Sociology Introduction to Sociology: Methods Int 1 and Int 2 · Methods of research: Questionnaires...

SociologyIntroduction to Sociology: Methods

Int 1 and Int 2

4858

Spring 1999

SociologyIntroduction to SociologyMethods Int 1 and Int 2

Support Materials��

HIGHER STILL

Sociology: Introduction to Sociology: Methods (Int 1 and Int 2) 1

CONTENTS

1

Guide to teaching and learningpack

Statement of standards forIntermediate 1 andIntermediate 2

Introduction to unit andteaching & learning approaches

Reading list, introductoryfeatures and importance ofmethods

Primary and secondary sources

The research process

Methods of research: QuestionnairesInterviewsParticipant ObservationNon-participant observationLongitudinal studiesComparative studiesOfficial StatisticsWritten evidenceOther visual evidence

Choice, range and scope

Resources


GUIDE TO TEACHINGAND LEARNING PACK


Guide to teaching and learning pack

This teaching and learning pack is designed to aid the practitioner in the delivery ofSociology at Intermediate 1 and 2 levels. This pack includes:

• a general introduction to the unit• a suggested programme of work• ready-to-use material for each of the areas covered in the unit• student activities with accompanying tutor notes on each topic covered in the

unit *• a suggested reading list, which covers the main elements within each topic,

based on two basic sociology textbooks. This list can be used as a tutor orstudent resource #

* Please note that these materials will not cover the full ‘hourage’ of the whole unit,

nor will they cover every item in the outcomes, PCs, or range statements: it isassumed that teachers and lecturers will want to use some of the time forexposition and discussion, and will supplement this pack with materials devisedfor specific groups.

# Suggested reading for this unit is taken from 2 major sociology textbooks.

Material in these textbooks is designed for new students of sociology, and forthose on introductory courses. The suggested texts are:

Sociology Alive (2nd edition)Stephen MooreStanley Thornes Publishers Ltd

Sociology a new approach (3rd edition)Haralambos, Smith, O’Gorman, HealdCauseway Press

The material contained in this pack is based on the Arrangements document andadvice given in the Subject Guide. Lecturers and teachers may wish to amend some ofthe material to suit their particular requirements, In accordance with good teaching practice, the pack contains a range of student-centred activities. These are suggested activities only and can be adapted to suitindividual, age and group requirements. A choice of topics have been given in someof the activities where it is considered that groups may have different interests andsensitivities.

The pack is designed to facilitate bi-level and single-level teaching and learning.Some material is designed to be used with both levels and some material has beendesigned for each level. If material is differentiated it can still be used within oneclassroom situation if necessary. Specific details are given in the tutor guides toparticular activities.


The term ‘student’ will be used throughout the unit to denote the learner.


STATEMENT OF STANDARDS



INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY: METHODS (INT 1)

OUTCOME 1Describe, in brief, the main methods of investigation used by sociologists

Performance Criteriaa. The main methods used by sociologists in their research are identified

accurately.b. The distinction between primary and secondary data is accurate.c. The research processes used by sociologists are described correctly and in a

simple way.d. The operation of the main methods of sociological research are described

correctly and in a simple way.

Note on the range of the outcomeResearch process: hypothesis, research design, pilot studies, sampling procedures,data collection, analysis of data, presentation.

Evidence requirementsWritten or oral evidence that the candidate can identify and describe the operation ofthree - two from (a) and one from (b) - of the research methods listed below and candescribe all of the processes listed in the range.

The main methods of research:a. choose two from questionnaires, interviews (structured/unstructured),

participant observation, non-participant observation, comparative studies,longitudinal studies.

b. using secondary sources choose one from official statistics, written and othervisual evidence.

OUTCOME 2Analyse, at a basic level, the main methods of investigation used by sociologists.

Performance criteriaa. One advantage and one disadvantage for each of the main methods of

investigation is described correctly at a simple level.b. Conclusions on the choice, range and scope of research methods are reached in a

simple way.


Evidence requirementsWritten or oral evidence that the candidate can describe three methods written below -two from (a) and one from (b) - giving one advantage and one disadvantage for eachof the methods chosen and draw conclusions on the selection of research methods bysociologists.

The main methods of research:a. choose two from questionnaires, interviews (structured/unstructured),


b. using secondary sources choose one from official statistics, written and othervisual evidence.



INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY: METHODS (INT 2)

OUTCOME 1Describe the main methods of investigation used by sociologists

Performance Criteriaa. The main methods used by sociologists in their research are identified

accurately.b. The distinction between primary and secondary data collection is described

clearly using appropriate examples.c. The research processes used by sociologists are described clearly and precisely.d. The operation of the main methods of sociological research is described clearly

and precisely.

Note on the range of the outcomeResearch process: hypothesis, research design, pilot studies, sampling procedures,data collection, analysis of data, presentation.

Evidence requirementsWritten or oral evidence that the candidate can identify and describe the operation offive - three from (a) and two from (b) - of the research methods listed below and candescribe all of the processes listed in the range.

The main methods of research:a. choose three from questionnaires, interviews (structured/unstructured),


b. using secondary sources choose two from official statistics, written and othervisual evidence.

OUTCOME 2Analyse the main methods of investigation used by sociologists.

Performance criteriaa. Advantages and disadvantages for each of the main methods of investigation are

described accurately and relevantly.b. Conclusions on the choice, range and scope of research methods are reached.


Evidence requirementsWritten or oral evidence that the candidate can describe five methods written below -two from (a) and one from (b) - giving two advantages and two disadvantages foreach of the methods chosen and draw conclusions on the selection of researchmethods by sociologists.

The main methods of research:a. choose three from questionnaires, interviews (structured/unstructured),


b. using secondary sources choose two from official statistics, written and othervisual evidence.


INTRODUCTION TO UNIT & TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACHES


INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIT ANDLEARNING & TEACHING APPROACHES Introduction to Unit

This unit is organised with ready-to-use materials and supplemented with a readinglist for the main elements of the unit. The material is organised into discrete areaswhich include the following:

1. The Research Process which introduces the student to the basic stages involved inresearch.

2. Primary and secondary sources of data collection. The student is required to know

the basic difference between these two sources of data collection. 3. Some of the main methods of research. Teaching and learning should cover:

• The main features of the method.• The uses of that method.• The advantages and disadvantages of the method.• The choice, range and scope of the method.

The statement of standards covers some of the main methods used by sociologistsalthough it is not an exhaustive list. The methods given reflect the broad range ofmethods available to sociologists.

In the delivery of the unit the evidence requirements states that two methods forIntermediate 1 and three methods for Intermediate 2 must be chosen from:

• questionnaires• interviews• participant observation• non-participant observation• longitudinal studies• comparative studies.

These methods have not been strictly categorised as primary sources as some of theseelements may also be secondary sources. In the delivery of the unit the evidence requirements states that from the second list,which are secondary sources, one method for Intermediate 1 and two methods forIntermediate 2 must be chosen from:

• official statistics• written evidence• other visual evidence.


4. Choice, scope and range. This aspect can be covered at the same time as eachmethod is being discussed. However, as these can be difficult concepts to grasp, adiscrete section has also been included to aid student learning. The main aims ofthis would be to cover the following:

• Choice of method by the sociologist. Although this may appear to overlap withadvantages and disadvantages students are required to make some judgement aboutrelative merits and demerits. For example, participant observation may havedisadvantages in terms of cost but be the only option for a sociologist wanting as‘real-life’ picture of some social phenomenon. In this case the sociologist’s choicewould be based on the demands of the research.

• The range and scope of each method. This will look at the types of

study/topics/phenomena a particular method could cover and the depth to which itcould cover any aspect of social life/behaviour.

The material can be used in any order. It is designed for differential learning forIntermediate 1 and 2 levels. Differentiation is in layout and level of complexity forsome activities. Where differentiation occurs this is noted in the tutor guides to eachsection.

As well as accommodating differential learning levels, some activities have also beengiven alternative activities to cater for different age and interest groups. It is up to thediscretion of the tutor which they use. For example, the questionnaire on smokingmay be seen as too controversial for some groups and therefore tutors/students mayuse one of the alternatives on computers or magazines.

Learning and teaching approaches

Methods can be a fairly dry aspect of sociological study. It is also probable that, formost students, the material discussed will be new. It is suggested therefore that eachmethod is grounded in as many practical activities as is possible and feasible withinthe given time scales. It would also be useful to illustrate the methods with examplesof research that have been carried out. This would engage the interest of the studentand will also be a good preparation for those intending to take sociology to a higherlevel. It is suggested that a range of exercises involving individual and groupactivities be supplemented with tutor exposition using OHTs, student reading andclass discussion.

Concurrent with the advice given in the 1998 Spring Supplement of the SubjectGuide, the following sequence of teaching is suggested for this unit with approximatetime scales. Please note that out of a notional 40 hours, 30 hours has been allocatedfor teaching and learning and the remaining 10 hours for induction, assessment,reassessment and evaluation. The activities, handouts, and exercises in this teachingand learning pack reflect the proportion of ‘hourage’ given to each part of thecurriculum. However, this is NOT MANDATORY and time allocation, sequence ofdelivery and use of teaching materials are completely at the discretion of thepractitioner and centre.


Unit plan: Introduction to Sociology: Methods - Intermediate 1 and 2

General aspects of unit

Aspect Time allocation RationaleInduction 2 hours Includes: introduction to topic,

programme of work, arrangementsfor assessment and reassessment.

Assessment 3 hours This could be 3 hours for end ofunit assessment, or 2 x 1.5 hours,or 3 x 1 hour.

Reassessment 3 hours It is thought that 3 hours would beadequate as candidates need onlyre-sit parts of assessment.

Evaluation & review 2 hours This allows time for formalevaluation and reviewing skillsand knowledge.

Content

Suggested order, time allocation, rationale, and relationship between outcomes andPCs.

Outcome & PCs Relation to otherOutcomes/PCs

Time allocation Rationale

Outcome 1(c)Research Process

All 4 hours Gives student anoverview of theresearch process.

Outcome 1 (b)Primary and secondarysources of datacollection

Relates toOutcome 2

2 hours To make studentaware that not alldata is gathereddirectly by thesociologist.

Outcome 1 (a) (d)Outcome 2 (a)Main methods

Relates toOutcome 1 andOutcome 2 (b)

20 hours Main methods, theway they are used,advantages anddisadvantages.Allows approx. 4hours for eachmethod.

Outcome 2 (b)Choice, range andscope

Relates toOutcome 2 (a) andOutcome 1 (a) (b)

4 hours Draws on all thematerial covered inother PCs. Theadvantages anddisadvantages ofeach method willhave a bearing onthis aspect.


