Sociology of Religion

Religion as a Conservative ForceFunctionalism

• Durkheim studied Totemism among Australian aborigines.

• Religion is a distinction between the sacred and the profane.

• In worshipping the totem, individuals are worshipping society.

• Belief in God is an acknowledgement that society is more important than the individual.

• Religion forges group identity, creates cohesion and reaffirms social solidarity.

Functions of Religion in Modern Society

• Socialization – religion socializes members into a value consensus by attaching a sacred quality to values.

• Integration – collective worship strengthens group unity, restraining deviant behaviour.

• Civil Religion – ritual and ceremony are common aspects of national loyalties.

• Preventing Anomie – Integration and restrained behaviour prevents a state of confusion and normlessness.

• Life Changing Events – Malinowksi and Parsons believe religion relieves the stress of life crises.

Criticisms of Functionalism

• Religion cannot socialize us if we do not believe – church attendance figures are declining.

• Durkheim’s analysis is based on flawed evidence and he misunderstood totemism and the Australian aborigines.

• Religion is sometimes dysfunctional and often causes global conflicts, e.g. Northern Ireland.

• Modern societies are multicultural and multifaith – there is no one unifying force.

• Many people worship privately rather than collectively – this does not reaffirm group identity.

Religion as a Conservative Force Marxism

• Religion is an ideological apparatus; an instrument of social control and exploitation.

• Religion acts as an ‘opium of the people’ – a pacifying drug that numbs the pain.

• Marx and Engels’ Functions of Religion:• Legitimating social inequality• Disguising the true nature of exploitation• Keeps the working classes passive and resigned

to their fate.

Religion as a Force for Social Change

• Weber: the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism.

• Calvinists were a Protestant group who believed in predestination; their fate was fixed.

• Material success and hard work demonstrated God’s favour and a place in heaven.

• Calvinists believed in asceticism.• Their hard work and attitudes helped initiate

Western economic development and Capitalism.

Criticism of Weber

• Countries with a large Calvinist population such as Sweden did not industrialise like Britain.

• Slavery, colonialism and piracy were more important than Calvinist beliefs.

• Kautsky: capitalism predates Calvinism but Calvinism made their interests appear legitimate.

Why do some Religions Encourage Social Change?

• Belief – religions that emphasize strong moral codes are more likely to produce members who will be critical and challenge social injustice.

• Culture – change is easier through religion when religion is central to the culture of society, e.g. Ghandi.

• Social Location – wide scope for influence when religion plays a major role in political and economic life.

• Organization – religions with a strong centralized source of authority have more chance of affecting events.

Religion and Radical Change

• Liberation Theology is a fusion of Christianity and Marxism, popular from the 1960’s in Latin America.• It is a Christian duty to be involved in

any action leading to economic and political liberation.

Organized Religion• Churches are national, inclusive and have a large membership.

They are hierarchical, have a professional clergy and a lifespan of centuries. Churches accept society’s norms and values and require little formal commitment.

• Denominations are national, with professional clergy and have a lifespan of over a century. They are seen as a basis of non-conformist views and require stronger commitment.

• Sects are small in size and often have on charismatic leader. They are critical of mainstream society and are reclusive, with their own norms and values. Sects require exceptional commitment.

• Cults vary in size and have a loose structure. They are individualistic and often have an inspirational leader. Cults are often short-lived and die with the leadership. Membership is flexible.

Fundamentalism

• Fundamentalism is a counterresponse to internal secularization.

• ‘Back to basics’ approach in order to restore traditional moral values.

• Both Islamic and Christian fundamentalism have grown over the past 30 years in response to modernizing governments and globalization.

• Westernization may be seen as a threat to less developed countries.

• Holden – these movements offer hope, direction and certainty in an insecure, confusing and morally lost world.

Gender, Feminism and Religion

• Women see God as a God of love, comfort and forgiveness. Men see God as a God of power and control.

• Christianity is inherently patriarchal with men made ‘in the image and glory of God and women made ‘for the glory of man’.

• Primary roles in the Bible are reserved for males.• Prominent females in the Bible reinforce patriarchal

ideas.• The Qur’an states that ‘men are in charge of women’.

Sexuality and Religion

• Women’s bodies are seen as dangerous by many religions.

• Because they menstruate and give birth they are considered to have a greater capacity to ’pollute’ religious rituals.

• Also, their presence may distract men from worship. • Turner: widespread importance given to asceticism –

self disciplined existence in which pleasure is repressed.

• The presence of women makes this difficult.

Are Women more Religious?

• Women are more likely to express interest in religion, have personal religious commitment and attend church more often.

• Two explanations for such gender differences:• Differential Socialization – females taught to

be submissive, passive, obedient and nurturing.• Differential Roles – greater need for religious

as a source of identity and commitment.

Religion and Ethnicity

• Immigrants to Britain place higher importance on religion than the long-established population...

• Weber: this is because they are members of deprived groups. Religion provides explanations and salvation.

• Durkheim: this is because religion helps bond new communities, particularly when under threat.

Differences in Religion for Migrants

• African Caribbean – religion is used as a means of coping with the worries of life through the joyful nature of prayer. It is used to develop love, trust, morals and responsibilities. Children decide their commitment for themselves.

• Asian – see religion in terms of duty and routine. Asians adopt a collective, conformist approach. They’re brought up not to betray family. Their religion affects food, drink, dress, partner and attitudes.

Defining Secularization

• Wilson: the process whereby religious thinking, practises and institutions lose social significance.

• Glasner: 3 levels of secularization – Interpersonal, Organizational and Cultural.

• Substantive Religion – belief in God and the supernatural.

• Functional Religion – what functions religion performs.

Evidence for Secularization

• Attendance – 1851 Census = 40%, 2000 Census = 7.5%.

• Brierly: age bias – congregations may totally die out.

• Reduced moral influence – as seen in rising divorce rates.

• Bruce: lower status of clergy, for example, women being ordained reduces the status in itself.

Evidence for Secularization

• Wilson: Rationalization, disengagement and religious pluralism.

• Rationalization: rational thinking in the form of science has replaced religious influence in our lives.

• Disengagement: separation of the church from wider society; no longer involved in politics etc.

• Religious Pluralism: society has fragmented into a marketplace of religions and there is no longer one unifying religious force.

Evidence against Secularization

• Davie: vicarious religion or ‘believing without belonging’, where people practise privately.

• Belief – only 10% say that they don’t believe in God, according to the British Social Attitudes survey.

• People prefer religious explanations for life events. For example, the concept luck/fate shows how gambling has increased.

• Religious programming is still very popular – Songs of Praise attracts around 7-8 million viewers.

• Hamilton: decline in membership reflects a more general decline, not just in religion (politics etc).

Evidence against Secularization

• Stark and Bainbridge: religion can never disappear because people always want to be rewarded; religious compensators are needed.

• Greeley: religious pluralism is a religious revival.• Berger: the world is more religious than it ever

has been. • Heelas: ‘holistic milieu’ is a rejection of science

and modernity where people want spirituality, as shown by New Age Movements.