errarel, Shoy, Mikesebok, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Mortezamohammadi, Ondrej.lipar, Yaf,Nakon, Smokefoot, Polonium, Kukini, Zaphraud, 16@r, Beetstra, Ahering@cogeco.ca, Hetar, Woodshed, Thricecube, CmdrObot, Palad-inZ06, Jane023, Cydebot, Reywas92, Grahamec, Rieman 82, Christian75, Calvero JP, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, SvenAERTS, EdJogg,Widefox, Danroa, Numberharmonics, Postlewaight, JAnDbot, Lumber Jack second account, Jim Samphorn, Engineman, LorenzoB, Tex-torus, Nodekeeper, Eugenwpg, Leyo, MrBell, Ashcraft, Bot-Schafter, Auegel, RayPhoenix, STBotD, MartinBotIII, Reelrt, Joeinwap,VolkovBot, N00ser, Zghajos, Axiosaurus, Finnrind, AHMartin, WereSpielChequers, Cwkmail, JetLover, Chem-awb, ImageRemovalBot,Akiry, Micha Sobkowski, Snaxalotl, CrazyChemGuy, Shinkolobwe, Phthalocyanine, Plasmic Physics, AlanM1, Gnowor, Billwhittaker, Mi-marx, Addbot, Goorky, Fyrael, Datsyuk, SamatBot, Tide rolls, PV=nRT, Rojypala, Karimi cae~enwiki, Yobot, Andrzejkosz, CheMoBot,Lu Ly, Cepheiden, KamikazeBot, Naipicnirp, AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, EHRice, Materialscientist, TheHigh Fin Sperm Whale, Ultimate sickness, REACHist, Cyfraw, Eddygp, Appeltree1, Riventree, HJ Mitchell, Tretyak, I dream of horses,A8UDI, Ondej Groborz, Miguel Escopeta, Peterjmoran7, Oktanyum, Kiranglobal, EmausBot, John of Reading, AvicBot, Marchemence,Boringbob4wk, Makecat, , Bakulan, ClueBot NG, Rycecube57, Skoot13, CaroleHenson, Crazymonkey1123, Ranate2, Nibor22,Minsbot, BattyBot, Qadiesh, Francesca Cattaneo, Mogism, CFSO6459, Brees Block, Project Osprey, Epicgenius, FrB.TG, MEMobun,Suphia lee, God2528, Helen31406 and Anonymous: 175

8.2 Images File:"Raise_More_Poultry...on_Farms_and_Back_Yards...More_Eggs_and_Poultry_Will_save_Beef_and_Pork."_-_NARA_-

_512571.tif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/%22Raise_More_Poultry...on_Farms_and_Back_Yards...More_Eggs_and_Poultry_Will_save_Beef_and_Pork.%22_-_NARA_-_512571.tif License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. NationalArchives and Records Administration Original artist: Unknown or not provided

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

File:Fs195.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Fs195.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Ownwork Original artist: Achim Hering

File:Hazard_C.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Hazard_C.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

File:Kemiitan_sodn.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/K%C5%99emi%C4%8Ditan_sodn%C3%BD.PNG License: Public domain Contributors: Vlastn sbrka Original artist: Ondej Mangl

File:Palusolmanschette.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Palusolmanschette.jpg License: CC BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Achim Hering

File:Sodium-metasilicate-chain-from-xtal-3D-balls.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Sodium-metasilicate-chain-from-xtal-3D-balls.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Mills

File:Sodium-metasilicate-repeating-unit-2D.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Sodium-metasilicate-repeating-unit-2D.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Mills

File:X_mark.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/X_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Ownwork Original artist: User:Gmaxwell

File:Yes_check.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fb/Yes_check.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

8.3 Content license Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

HistoryPropertiesProductionLiquid phaseSolid phase (thermal process)

UsesAdhesiveDrilling fluidsConcrete and general masonry treatmentDetergent auxiliariesWater treatmentRefractory useDye auxiliaryNiche and hobby usesPassive fire protection (PFP)Food preservationMetal repairAutomotive repairHomebrewingAquacultureSafe constructionCrystal gardensPottery

Sealing of leaking water containing structuresCartridges

ReferencesOther readingExternal linksText and image sources, contributors, and licensesTextImagesContent license