READING LIST, INTRODUCTORY FACTORSAND THE IMPORTANCE OF METHODS

IN SOCIOLOGY


TUTOR GUIDE TO READING LISTON ASPECTS OF RESEARCH METHODS

The reading list on the following page is based on two sociology textbooks which areappropriate for this level of study. There are other textbooks available than the onesgiven, but not all cover the aspects required for this unit.

The reading list can be used as a tutor resource or as a student resource which couldbe given out at the beginning of the unit. Although the material in the unit covers allparts of the curriculum the students will find supplementary reading helpful inunderstanding the methods used in sociological study.


Suggested reading on aspects of research methods:

The Research Process


pp 35 - 38 ‘Doing a research project’- Although this is practical advice to thestudent on how to conduct research it willgive them some idea of the processinvolved.

Primary and secondary sources


pp 26 - 27 ‘Primary and secondarysources’


pp 42 - 43 ‘Secondary sources’

Methods


Questionnaires and interviews:pp 21 - 25Observation:pp 29 - 30Comparative studies:pp 26Longitudinal studies:p16Official statistics:pp 27 - 28


Questionnaires:pp 37 - 38Interviews:pp 33 - 35Observation:pp 30 - 33Comparative studies:p 48Longitudinal studies:pp 38 - 39Official statistics:p 47Secondary written evidence:pp 42 - 44Novels:p 42


TUTOR GUIDE ON OHT ON THEIMPORTANCE OF METHODS IN SOCIOLOGY

This activity is designed to introduce the student to the importance of methods andreasons why they are given so much attention within sociology. The main pointsprovide an opportunity for exposition and discussion which can be supplemented byreading or text issued by the tutor.

Some of the points that arise from the OHT are:

• The development of sociology as a social science. Reference could be made toideas developed by Auguste Comte; the development of positivism and theimitating of the natural sciences.

• Sociologists today want to gather different types of information e.g. numerical anddescriptive and therefore need to employ different methods.

• Methodology is important in supporting theories and hypotheses. Poormethodology and inappropriate selection of a method can result in invalid resultsand can be the focus of criticism of any study.


METHODS

• Sociology is a social science thereforeneeds methods to ensure objectivity.

• Helps the sociologist gather specifictypes of information.

• Using a particular method means itcan be used to re-test an idea.

• If the sociologist is trying to prove atheory then the method chosen tocollect the data is important.


TUTOR GUIDE ON BRAINSTORMING ACTIVITYAND OHTs ON WAYS OF GATHERING INFORMATION

This activity can be used for both Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2, and would alsobe suitable for bi-level teaching. It should help the student come to terms with someof the methods used in sociological research without using technical language.

Students are asked to write down all the ways they can gather information aboutpeople, social behaviour, social attitudes and the development of society. The tutorcan then ask each class member for one item and write these up on a flip chart orchalkboard. As this does not involve a great deal of explanation on the part of thestudent it is a good way of involving everyone in the class.

The tutor can then talk about the items on the list and encourage the class to expandon some of the ideas expressed. The OHTs can be used at the end to summarise someof the items by placing them into broad categories. The OHTs serves as a generalintroduction to the specific methods that need to be covered in the evidencerequirements for this unit.


WAYS OF FINDING OUTINFORMATION:

• Ask people

• Observe what people do

• Look at existing information

• Look at historical information

• Look at pictures, videos, magazines

• Read novels or personal accounts


THIS CAN INVOLVE:

• Written information

• Verbal information

• Visual information

• Comparison of cultures or societies

• Study over a period of time


THE RESEARCH PROCESS


TUTOR GUIDE TO HANDOUT, ACTIVITY ANDEXERCISE SHEET ON THE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. The handout is designed to introduce the student to the technical terms used whendescribing and explaining the research process.

Intermediate 1 and 2 are similar in content. However, Intermediate 1 has technical

terms in bold and underlined. Intermediate 2 has technical terms in bold. The handout is designed for use as the basis of classroom discussion and for further

exposition by the tutor and/or reading of textbooks and other material. If this partof the curriculum is delivered after discussing particular methods then studentscould be asked to draw on examples of research covered when studying specificmethods.

2. The revision sheet can be used as a formative assessment and also as a means forbuilding and strengthening knowledge. Intermediate 1 and 2 have differentrevision sheets. Intermediate 1 have been given descriptions but are expected tomatch these to the correct technical terms AND to write these out. Intermediate 2have been given seven simple questions which cover each step in the researchprocess. Intermediate 2 students would be expected to compile their own answersusing their notes, etc.

3. The summary sheet can be given to Intermediate 1 and 2 students for revision

purposes. Students could use it as an aide memoir or to write their own short notesbeside each step in the research process.


The Research Process (Int 1)

When sociologists want to investigate any aspect of social life they must carry outresearch. To do this they follow some simple steps.

The sociologist begins by coming up with an idea they wish to research. They thenmake a plan on the way the research will be carried out. Before doing the mainresearch they may do a small study with a few people to see if there are any problems.If they are carrying out a large study they cannot talk to everyone. Therefore, thesociologist will select a few people who are typical of the group they are studying.The sociologist then does the actual research. Once this has been done they will needto make sense of the information they have gathered. Finally, they have to write sometype of report on what they have found.

Following these simple steps is known as the research process. Sociologists havespecial names for each of the activities described above.

The first step is known as a hypothesis. This is the idea the sociologist wants to test.The sociologist will try to prove if the hypothesis is true or not.

The sociologist then plans the way the research will be carried out. This is known asthe research design. The design includes the method that will be used to gather theinformation, the way in which ideas will be tested, who will be involved, and howlong it will take.

Sometimes sociologists carry out a pilot study before doing the main research. Forexample, this might involve trying out a questionnaire on a few people to see if thereare any problems.

The next step would be to decide on sampling procedures. For example, if thesociologist wanted to know the political views of people in the UK they could not askeveryone. The researcher must therefore choose a smaller number of people who aretypical. To do this they would have to make sure that there were females and males,people of different ages, ethnic backgrounds and economic groups in the sample.

Once these things have been decided the sociologists can actually start their research.This is known as data collection. The data is the material or information that isgathered.

When all the information has been gathered the sociologist must make sense of whathas been gathered. The sociologist also wants to see whether the data gatheredsupports the original ideas or hypothesis. This involves the analysis of data.

Finally, the sociologists must write up the information and analysis usually in sometype of report. This is known as presentation of data. Usually the sociologist willpublish this report in a sociological magazine or may use it to speak at a conference.


The Research Process (Int 2)

When sociologists want to investigate any aspect of social life they must carry outresearch. To do this they follow some simple steps.

The sociologist begins by coming up with an idea they wish to research. They thenmake a plan on the way the research will be carried out. Before doing the mainresearch they may do a small study with a few people to see if there are any problems.If they are carrying out a large study they cannot talk to everyone. Therefore, thesociologist will select a few people who are typical of the group they are studying.The sociologist then does the actual research. Once this has been done they will needto make sense of the information they have gathered. Finally, they have to write sometype of report on what they have found.

Following these simple steps is known as the research process. Sociologists havespecial names for each of the activities described above.

The first step is known as a hypothesis. This is the idea the sociologist wants to test.The research will try to prove if the idea/hypothesis is true or not.

The sociologist then plans the way the research will be carried out. This is known asthe research design. The design includes the method that will be used to gather theinformation, the way in which ideas will be tested, who will be involved, and howlong it will take.

Sometimes sociologists carry out a pilot study before doing the main research. Forexample, this might involve trying out a questionnaire on a few people to see if thereare any problems.

The next step would be to decide on sampling procedures. For example, if thesociologist wanted to know the political views of people in the UK they could not askeveryone. The researcher must therefore choose a smaller number of people who aretypical. To do this they would have to make sure that there were females and males,people of different ages, ethnic backgrounds and economic groups in the sample.

Once these things have been decided the sociologists can actually start their research.This is known as data collection. The data is the material or information that isgathered.

When all the information has been gathered the sociologist must make sense of whathas been gathered. The sociologist also wants to see whether the data gatheredsupports the original ideas or hypothesis. This involves the analysis of data.

Finally, the sociologists must write up the information and analysis usually in sometype of report. This is known as presentation of data. Usually the sociologist willpublish this report in a sociological magazine or may use it to speak at a conference.


Research process - summary sheet (Int 1/2)

HYPOTHESIS

↓

RESEARCH DESIGN

↓

PILOT STUDY

↓

SAMPLING PROCEDURE

↓

DATA COLLECTION

↓

ANALYSIS OF DATA

↓

PRESENTATION


Research process - revision sheet (Int 1)

Given below are the 7 steps in the research process. Also given are descriptions ofeach stage. Select the right description for each step and write it into the spaceprovided.

Step Description

Hypothesis

Research design

Pilot study

Sampling procedure

Data collection

Analysis of data

Presentation

Descriptions:

• The idea to be tested.• Sociologist makes sense of the information gathered.• A small study before the main study to see if there are any problems.• Sociologist gathers the information.• Sociologist decides the methods he/she will use.• Results are written up in the form of a report.• Sociologist chooses the people to be studied.


Research process - revision sheet (Int 2)

From your handout, class discussion and textbook answer the following questions.

1. What is the first step in the research process?

2. What is meant by research design?

3. Why might a sociologist carry out a pilot study?

4. What is meant by the term ‘sampling procedures’?

5. What is the term used for sociologist doing the actual research?

6. What is meant by the term analysis of data?

7. What is the final stage in the research process?


PRIMARY AND SECONDARYSOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION


TUTOR GUIDE ON OHTs, HANDOUT ANDACTIVITY ON PRIMARY AND SECONDARYSOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION

1. The OHTs are an introduction to the main difference between primary andsecondary sources of data collection and some examples of particular methodswhich may be included in these categories. It must be noted, however, that someof the methods included in the list of primary sources may also be applicable tosecondary sources e.g. longitudinal studies and comparative studies. Tutors maywish to cover this overlap depending on the ability of the students to work with thisdegree of complexity.

2. The handouts reiterate and deepen the content of the OHTs. These could be given

out to read and discuss in a plenary session. Alternatively, they could be given outand used with the activity outlined below. A third option is to give this out forrevision purposes at the end of teaching this aspect of the unit or course. Twoversions, one for Intermediate 1 and one for Intermediate 2, are given for purposesof differential learning and teaching.

3. This activity is designed to test the student’s knowledge of primary and secondary

sources of data. This could be used as a worksheet to assess the ideas given in thehandout (see point 2 above). It can also be used for formative assessment orrevision purposes. Two versions, one for Intermediate 1 and one for Intermediate2, are given for purposes of differential learning and teaching. In either case thefinished grid should reflect the answers given below.

Primary sources Secondary sourcesOne main feature • New data collected by

the researcher• Information already

existsTwo examples of methods • Participant Observation

• Interviews• Official statistics• Novels

Advantage • Can controlinformation

• May save time andmoney as informationhas already beengathered.

Disadvantage • May be costly • May be biased


PRIMARY SOURCES

New information collected by the sociologistor researcher.

Includes:• Questionnaires• Interviews• Participant observation• Non-participant observation• Longitudinal studies• Comparative studies.


SECONDARY SOURCES

This is when the sociologist or researcheruses existing information.

Includes:• Official statistics• Novels• Paintings• Videos• Photographs• Diaries/personal accounts• Autobiographies.


Primary and secondary sources of data collection (Int 1)

When carrying out research, sociologists can gather new information or they can useexisting information.

Primary Sources

If a sociologists gathers new information this is known as collecting primary sourcesof information. This means the information will be gathered directly by thesociologist or by a researcher who will be employed for that purpose. The point isthat whatever method the sociologist chooses it will new information.

It may the case that a sociologist will be testing an idea which has been tested beforeby other sociologists. However, if they are using primary sources they will still begathering their own information rather than using any data which previoussociologists have gathered.

One example of using primary sources was a study of cults carried out by EileenBarker. In this study of the Moonies, she used 3 different methods of research.These included participant observation, interviews and questionnaires.

There are pluses and minuses to using primary sources.

The pluses include:

• Researcher has some control over the information.• Researcher decides the way in which information will be gathered.• There will be an opportunity to check the kind of information given.• Researcher may be more aware of bias.

The minuses include:

• It can cost a lot to do research.• It can be time-consuming.

Secondary Sources

This use of sources, still involves the sociologist or researcher but this time they areusing information which already exists. This might mean that the sociologist willuse information that has been gathered for another purpose, for example, policestatistics on crime. However, the sociologist will be using these for his/her ownresearch.

The sociologist may also use other information such as photographs, paintings ornovels. Again, these sources will have been produced for other purposes but thesociologist can still use these. For example, he/she might want to find out what lifewas like for families in the 18th century. It would be impossible to go back in timeand ask people, but books and paintings may be able to tell the researcher somethingof what it was like 200 years ago.


Many secondary sources are written or produced with a specific purpose in mind. Forexample, political diaries may be written in the knowledge that one day they will beread. Pictures may be painted in a particular way because the artist is being paid. So,sociologists must be aware of these factors when using these secondary sources.

There are pluses and minuses to using secondary sources.

The pluses include:

• It can save time for the researcher.• It can save money.• It can give valuable insight into some aspects of social life.


• The possibility of bias• The difficulty of checking if the information is accurate.



When carrying out research, sociologists can gather new information or they can useexisting information.

Primary Sources

If a sociologists gathers new information this is known as collecting PrimarySources of information. This means the information will be gathered directly by thesociologist or by a researcher who will be employed for that purpose. The point isthat whatever method the sociologist chooses it will new information.

It may the case that a sociologist will be testing an idea which has been tested beforeby other sociologists. However, if they are using primary sources they will still begathering their own information rather than using any data which previoussociologists have gathered.

One example of using primary sources was a study of cults carried out by EileenBarker. In this study of the Moonies, she used 3 different methods of research. Theseincluded participant observation, interviews and questionnaires.

There are pluses and minuses to using primary sources.

The pluses include:

• Researcher has some control over the information.• Researcher decides the way in which information will be gathered.• There will be an opportunity to check the kind of information given.• Researcher may be more aware of bias.


• It can cost a lot to do research.• It can be time-consuming.

Secondary Sources

This use of sources, still involves the sociologist or researcher but this time they areusing information which already exists. This might mean that the sociologist willuse information that has been gathered for another purpose, for example, policestatistics on crime. However, the sociologist will be using these for his/her ownresearch.

The sociologist may also use other information such as photographs, paintings ornovels. Again, these sources will have been produced for other purposes but thesociologist can still use these. For example, he/she might want to find out what lifewas like for families in the 18th century. It would be impossible to go back in timeand ask people, but books and paintings may be able to tell the researcher somethingof what it was like 200 years ago.


Many secondary sources are written or produced with a specific purpose in mind. Forexample, political diaries may be written in the knowledge that one day they will beread. Pictures may be painted in a particular way because the artist is being paid. Sosociologists must be aware of these factors when using secondary sources.

There are pluses and minuses to using secondary sources.

The pluses include:

• It can save time for the researcher.• It can save money.• It can give valuable insight into some aspects of social life.


• The possibility of bias• The difficulty of checking if the information is accurate.



Worksheet

Read the following statements. Decide which ones belong to primary sources andwhich ones to secondary sources. Put each statement in the correct box.

• New data collected by the researcher• Official statistics• Participant Observation• May save time and money as information has already been gathered• Can control information• Information already exists• Novels• May be biased• Interviews• May be costly

Primary sources Secondary sourcesOne main feature

Two examples of methods 1.

2.

1.

2.

One advantage

One disadvantage



Worksheet

Complete the blank boxes below with statements which refer to each aspect ofprimary and secondary sources. Some information has already been given.

Primary sources Secondary sourcesOne main feature New data collected by the

researcher

Two examples of methods 1.

2.

1. Official statistics

2.

Advantages

Disadvantages May be costly


QUESTIONNAIRES


TUTOR GUIDE ON ACTIVITIES, HANDOUTSAND OHTs ON QUESTIONNAIRES

This set of activities, handouts and OHTs is designed to cover all the main aspects ofusing questionnaires as a research method. Each can be used in conjunction with allthe others although each can also be used independently, depending on time andpreference.

As outlined in the introduction the activities are suitable for bi-level teaching. Someaspects such as OHTs are common to both levels, whilst others have handouts,revision exercises and so on which have been designed for each level (but which canbe used concurrently with 2 levels in one class). Some activities have also a range oftopics to meet the needs of different age groups. For example, in the activity oncarrying out a questionnaire, smoking, magazines/comics and computers are allincluded to give tutors a choice.

This section on questionnaires includes the following:

1. OHT on the main features of questionnaires. Tutors may adapt this as they wish.This could form the basis of an introduction to this particular method.

2. Handout on open and closed questions. This handout explains to students the

differences between open and closed questions. This should be read by studentsand then discussed in a plenary session.

3. The discussion on open and closed questions could be followed using the Student

Activity Sheet. This allows students to examine a series of questions and decidewhich ones are open questions and which are closed questions. A plenary sessioncould be used to provide feedback and discuss the reasons why each is an open orclosed question.

4. Exercise/activity in administration of questionnaires. This exercise would allow

students to try out a questionnaire for themselves, explore the difficulties of openand closed questions, and relate questions to results. There are three topics whichcould be explored: smoking, comics/magazines and computers. Students couldhave a choice or tutors may prefer to decide this in advance depending on classgroup. This section contains:

• General instruction sheet for students.• A questionnaire which contains open and closed questions (one for each topic).• An activity sheet (one for each topic) which asks students to collate the results

from the questionnaires they have administered.


5. Brainstorming and revision exercise on advantages and disadvantages. If studentshave undertaken the questionnaire activity it is hoped that they will have been ableto identify some of the advantages and disadvantages of using this method. Abrainstorming exercise either as a class group or smaller groups could beundertaken using a chalkboard or flipchart. This could be followed by using therevision sheets on advantages and disadvantages (sheets for different levels) whichwould also be useful for formative assessment purposes.

6. The handout on choice, range and scope could be given out and discussed after the

exercise on advantages and disadvantages. This would enable the student to makeconnections between advantages and disadvantages and the factors involved inchoice, range and scope.


QUESTIONNAIRES

• List of pre-prepared questions.

• Can be handed out to people tocomplete.

• Can be posted out to people tocomplete. These are known as postalquestionnaires.

• Used in social surveys.

• Can find out factual information e.g.do you buy a daily newspaper.

• Can be used to find out the opinion ofpeople e.g. what do you feel about theRoyal Family.


Questionnaires

Asking questions

There are two types of questions which can be asked. These are: closed questionsand open questions. Depending on the type of information you want a sociologistwill use a particular type.

Closed questions

These are good for gathering factual information such as how many people own a caror how many people buy a daily newspaper.

Closed questions will tend to ask for:

• a yes or no answer e.g. do you own a car?• numerical information such as how many people live in your house?• short descriptive information such as what is your favourite T.V. programme?

This means that you can easily quantify the information. For example, if you ask 100people if they smoke and they answer yes or no then you can simply count theanswers. If 20 smoke and 80 do not smoke you can claim that 20% of your sample aresmokers and 80% are non smokers. You could then conclude from this that themajority do not smoke.

Open questions

These can be used to explore something in depth. For example, they can be used to:

• find out the views of people• find out the opinions of people• test attitudes• to find out why people do things.

For example, if you wanted to know why people started to smoke, you would need toask people why they started smoking. If you ask 100 people you may find that youget a different answer from each person. This would make it more difficult to recordand make sense of this information. If you found that you had answers that weresimilar you might want to put these under a specific heading. For example, you mighthave headings such as: influence of friends; pressure from peer group; your parentssmoked; adverts in magazines; and influence from films and T.V. programmes.


Questionnaires

Student Activity Sheet

Read each of the questions below. Decide which ones are open questions andwhich are closed questions. Write your answer in the space beside each question.

1. Do you smoke? 2. What programmes did you watch on T.V. last night? 3. Do you own a car? 4. How many people live in your house? 5. Did you vote in the last election? 6. Can you tell me why you buy that brand of soap? 7. What are your views on capital punishment? 8. Why did you start smoking? 9. Who did you vote for in the last election? 10. Why did you vote the way you did in the last election?


Questionnaires (Int 1)Advantages and disadvantages

Given below are a list of advantages and disadvantages in using questionnaires as aresearch method. Select the 2 phrases which describe advantages and write each inthe box provided. Select the 2 phrases which describe disadvantages and write eachin the box provided. If you can think of any other advantages and disadvantages, addthese to your lists.

• You can send questionnaires to a large number of people.• People may not send questionnaires back.• It is a cheap method.• People can only give short answers.

Advantages Disadvantages


Questionnaires (Int 2)Advantages and disadvantages

Questionnaires are used in many sociological studies. These can be in the form of apostal questionnaire which is sent directly to people’s houses. The respondent has tocomplete these and return in to the sociologist. Questionnaires may also be directlygiven out, for example in the street or shopping centre and people will complete themand hand them back. Questionnaires might also be used as part of an interview wherethe researcher asks people questions and fills in the answers.

Describe 3 advantages to using this method

1.

2.

3.

Describe 3 disadvantages to using this method

1.

2.

3.


Questionnaires

Asking questions - student activity

• Following tutor guidance, select a partner with whom you will carry out thisexercise.

• With the agreement of your tutor decide which topic you will use for this activity.

• Decide when and where you will carry out this activity.

• You will need 10 people to give the questionnaire to. These could be members ofthe class, friend, family or other suitable people.

• Depending on your topic you may have to approach more than 10 people to findout if they are suitable for your questionnaire. For example, if you want to find outthe way in which people are using computers, you first need to find 10 people whouse a computer.

• Always explain clearly to people the purpose of the questionnaire and alwaysthank them at the end for helping you.

• Your tutors will give you copies of a questionnaire or will assist you in making oneup.

• Once you have 10 completed questionnaires you should look at your results usingthe activity sheet given by your tutor.


This questionnaire is for an exercise on research methods in sociology. Pleasecomplete and return to the researcher.

Smoking

1. How many cigarettes do you smoke aday?

Fewer than 10Between 10 - 20Between 20 - 30More than 30

2. Do you think there should be acomplete ban on smoking in all publicplaces?

Yes or No

3. Do you think cigarettes are too dear? Yes or No

4. At what age did you have your firstcigarette?

5. Why did you start smoking in the firstplace?

6. Have you ever tried to stop smoking? Yes or No

7. If Yes, why have you not managed tostop smoking?

Thank you for your help in completing this questionnaire.


Smoking questionnaires

Results

Look at the answers people have given to their questionnaires on smoking. Takingeach question in turn add up or summarise the answers given by all the people whoanswered the questionnaire.

How many people smoke:


How many people think there should be a complete ban in smoking in public places?

How many people think that cigarettes are too dear?

What is the age range for people starting to smoke?

What are the main reasons people gave for starting to smoke?

How many people have attempted to stop smoking?

What are the main reasons for people not managing to stop smoking?



Buying a magazine/comic

1. Which magazine or comic do you buyregularly?

2. Why do choose that magazine orcomic?

3. How much do you pay for yourmagazine or comic?

4. Do you think the magazine or comicis too dear?

Yes or No

5. What things in the magazine or comicdo you like the best?

6. Would you buy more magazines orcomics if you could afford them?

Yes or No

Thank you for your help in completing this questionnaire.


Magazine/comic questionnaires

Results

Look at the answers people have given to their questionnaires on buying magazines orcomics. Taking each question in turn add up or summarise the answers given by allthe people who answered the questionnaire.

What range of magazines and comics do people buy?

What is the range of prices people pay for magazines or comics?

How many people feel they are paying too much for their magazine or comic?

How many people would buy more magazines and comics if they could afford them?

What are the main reasons for people choosing a magazine or comic?

What are the range of things people like in magazines or comics?



Using computers and the Internet

1. Do you have acomputer at home?

Yes/No

If no, please go to question 4.

2. How often do you useyour computer athome?

Please tick one:• every day• nearly every day• sometimes• occasionally• never

3. What is the main useof your computer athome

Please tick one:• word-processing• Internet• leisure• games• other - please specify…………………………

4. Do you have acomputer at yourschool/college/placeof work.

Yes/No

If no, please go to question 7.

5. How often do you usethe computer atschool/college/placeof work.

Please tick one:• every day• nearly every day• sometimes• occasionally• never

6. What is the main useof the computer atschool/college/placeof work.

7. For those whoanswered ‘no’ toQuestion 1 or 4.

What are your mainreasons for not havinga computer at home orwork.

At home:

At work:


Questionnaires

Results

Look at the answers people have given to their questionnaires on computers. Takingeach question in turn add up or summarise the answers given by all the people whoanswered the questionnaire.

1. How many people have access to a computer at home? 2. How frequently did the people in the sample use home-computers? 3. How many people have access to a computer at work/school/college? 4. How frequently did the people in the sample use computers at

work/school/college? 5. How many people had access to a computer both at home and at

work/school/college? 6. For those who did have access to computers both at home and at

work/school/college, was there any similarity or difference in the frequency ofuse?

7. What are the main uses of home-computers ? (greatest first) 8. What are the main uses of computers at work/college/school? 9. What were the main reasons given for not having a computer at home?


Questionnaires - choice, range and scope (Int 1/2 )

Choice

A sociologist may choose this method because he/she wants to:

• carry out research on a large number of people• carry out research over a wide geographical area• find out superficial or numerical information.

Using questionnaires would be the quickest and cheapest way ofgathering this type of information.

Range

Can cover many aspects of social life and behaviour e.g.:

• attitudes• health• poverty• voting behaviour• lifestyle• class

Scope

This method is best for gathering:

• superficial information• numerical information

This method is limited if sociologist:

• wants more in-depth information• wants to look at processes or interactions.


INTERVIEWS(STRUCTURED AND UNSTRUCTURED)


TUTOR GUIDE TO OHT, HANDOUTSAND ACTIVITIES ON INTERVIEWS

1. The OHT is an introduction to some of the general features and uses of interviewsas a research method. The information on the OHT is supplemented by material inthe handouts for this section.

2. There are two related handouts for this section: One explores specific aspects of both structured and unstructured interviews and

demonstrates the similarities and differences in each aspect of this method ofresearch. It can be used as an introduction to the method and/or in relation to theactivity and/or as a revision tool.

The second handout highlights the advantages and disadvantages of using this method

in general and also those specific to structured and unstructured interviews. Someof the material overlaps with parts of the first handout. This handout could begiven out for revision purposes or given as a summary after the activity has beencompleted and the advantages and disadvantages of using this method have beendiscussed.

3. The activity is designed as a practical way of allowing students to experience or

observe the interview method. In this way they can compare differences betweenstructured and unstructured interviews and discover through the exercise some ofthe advantages and disadvantages of using this method.

As this may be a time-consuming activity it is suggested that this be carried out in

small groups 4 - 6 with one interviewer, one respondent and the rest observers ofthe process. A structured interview could be carried out. People could thenchange roles and an unstructured interview could be carried out. Students couldthen compare results, observations, etc., as per list. This should highlight:

• differences in recording answers• length of time• attitude to interviewer• leading, agreeing by interviewer• advantages and disadvantages. Tutors may wish to use the material on questionnaires in the previous section. The

handout on open and closed questions would also be relevant to this method. Thequestionnaires could be also be used but would be administered by the studentrather than asking respondents to complete these.

If your centre has chosen questionnaires and interviews as two of the research

methods to be covered in the unit, then a comparison could be made betweenasking respondents to complete the questionnaire directly and an interviewerasking the questions.

4. The choice, range and scope of this method could be explored by use of the OHTwhich summarises the main points. The factors relating to choice, range and scope


will have been touched on in the handouts, class discussion and practical exercisesbut the OHT will bring together and formalise some of the factors influencingchoice, range and scope.


INTERVIEWS

• Carried out by the sociologist orresearcher.

• They are a primary source of datacollection.

• They can be structured or unstructured.

• They can be used in surveys or opinionpolls to gather factual information.

• They can be used in studies which try tofind out attitudes, feelings and reasons.


Interviews (Int 1)

In sociology one method which is used to gather data is the interview. It is a popularmethod because one way of finding out information is to ask people directly. Thismethod is known as a primary source of data collection because it involves thesociologist gathering new information for his/her research.

There are two main types of interviews. The structured interview and theunstructured interview.

The Structured Interview

This type of interview is carried out face-to-face. The interviewer uses pre-setquestions. The same questions will be used with each person being interviewed. Thequestions will be asked in the same order and in the same way.

The interviewers get training for their job. They try to be objective when askingquestions. This can be difficult. Interviewers have to be friendly and approachablebut not give away personal feelings. For example, they often have to ask questionsabout which people feel sensitive. The interviewer has to be careful not to showapproval or disapproval at the answer given.

Researchers have found that people who are being interviewed often give the answerthey think the interviewer wants to hear. For example, if a piece of research isbeing carried out into prejudice against black people, the interviewer would need toask people what they feel. The people being interviewed might not admit to beingprejudice because they know it is not right to be prejudice.

Sometimes, the answers are pre-coded. This makes it easier for the researcher toanalyse the data gathered. For example, in a yes/no answer a ‘yes’ may be given acode 1 and a ‘no’ a code 2. This makes it easier if results are being put into acomputer. Although this saves the sociologist time when analysing the data, it doestake more time when making up the interview questions.

The Unstructured Interview

This type of interview is also carried out face to face. In this type of interview thequestions are not pre-set. The interviewer will discuss areas of interest but there isno specific order to the discussion. The person being interviewed can discuss pointsin depth or make new points.

This can be difficult as the interviewer has to make sure that the person does notramble on about things that are not related to the research. The sociologist has to


have a strong idea of what he/she wants to find out. The recording of unstructuredinterviews can be difficult. Often a sociologist will tape the interview and later writedown what has been said. However, some people do not like speaking into a tape.


Interviews (Int 2)

In sociology one method which is used to gather data is the interview. It is a popularmethod because one way of finding out information is to ask people directly about thethings which affect them. This method is known as a primary source of datacollection because it involves the sociologist gathering new information for his/herresearch.

There are two main types of interviews that sociologists use. The structured interviewand the unstructured interview.

The Structured Interview

This type of interview is carried out face-to-face. The interviewer uses pre-setquestions. The same questions will be used with each person being interviewed. Eachquestion will be asked in the same way and in the same sequence.

The interviewers are trained to do interviewing. They try to be objective when askingquestions but this can be difficult. Interviewers have to be friendly and approachablebut also have to be careful about the tone of their voice and their body language. Forexample, if they are asking people views about a sensitive subject they must becareful not to show approval or disapproval if a particular answer is given.

Researchers have found that people who are being interviewed often give the answerthey think the interviewer wants to hear. For example, if a piece of research is beingcarried out into racism, then the people being interviewed might not admit to beingprejudice because they feel it would not be acceptable or might give offence.

Sometimes, the answers are pre-coded which makes it easier for the researcher whenanalysing the data from the interviews. For example, in a yes/no answer a ‘yes’ maybe given a code 1 and a ‘no’ a code 2. This makes it easier if results are being putinto a computer. Although this saves the sociologist time when analysing the data, itdoes take some time when making up the interview questions.

The Unstructured Interview

This type of interview is also carried out face to face. In this type of interview thesociologist will have broad areas they wish to discuss but the questions are not pre-set. There is no sequence to covering particular topics. The person beinginterviewed can expand on points or perhaps raise new points.


This can be difficult as the interviewer has to make sure that the person does notramble on about things that are not relevant to the research. The sociologist needs astrong idea of the types of topics he/she needs to cover for the research. Therecording of this can be difficult. Often a sociologist will tape the interview and thenwrite down what has been said later. This is known as transcribing the interview.However, some people do not like speaking into a tape and this may make them feelnervous or put them off being interviewed.


Interviews (Int 1/2)

Advantages and disadvantages

As with all methods there are advantages and disadvantages to using interviews as amethod of research. Some advantages and disadvantages are common to bothstructured and unstructured interviews. Some advantages and disadvantages arespecific to either structured interviews or unstructured interviews.

Structured interviews

Advantages

• Good response rate.

• Can look at meaning, motivation, opinions and attitudes ratherthan just factual information.

• Can analyse data easily.

• Reliability. All people asked the same question in the same way.

Disadvantages

• Takes time.

• Needs trained interviewer.

• Effect of the interviewer on the person being questioned.

• High cost.


Unstructured interviews

Advantages

• Good response rate

• Can look at meaning, motivation, opinions and attitudes ratherthan just factual information

• Can get in-depth information

• Opportunity to clarify points, meaning, and so on.

• The person being questioned may give new or importantinformation that the researcher had not considered.

Disadvantages

• Takes time.

• Needs trained interviewer.

• Effect of the interviewer.

• High cost.

• Person being interviewed may ramble.

• No set questions. People may have different ideas of what is beingasked.

• Can be difficult to analyse the data.


Interviewing

Group activity

In your group, and using the sheets and guidance given by your tutor, carry out aninterview activity. You will need:

• one person to be the interviewer• one person to be interviewed• the rest of the group to observe the interview

Guidance for interviewers

Using the sheets given to you by your tutor carry out the interview. You will need towrite the answers given on the sheets. If you are doing a structured interview thequestions are pre-set. If you are doing an unstructured interview the areas to becovered are given but you will need to decide the way you will ask the questions.

Guidance for students observing the interview

You need to look at the way the interviewer and the person being interviewed arebehaving. Some points you might want to consider are:

• The way questions are asked• The tone of voice used• Whether the person understands the questions• Whether the interviewer is leading the person to answer in a particular way• Whether both interviewer and person being interviewed seem relaxed or not.

Group discussion

In your group discuss the results, observations and feelings which have resulted fromthis activity. Some things you might like to consider are:

• How easy/difficult was it to ask questions• How easy/difficult was it to answer questions• How easy/difficult is it to make sense of the information given• Was there a difference between a structured and unstructured interview• How did it feel to be interviewed• The body language, tone of voice, eye contact between the interviewer and the

person being interviewed• Was there any awkwardness in the interview• What are the advantages of using pre-set questions• What are the disadvantages of using pre-set questions• What are the advantages of doing an unstructured interview• What are the disadvantages of doing an unstructured interview.


Structured interview on Smoking

1. How many cigarettes do you smoke aday?


2. At what age did you have your firstcigarette?

3. Why did you start smoking in the firstplace?

4. Have you ever tried to stop smoking? Yes or No

5. If Yes, why have you not managed tostop smoking?


Unstructured interviews on smoking

Areas to be covered:

• Pattern of smoking e.g. how many and when ?

• The reasons the person started smoking.

• Why the person continues to smoke.

• What would make the person stop smoking.


Structured interview on buying a magazine/comic

1. Which magazine or comic do you buyregularly?

2. Why do choose that magazine orcomic?

3. How much do you pay for yourmagazine or comic?

4. Do you think the magazine or comicis too dear?

Yes or No

5. What things in the magazine or comicdo you like the best?

6. Would you buy more magazines orcomics if you could afford them?

Yes or No


Unstructured interview on buying a magazine or comic

Areas to be covered:

• The magazines or comics person buys (could include the names and how oftenthey are bought).

• Factors which affect the choice of magazine/comic (e.g. price and content).

• Reasons person does not buy more magazines/comics (e.g. price, no time, nointerest).


CHOICE, RANGE ANDSCOPE OF INTERVIEWS

CHOICE:

• This will be influenced by the factors oftime and cost.

• The type of research will also be a factor -for example, if researcher wants an in-depth view of social behaviour.

RANGE:

• This method can cover a wide range oftopics e.g. class, attitudes, health, poverty,education, religion, prejudice, work.

• However, because it takes lot of time andmoney to interview people the number ofpeople involved in the study may belimited.


SCOPE:

It is best used for research which involveslooking at:

• meaning• process• attitudes• in-depth views• where researcher may want to person to

expand on ideas.

It can be used for factual information but aquestionnaire might be a cheaper way ofobtaining information.


PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION


TUTOR GUIDE TO HANDOUTS AND QUESTIONS, EXAMPLES, AND OHTs ON PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

1. Handout and questions. These are designed to introduced students to the basicuses, advantages, disadvantages, range and scope of participant observation as amethod of research. The handout and questions for Intermediate 1 and 2 aresimilar in content but Intermediate 1 has more support in terms of the heading thatare given and key words highlighted in bold print. The questions at each level alsoreflect the quantity of information required for assessment and the Intermediate 1questions have more ‘leads’.

A plenary session could be used to discuss the answers and this activity could be

supplemented by the examples of research and the OHTs summarising theadvantages and disadvantages.

2. Examples of research using participant observation. These handouts give the

student two examples of sociological research in two different areas - educationand religion. They can be used in conjunction with the handout and questions asdiscussed above or can be given as supplementary material. They can be used as afocus for discussion as the tutor could ask students to speculate on advantages,disadvantages, range and scope associated with these two studies.

3. The OHTs provide a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of participant

observation. These reflect the points raised in the handout although the languageused in the OHT is slightly different.


Participant Observation as a research method (Int 1)

Read the following passage and answer the questions below.

Using participant observation

It is a method that is used when a researcher wants to find out in-depth information.It is a way of finding out about ‘real-life’ situations and behaviour. In using thismethod the sociologist becomes part of the group he/she is studying. Whensociologists use participant observation they have three choices:• No-one in the group knows their identity or purpose• The group knows their identity or purpose.• Only key people know their identity or purpose.

Advantages

The advantage of participant observation is that the researcher is observing and takingpart in the activities that people do every day. This means the researcher can look atthe meanings people give to their actions. They can also study processes andinteractions that are taking place.

Disadvantages

Researchers who use this method usually have to spend a fair amount of timeparticipating in the group. In some case this may be as long as 1 - 2 years. Thismeans it can cost a lot in both time and money. Recording the information is canbe difficult as it is not always convenient to write things down - especially if theresearcher’s purpose is not known. If there is gap in the time between observingbehaviour and writing it down then the information may not be accurate.

Participant observation can be dangerous. For example, some sociologists havestudied gangs or drug-taking. In this situation they may be dealing with things thatcould be dangerous, deviant and criminal.

If they do not say who they are and people find out this can cause problems. Even ifthe group being studied knows it can still be dangerous because other people they naybe in contact with may not want their activities to be known. For example, asociologist could study drug-users who have agreed to take part, but this may involvedrug suppliers who may object to any knowledge about them being known.


Participant Observation has been used in many areas of research. It can be used toinvestigate a wide range of topics. For example, participant observation has beenused to carry out research in the areas of education, religion, drug-taking and gangculture. Its scope is limited because it is only possible to research a small number ofpeople. It is therefore best used when an in-depth understanding of processes,meaning or behaviour is required.


Questions

1. What does a sociologist do when they use participant observation as a method? 2. Give one advantage to using participant observation? 3. Why can participant observation be dangerous? 4. Give one other disadvantage to using participant observation? 5. List the topics that can be studied using participant observation. 6. Why might this research method be limited?


Participant Observation as a research method (Int 2)

Read the following passage and answer the questions below.

In using this method the sociologist becomes part of the group he/she is studying. It isa method that is used when a researcher wants to find out in-depth information. Whensociologists use participant observation they have three choices:• No-one in the group knows their identity or purpose• The group knows their identity or purpose.• Only key people know their identity or purpose.

Participant observation is a way of finding out about ‘real-life’ situations andbehaviour. This is because the researcher is observing and taking part in the everydayactivities. This means the researcher can look at the meanings people give to theiractions. They can also study processes and interactions that are taking place.

Researchers who use this method usually have to spend a fair amount of timeparticipating in the group. In some case this may be as long as 1 - 2 years. Thismeans it can cost a lot in both time and money. Recording the information is can bedifficult as it is not always convenient to write things down - especially if theresearcher’s purpose is not known. If there is gap in the time between observingbehaviour and writing it down then the information may not be accurate.

Participant observation can be dangerous. For example, some sociologists havestudied gangs or drug taking. In this situation they may be dealing with things thatcould be dangerous, deviant and criminal.

If they do not say who they are and people find out this can cause problems. Even ifthe group being studied do know it may still be dangerous because other peopleindirectly related to the group may not want their activities to be known. Forexample, a sociologist could study drug-users who have agreed to take part, but thismay involve drug suppliers who may object to any knowledge about them beingknown.

Participant Observation has been used in many areas of research. It can be used toinvestigate a wide range of topics. For example, participant observation has beenused to carry out research in the areas of education, religion, drug-taking and gangculture. Its scope is limited because it is only possible to research a small number ofpeople. It is therefore best used when an in-depth understanding of processes,meaning or behaviour is required.


Questions

1. What does a sociologist do when they use participant observation as a method? 2. Give two advantages to using participant observation? 3. Why can participant observation be dangerous? 4. Give two other disadvantage to using participant observation? 5. What is the range of participant observation as a method? 6. Why might the scope of this research method be limited?


Participant Observation (Int 1/2)

Example from sociological research

Paul Willis - Learning to Labour

This is a well-known study by a sociologist called Paul Willis. Inthis study Willis wanted to know why middle class children getmiddle class jobs and working class children get working classjobs. To understand this he decided to look at class culture in theeducation system and how this related to the types of jobs youngpeople went into.

Some of this research involved Willis carrying out observation andparticipant observation in a school in England. A group of 12 non-academic working class boys was studied intensively. To do thisWillis observed and participated in class, school and other leisureactivities. Willis’s identity and purpose was not kept a secret. Hisstudy was known to the pupils and teachers at the school.

The boys he studied were known as ‘the lads’ - a name they gavethemselves. One of the main aims of this group was to have ‘alaff’. The lads saw themselves as separate from those who tookschool seriously. They named this other group the ‘ear ‘oles’ or‘lobes’ because they always listened to what was said rather thanmaking their own rules.


Participant Observation (Int 1/2)

Example from sociological research

Eileen Barker - The Making of the Moonie: Choiceor Brainwashing

The Moonies is the popular name given to the Unification Churchwhich was founded by Reverend Moon. It has become well-known because some people have thought it ‘brainwashes’members. It has also been associated with mass weddings wherethousands of couples are married on one day.

Barker was interested in why people joined sects and who theywere. She also wanted to explore Moonie membership from thepoint of view of those involved. To do this she used a variety ofmethods which included participant observation.

Barker’s identity and purpose was known to those she studied.She said that her presence had influenced the behaviour of others.For example, during the research she had stepped in to helpmembers of the group and their families who were unhappy thatthey had joined. She was also required to give a talk on a religioustopic which she did not believe. However, her talk had theunexpected result of convincing another member of the group ofthe truth.

Barker’s study showed that most recruits were from ‘respectable’homes. The Moonies offered the security and warmth found inchildhood but missing from adult life. She also found that mostrecruits drop out of the Moonies after a short while.


PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

ADVANTAGES:

• Looks at behaviour in a ‘natural’ setting

• Helps the sociologist see things from thepoint of view of the people he/she isresearching

• It allows processes, meanings, interactionsto be studied

• Sociologist can look at behaviour over aperiod of time therefore provides morethan a ‘snap-shot’.


DISADVANTAGES:

• It takes a long time to do this type of study

• There may be problems with three distinctstages: ‘getting in’

• ‘staying in’• ‘getting out’

• Ethical considerations: - may involve studying people without their

knowledge or agreement. - may be invading people’s private lives.

• Researcher’s presence will alter behaviourof others.

• Recording evidence and analysing theresults can be difficult.


NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION


TUTOR GUIDE TO OHT, HANDOUT, ACTIVITYAND EXERCISE ON NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

1. The OHT is designed to introduce the students to some of the main features of non-participant observation. Other aspects are covered in the handouts and activitiesincluded in this section. The one point that should be emphasised at this stage isthe difference between non-participant observation and participant observation.

2. The handout on non-participant observation covers all aspects i.e. uses,

advantages, disadvantages, scope, range, choice and examples. For Intermediate 1the text has been boxed to aid learning. The handout for Intermediate 2 has verysimilar context but this is given in a continuous text form. The handouts can beused as a basis for class discussion, revision notes, and for the formativeassessment/exercise - see Point 4 below.

3. The activity is designed for Intermediate 1 and Intermediate 2 and involves the

student carrying out a non-participant observation. The suggested places should bepublic and safe and student must be aware of the rules i.e. not to act suspiciouslyand to withdraw if at any time they feel uncomfortable. It would also be advisableto tell the person responsible if they are carrying this out in a public place e.g. theowner of a café or teacher responsible for any common-room/playground area.

4. The exercises can be used as a formative assessment to ascertain knowledge gained

during this aspect of study. Two versions of the questions are included. AtIntermediate 2 the questions come in the form of a short quiz. In the Intermediate1 exercise, students are given one right answer and one wrong answer and they arerequired to indicate which is which.


NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION:

• Sociologist wants to observe ‘natural’behaviour.

• Sociologist does not take part in the groupor activity that is being observed.

• The people who are being observed maynot know they are being studied.

• Sociologist observes and records theobservation.


Non-participant observation (Int 1)

Uses

• Sociologists use non-participant observation when they want to observe naturalbehaviour.

• Usually the observer can be seen by the people he/she is researching although

they may not know they are being observed. For this reason this method isconsidered unethical by some.

• The researcher may try to disguise the fact that they are observing others by doing

some activity such as reading a newspaper or writing a letter. Sometimes a two-way mirror may be used or a microphone planted in a room to recordconversations.

Advantages

• Non-participant observation has the advantage of allowing the sociologist to lookat social behaviour in a ‘natural’ way.

• This method can also give information that could not be found by simply asking

questions. For example, if you observed a group you observe the interactionsbetween group members.

Disadvantages

• The sociologist cannot check on what he/she sees. • The sociologist will have to interpret what he/she sees and therefore this may be

biased. • The sociologist can observe actions and behaviours but he/she may not know the

motives behind a person’s actions. • It may be difficult for the sociologist to write down what he/she sees as this may

look suspicious. This means the sociologist would have to rely on his/hermemory and record the observation at a later time.


Range

• The range of areas of investigation is restricted to situations where observation isnot too obvious.

• The range of areas tend to be those which involve people in public places and

situations. • This could involve quite a number of situations such as education, leisure,

deviance and crime, discrimination, teenage behaviour, and so on.

Scope

• The scope of this method tends to involve studies where the researcher wants toobserve interactions of groups.

• It is useful to observe the way people may react to a particular situation or

event. • Observations also tends to involve observation of small groups as observing

larger groups may be difficult. This is because so many things may be happening. • The sociologist using this method would also need to make assumptions about

what is happening. For this reason it could not look at wider structures andprocesses.

Choice

Cost and time are other factors in choosing this as a method:• It does tie the researcher down to being in a particular place.• The observation may also have to take place over a period of time to get an

accurate picture of what is happening.

Examples

In 1957, a group of researchers, led by Strodbeck, studied the way people on juriesbehaved in a jury room. They carried out this research by hiding microphones in thejury room. In this way they could listen to the way the jury members interacted andreached their decisions.

A more recent study was carried out by Williams and other researchers. The area ofresearch was football hooliganism. To gather data the researchers had to observehow English football supporters behaved at matches. This meant the researchers wentto the football stadium where matches were being played and observed the behaviourof the football supporters. This study was carried out in 1984.



Uses of non-participant observation

Sociologists use non-participant observation when they want to observe naturalbehaviour. Usually the observer can be seen by the people he/she is researchingalthough they may not know they are being observed. For this reason this method isconsidered unethical by some.

The researcher may try to disguise the fact that they are observing others by doingsome activity such as reading a newspaper or writing a letter. Sometimes a two-waymirror may be used or a microphone may be planted in a room to recordconversations.

Advantages

Non-participant observation has the advantage of allowing the sociologist to look atsocial behaviour in a ‘natural’ way. This method can also give information that couldnot be found by simply asking questions. For example, if you observed a group youobserve the interactions between group members.

Disadvantages

There are many disadvantages to using non-participant observation. One is that thesociologist cannot check on what he/she sees. Another is that the sociologist willhave to interpret what he/she sees and therefore this may be biased. A thirddisadvantage is that the sociologist can observe actions and behaviours but he/shemay not know the motives behind a person’s actions. Finally, it may be difficult forthe sociologist to write down what he/she sees as this may look suspicious. Thismeans the sociologist would have to rely on his/her memory and record theobservation at a later time.

Range, scope and choice

The range of areas of investigation is restricted to situations where observation is nottoo obvious. So the range of areas tend to be those which involve people in publicplaces and situations. This could involve quite a number of situations such aseducation, leisure, deviance and crime, discrimination, teenage behaviour, and so on.

The scope of this method tends to involve studies where the researcher wants toobserve interactions of groups or the way people may react to a particular situation orevent. Observations also tends to involve observation of small groups as observinglarger groups may be difficult. This is because so many things may be happening.The sociologist using this method would also need to make assumptions about what ishappening. For this reason it could not look at wider structures and processes.


Cost and time are other factors in choosing this as a method. It does tie the researcherdown to being in a particular place. The observation may also have to take place overa period of time to get an accurate picture of what is happening.

Examples of research

In 1957, a group of researchers, led by Strodbeck, studied the way people on juriesbehaved in a jury room. They carried out this research by hiding microphones in thejury room. In this way they could listen to the way the jury members interacted andreached their decisions.

A more recent study was carried out by Williams and other researchers. The area ofresearch was football hooliganism. To gather data the researchers had to observehow English football supporters behaved at matches. This meant the researchers wentto the football stadium where matches were being played and observed the behaviourof the football supporters. This study was carried out in 1984.


Non-participant observation - practical exercise (Int 1/Int 2)

Instructions for non-participant observation.

• Choose a place and situation where you can observe a group of people. Forexample, you could sit in the a canteen, playground, common room, club, café,shopping centre, or bus. Choose a place which is public and safe.

• Decide what behaviour or actions you want to observe. For example: - how many people are in the group - is there a leader in the group - what people wear - where people sit - who speaks to whom - frequency of interaction - non-verbal language such as smiling, laughing, eye-contact. • Decide the way you will record these observations e.g. notes, charts, and so on. • Decide whether you will write down your observations at the time or do it

later. • Discuss all of the above points with your tutor before starting your observation. • If there is a person responsible for the place in which you are doing the

observation, then let them know what you are doing e.g. café owner, tutor,manager, etc.

• You will need to look as natural as possible in the situation therefore you may

want to pretend you are reading, writing, doing a crossword, doing homework,drinking coffee, and so one.

• If the situation feels uncomfortable in any way, you must stop immediately andgo to see your tutor.

• After you have completed this exercise, write some short notes on your

experience. For example: - Was the observation useful in telling you something about social behaviour? - What were the difficulties in the exercise? - Was writing observation down easy or difficult. Give reasons for your answer?



• Under each heading one right answer and one wrong answer is given.• Identify the right answer by putting a tick in the box and the wrong answer by

putting a cross in the box.

What is involved in non-participant observation:

The researcher takes part in the group he/she is observingThe researcher observes others but does not take part

One advantage in using non-participant observation:

Allows researcher to observe natural behaviour.The researcher can ask questions if he/she is not sure.

One disadvantage in using non-participant observation:

The people being observed will always know they are being watched.The sociologist will have to interpret what he/she sees and therefore thismay be biased.

The range of non-participant observation:

Can be used in studying the structures such as changes in unemploymentpatterns.This could involve quite a number of situations such as education, leisure,deviance and crime, discrimination, teenage behaviour.

The scope of non-participant observation:

The scope of this method tends to involve studies where the researcherwants to observe interactions of groups.This could be used to find out the opinions of large numbers of people.

The choice of non-participant observation as a research method:

Cost and time would be two factors.This is a cheap method to use.

One example of non-participant observation

Durkheim’s study of suicide statisticsWilliams’ study of football hooliganism



Quiz

From your handouts, class discussion, and textbook answer the following questions.

1. In what way do sociologists carry out non-participant observation? 2. Give two advantages. 3. Give two disadvantages. 4. Give one example of research using non-participant observation. 5. What are the range and scope of this method? 6. What factors might influence the choice of this method?


COMPARATIVE STUDIES


TUTOR GUIDE TO OHT, EXAMPLES AND QUESTIONS,HANDOUT AND EXERCISE ON COMPARATIVE STUDIES

1. The OHT is designed as an introduction to the basic use of comparative studies. 2. The two case studies and set of questions are designed to give two practical

examples of the comparative method. One is based on secondary sources used byDurkheim, the other is primary research conducted by Cicourel. The case studiesand questions can be used as a basis for further discussion or as a formative orrevision exercise. There are other examples given in the textbooks and these couldbe substituted for the examples given with an amended set of questions.

3. The handout on comparative studies is to develop knowledge of this method by

identifying some of the advantages, disadvantages, scope, range and choice. It canbe used as a basis for class discussion and in conjunction with the formativeexercise below. Two versions of the handout have been included. TheIntermediate 1 version has the same content as Intermediate 2 but has key wordsand phrases highlighted.

4. This exercise can be undertaken at the end of teaching and learning for this

method. It is designed to summarise all aspects covered. Intermediate 1 and 2have different versions with more support given at Intermediate 1 level. Theexercise could also be used as a formative assessment.


COMPARATIVE STUDIES

RESEARCHER LOOKS AT THE SAMEASPECT OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR BUTCOMPARES:

• COUNTRIES

• REGIONS

• TOWNS

• GROUPS

• TIME PERIODS


Comparative Studies (Int 1/2)

Durkheim - an example from sociological research

One of the first sociologists was a Frenchman calledEmile Durkheim. Durkheim was interested in the studyof suicide. He thought suicide was linked to socialfactors such as religion.

He claimed that it was possible to study patterns ofsuicide in different societies. To support his ideas he usedstatistics from a number of countries. In this wayDurkheim was using secondary sources to carry out acomparative study.

He compared the suicide statistics in 11 differentEuropean countries. He found countries such asDenmark, Prussia and Sweden had high rates of suicidewhilst countries such as Italy had lower rates of suicide.

Durkheim argued that Catholic countries had a lower ratethan Protestant countries. He also found from thestatistics that people who lived in the country or weremarried were less likely to commit suicide.

In this way Durkheim used the comparative study andstatistics to prove his theory that suicide was linked toother social factors.

Summary of his findings:

Catholic religion - fewer suicidesPeople who lived in the country - fewer suicidesPeople who were married - fewer suicides

Protestant religion - higher suicidesPeople who lived in cities - higher suicidesPeople who were unmarried - higher suicides


Comparative Studies (Int 1/2)

Cicourel - an example from sociological research

Cicourel was interested in juvenile delinquency which isa term for petty crime and deviant behaviour whichinvolves young people.

He said that it was the way young people were viewed bythe police, the courts and society which determined therate of juvenile delinquency.

To test his ideas, Cicourel compared the justice systemsin two large cities in America. He chose two cities witharound the same size of population and the same socialand economic mix. Cicourel was using primary researchto carry out a comparative study.

By comparing two similar cities it would show whetherthere were differences in the justice systems and the rateof delinquency.

Cicourel found differences in the rate of delinquency withone city having more than the other. Cicourel explainedthis by the differences in the way delinquents were dealtwith by the police and probation officers. For example,in the city with a higher record there were more probationofficers. In the city with the lower record, the rates ofarrest tended to vary and Cicourel linked this to the waycrime was reported in local newspapers.

Summary of his findings:

Petty crime and deviance among young people was notsimply a result of social or economic background.

It is the way young people are viewed by police and thecourts. The way they are dealt with by the justicesystems will influence whether they are arrested,cautioned, and so on.


Comparative studies (Int 1/2)

Questions on examples from sociological research

1. What topic was Durkheim investigating in his research? 2. On what did Durkheim base his comparison? 3. What were the main findings from Durkheim’s study? 4. What topic was Cicourel investigating in his research? 5. On what did Cicourel base his comparison? 6. What were the main findings from Cicourel’s study?


Comparative studies (Int 1)

As with all research methods there are advantages and disadvantages to usingcomparative studies as a method of research.

The advantages of this method include:

• It gives a view of other groups, societies and cultures.• It takes into account that social behaviour may vary between groups and cultures.• It challenges the view that our own society is the ‘norm’.

The disadvantages of this method include:

• It can be expensive to set up.• It may need the co-operation of other researchers e.g. if study is between several

countries, towns, regions.• It can be difficult to find groups, towns, countries with an exact match in terms of

social and economic mix.

Choice

Choice will have something to do with the advantages and disadvantages but will alsodepend on other things such as cost and time.

Also if you want to know if a type of social behaviour is only found in your societyor if it is common to all societies then you would need to study more than justyour society.

Range

The type of topics that can be covered using this method is very wide. For example,you could use it to look at:

• attitudes• class• power• socialisation• education• deviance• health• poverty• religion• mass media


Scope

The scope of this method is good. For example a researcher could use this method tocompare countries, such as Durkheim did, or a researcher could use it to comparesmall groups.

The scope of this method is also its usefulness in studies where the researcher wantsto prove that a factor is present/different in one group, town, country. Forexample, in Cicourel’s research he tried to show that it was the justice system in eachcity which influenced the rate of juvenile delinquency.



As with all research methods there are advantages and disadvantages to usingcomparative studies as a method of research.

The advantages of this method include:

• Gives a view of other groups, societies and cultures.• Takes into account that social behaviour may vary between groups and cultures.• Challenges view that our own society is the ‘norm’.

However, the disadvantages are that:

• It can be expensive to set up.• May need the co-operation of other researchers e.g. if study is between several

countries, towns, regions.• It can be difficult to find groups, towns, countries with an exact match in terms of

social and economic mix.

Choice

Choice will have something to do with the advantages and disadvantages but will alsodepend on other things such as cost and time. Also if you want to know if a type ofsocial behaviour is only found in your society or if it is common to all societies thenyou would need to study more than just your society.

Range

The type of topics that can be covered using this method is very wide. For example,you could use it to look at attitudes, class, power, socialisation, education, deviance,health, poverty, religion, mass media, and so on.

Scope

The scope of this method is good. For example a researcher could use this method tocompare countries, such as Durkheim did, or a researcher could use it to compare 2small groups. The main scope of this method is its use in studies where the researcherwants to prove that a factor is present/different in one group, town, country. Forexample, in Cicourel’s research he tried to show that it was the justice system in eachcity which influenced the rate of juvenile delinquency.



Give one way a comparative study can be used.

Give one example of a comparative study.

From the following list choose 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage in usingcomparative studies and write these in the boxes below.

• It may need the co-operation of researchers from other countries/regions.• Gives a view of other groups, societies and cultures.• It may be difficult to match groups exactly for social and economic mix.• Allows researcher to see how social behaviour may vary between groups.

Advantage:

Disadvantage:

From the list below choose the statement which refers to range, which refers toscope and which refers to choice. Write each statement in the correct box.

• Could be used to compare countries and societies or could be used to comparesmall groups.

• This method would be useful because the researcher might want to see if a socialbehaviour is found in more than one group/culture/society.

• A wide range of topics can be covered e.g. education, class, socialisation, religion,attitudes, poverty and deviance.

Range:

Scope:

Choice:



Give two ways a comparative study can be used.

1.2.

Give two examples of comparative studies.

1.2.

Identify 2 advantage and 2 disadvantage in using comparative studies:

Advantages: 1.

2.

Disadvantages: 1.

2.

From the list below choose the statement which refers to range and which refers toscope. Add in any other factors you think affect the range and scope of this method.

• A wide range of topics can be covered e.g. education, class, socialisation, religion,attitudes, poverty and deviance.

• Could be used to compare countries and societies or could be used to comparesmall groups.

Range:

Scope:

What factors might influence the researcher in choosing this method of research?


LONGITUDINAL STUDIES


TUTOR GUIDE TO HANDOUT, CASE STUDY AND QUESTIONS,EXERCISE, AND OHT ON LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

1. The handout covers the main features of longitudinal studies and why sociologistsmay use them. It also highlights the range, scope and choice involved inlongitudinal studies. Students could read this individually and then discuss thedetails in a plenary session. Alternatively it could be given as a supplement toother class work, textbook reading or for revision purposes.

2. The case studies are examples of longitudinal studies from sociological research

and popular culture. They highlight some of the difficulties in these types ofstudies and some of the advantages and disadvantages. These could be readindividually and discussed in small groups together with information taken fromthe handout or plenary discussion. Groups could be asked to consider some of thefollowing points feed these back on a flip-chart or tutor could put points on achalkboard. Points could include:

• advantages• disadvantages• why this type of study might be useful• cost and time 3. The OHT summarises more formally the advantages and disadvantages of the

study. This will give the student an opportunity to make a few short notes on thisaspect.

4. The exercise is designed to help the student to revise the advantages and

disadvantages, choice, range and scope. Intermediate 1 has the answers given andthey have to choose the correct responses. Intermediate 2 has less support andstudent are expected to provide their own answers. This exercise could beundertaken using notes and handouts, or without if tutors wish to use this forformative assessment.

The programme 42 Up is an excellent and interesting longitudinal study which is notstrictly designed to be sociological in terms of research design but neverthelessdemonstrates many aspects of longitudinal study. For example, it involves a cohort ofchildren, some people dropping out, some dropping out then taking part, and adecision to interview every 7 years. The programme demonstrates the similarities inlife stages but also the differences in experience, wealth, health, attitude, and so on.


Longitudinal studies (Int 1/2)

Longitudinal studies involve a researcher or a team of researchers studying socialbehaviour over a long period of time.

People are studied at intervals. Sometimes this may be over several years. Thepeople who are being studied:

• may be interviewed by the researchers• may be involved in group discussions• may undergo tests such as health or IQ tests

There are three types of longitudinal studies:

• Cohort studies. This involves studying a group of people who are born at the sametime. As this is the reason for choosing people, the sample may not represent amix of the population at large.

• Panel studies. These people are selected to represent particular groups in society.

Panel studies tend to be run over a shorter time than cohort studies. If people dropout of a panel, they can be replaced with similar people i.e. the same gender, socialstatus, economic position.

• Census studies. The census is a survey of the population every 10 years. It does

not re-interview the same people every time, but it is good for studying patternsand changes over a period of time.

A sociologist may choose this method because he/she wants:

• to look at social changes• to look at what is happening to a group as they move through stages in the life-

cycle.

However, in choosing this method sociologists will have to take into account:

• cost - in time and money• that they will probably need a team of researchers to carry out this type of research.

The range of topics for this method tends to fall into two broad areas.

• Any topic which involves the development of people in a social context• Any topic where change is an important feature.

The scope of this method covers:

• wide social structures such as class and education• small scale interactions and processes such as attitudes and meaning .


Longitudinal studies

Longitudinal studies - examples from sociological research and popular culture

The National Child Development Study

This studied 17,000 children born in the same week in March 1958. Thechildren were then surveyed at regular intervals aged 7, 14 and 21. Thetypes of things that were considered were health, progress, attitudes, andso on.

Although the study started out with 17,000 children, by 1981 around6000 names had been lost from the original sample. This made thecontinuing sample much smaller.

Douglas - The Home and the School and All Our Future

This study started with a sample of 5,362 children. The sample wastaken from children born in the first week in March 1946. Theresearchers followed the children through their primary schooling untilthey finished at the age of 11.

Douglas followed up this study with another. He took 4,720 of theoriginal sample of pupils and followed their progress for another 5 yearsthrough secondary school until they finished in 1962 at age 16.

He used different tests to find out the ability of each pupil. He also usedquestionnaires to find out the social class of each pupil. He put pupilsinto different ability groups and four class groupings. In the high abilitygroup the pupils from higher social classes did better than those fromlower social classes. In the low ability group the difference betweensocial classes was even wider.

42 Up (TV programme)

This is not sociological research but was started by a group ofprogramme makers who decided to follow some people through theirlives starting at the age of 7 and re-interviewing them every 7 years.The programmes are known as 7 Up, 14 Up, 21 Up, 28 Up, 35 Up and42 Up.

The programmes compare people from different backgrounds and howtheir lives are shaped. During the making of these programmes somepeople dropped out or refused to take part. Others dropped out and thencame back into the programme. Some had gone abroad e.g. Australia,Canada and Bangladesh. Although originally started by Granada the lastprogramme, 42 Up, was shown by the BBC.


LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

Advantages:

• Provides more than a snap shot.• Allows for comparison over time.• Looks at long-term trends.• Allows researcher to comment on

changing contexts.

Disadvantages:

• Needs a long-term commitment from theresearch team.

• People taking part may change theirminds as the research goes on.

• Might be difficult to keep track of peoplebeing studied.

• The sample of people used may not berepresentative.


Longitudinal studies (Int 1)

Listed below are 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of using longitudinal studies as aresearch method. Identify which two are advantages and which two are disadvantagesand write your answers in the boxes provided.

• It may be difficult to keep track of the people being studied.• Provides more than a snap shot.• Allows for comparison over time.• Cohort may not be representative.

Advantages

Disadvantages


3 statements are given below. Each refers to either range, scope or choice. Choose theright statement and write it in the box provided.

• Wide social structures and small scale interactions and processes.• Any topic that looks at social changes.• Sociologists will probably need a team of researchers to carry out this type of

research.

Range

Scope

Choice


Longitudinal studies (Int 2)

Describe two advantages and two disadvantages in using longitudinal studies as aresearch method. Write your answers in the boxes provided.

Advantages

1

2

Disadvantages

1

2


Answer the following questions by writing your response in the box provided.

1. Give one factor which might influence the choice of longitudinal study as aresearch method.

2. What is the range of longitudinal studies?3. What is the scope of longitudinal studies?

Choice

Range

Choice


OFFICIAL STATISTICS


TUTOR GUIDE ON ACTIVITY ON OHT, ACTIVITYAND WORKSHEET ON OFFICIAL STATISTICS

This set of activities, handouts and OHTs is designed to cover some of the mainaspects of using official statistics as a research method. Each can be used inconjunction with the others although each can also be used independently, dependingon time and preference.

As outlined in the introduction the activities are suitable for bi-level teaching. Someaspects such as OHTs are common to both levels, whilst others have handouts,revision exercises and so on which have been designed for each level (but which canbe used concurrently with 2 levels in one class).

This section on official statistics includes the following:

1. An OHT on types of statistical information that can be used. This would provide astarter exercise for the introduction of this research method.

2. The student activity on Social Trends data allows students to examine statistical

data at first hand. The exercise is designed to:• Show students what statistics look like in a simple form.• Allow interaction with the data.• Build investigative skills.• Demonstrate that ‘facts’ need to be interpreted. Students could undertake this exercise individually or in pairs. Tutors will have toprovide suitable data from Social Trends which should be available in school, collegeor public libraries. HMSO should also have recent copies available for purchase.

Some groups of students may need further support from the tutor to undertake thisexercise. Extra help could be given by doing this as a class exercise and comparinganswers and clarifying points along the way. Another way of giving extra supportwould be by directing students to particular columns, rows, years, etc. Relevant pagescould also be put on to an OHT to guide students.

3. Brainstorming activity and exercise on advantages and disadvantages of officialstatistics. As a class group or in smaller groups students could brainstorm theadvantages and disadvantages of using this method. Answers could be written on achalkboard or flip-chart. Students could then undertake the revision exercise onadvantages and disadvantages (one for each level) and this could also be used asformative assessment.


Official statistics

• Police records e.g. recorded crime

• Births, deaths, marriages

• Social trends

• Regional trends

• Unemployment statistics

• Hospital waiting lists


Statistics

Worksheet

The government collects statistics on many aspects of economic and social life in theU.K. A good way of finding out about the information collected is to read SocialTrends which is published once a year by the government. Social Trends had beenavailable for the past 30 years. It takes many of the statistics produced by officialsand puts them in a way which makes them easy to read and understand.

Look at the pages in Social Trends recommended by your tutor

1. What does this tell you about the trends and patterns in marriage and households.

2. What does this tell you how about the trends in the number of children people are having.

3. What does this tell you about the trends in employment and unemployment?

4. What does this tell you about the types of employment people are in?

5. Looking at your answers what would you say were the main trends in marriage, childbearing and employment in the UK?


Advantages and disadvantages of official statistics (Int 1)

Worksheet

Given below are a list of advantages and disadvantages in using official statistics as aresearch method. Select the 2 phrases which describe advantages and write each inthe box provided. Select the 2 phrases which describe disadvantages and write eachin the box provided. If you can think of any other advantages and disadvantages, addthese to your lists.

• Saves time.• All statistics need to be interpreted.• May be biased.• Low cost as information has already been gathered.

Advantages:

Disadvantages:


Advantages and disadvantages of official statistics (Int 2)

Worksheet

Given below are descriptions of 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of using officialstatistics as a research method. Describe 2 other advantages and 2 otherdisadvantages of using this method.

Advantages Disadvantages1. May have used a large sample such as

the Census.1. Statistics may have been gathered for

a particular purpose, therefore may bebiased.

2. 2.

3. 3.


WRITTEN EVIDENCEe.g. novels, diaries, personal

accounts, historical documents


TUTOR GUIDE TO OHT, HANDOUT, EXAMPLES, ANDACTIVITY ON WRITTEN EVIDENCE.

1. The OHT is an introduction to the types of written evidence sociologists may usein their research. This is an opportunity for tutor exposition on each type includedin the list. It is probable that time constraints will not allow all types of evidenceto be covered in depth but it will allow an overview of what can be used.

2. The two examples given are from a novel, North and South, and from a historical

source i.e. the 1831 Census. Examples from other novels, diaries or personalaccounts could be substituted using a similar model. The novel extract is quitelengthy and the language is quite difficult, but it is a good example of socialcomment from the industrial revolution. The Michael Anderson study fits in withthe themes of the novel as it is also examining changes during the industrialrevolution. For this reason these two examples could be used in conjunction witheach other although they are also designed to be used separately. Intermediate 1and 2 have not been distinguished in this handout, but support could be given toIntermediate 1 when using this handout, for example, by explaining particularwords, phrases, and so on.

3. The handout on advantages, disadvantages, choice, range and scope is designed to

cover the area in a broad way. Different types of evidence may have differencesbut they also have similarities. For example, some diaries may have been writtenin the knowledge they would be for ‘public consumption’ and therefore may sharesome of the characteristics of the novel also written for this purpose. Intermediate1 and 2 have similar content but Intermediate 1 has more support in the text.

4. The worksheet can be used for revision purposes or as a formative assessment and

answers discussed in a plenary session. The worksheet covers all the areasdiscussed. Intermediate 1 and 2 have separate worksheets, with more supportgiven at Intermediate 1 level.


WRITTEN EVIDENCE

Includes:

• Novels

• Diaries

• Personal accounts

• Historical documents


Written evidence (Int 1/2)

The novel

The novel is one source a sociologists might use this as a source of evidence forexample, marriage, attitudes, political views, poverty, are all found in the novels ofJane Austen, Charles Dickens and Robert Tressell.

One example from industrial revolution and written in the middle of the 19th Centuryis North and South by Elizabeth Gaskell. In this novel the author relates the story ofMargaret and her family as they move from a rural south of England village to aNorthern town. The story contains a romantic element but also comments on thephysical aspects of the town, the relations between workers and owners of factoriesand the rise of industry and changes it brought about.

Read the 3 passages on the next page and make notes under the following headingsabout:

• The type of transport that had reached the towns by the mid-1880s?

• The differences between people from the Northern towns and those from thecountry or the South e.g. dress, attitudes, transport.

• The reasons the workers had for going on strike?

• The way the employers intended to break the strike?


The following extract includes the description of a place called Heston which wasnear the main town.(p 95)

“ The next afternoon, about twenty miles from Milton-Northern, they entered on thelittle branch railway that led to Heston. Heston itself was one long straggling street,running parallel to the seashore. It has a character of its own, as different from thelittle bathing-places in the south of England as they again from those of the Continent.To use a Scotch word, everything looked more ‘purposelike’. The country carts hadmore iron, and less wood and leather about the horse-gear; the people in the streets,although on pleasure bent, yet had a busy mind. The colours looked grayer - moreenduring, not so gay and pretty. There were no smock frocks, even among thecountry folk; they retarded motion, and were apt to catch on machinery, and so thehabit of wearing them had died out. In such towns in the south of England, Margarethad seen the shopmen, when not employed in their business, lounging a little at theirdoors, enjoying the fresh air, and the look up and down the street. Here, if they hadany leisure from customers, they made themselves business in the shop - even,Margaret fancied, to the unnecessary unrolling and re-rolling of ribbons.”

Later, Margaret has a conversation with one of the strikers (p 182)

“But all this time you’ve not told me what you’re striking for” said Margaret, again.

“Why yo’ see, there’s five or six masters who have set themselves again paying thewages they’ve been paying for two years past, and flourishing upon, and gettingricher upon. And now they come to us, and say we’re to take less. And we won’t”

Later, a suggestion is made to one of the factory owners (p 195)

“Can’t you get hands from Ireland? I wouldn’t keep these fellows a day. I’d teachthem that I was master, and could employ what servants I liked”

“Yes! To be sure, I can; and I will, too, if they go on long. It will be trouble andexpense, and I fear there will be some danger; but I will do it, rather than give in.”



Historical sources

Michael Anderson used historical data to look at family structure during the industrialrevolution.

In one study of the family he looked at the Census of 1851 to examine changes inhousehold structure during the industrial revolution.

He compared households in rural England and in Preston - a northern industrial town.He found that there were far more lodgers in Preston households and less servantsthan in rural areas of England where there were fewer lodgers and more servants.

This was the time of the industrial revolution and people were moving from thecountry to the towns. This might be one reason why there were more lodgers inhouseholds in the towns and less servants. People were migrating to towns to work inthe factories and children were more likely to enter factory work than work asservants. In the country, however, servants and apprentices still made up a largeproportion of the household.

Questions:

1. What historical evidence did Michael Anderson use to study family structure? 2. What difference did he find between rural England and the town of Preston? 3. Give two possible reasons for the difference which he found.



Advantages

Some of the advantages of using written evidence as a method include:

• It can provide information which otherwise would not be available. For example,the sociologist cannot go back in time and interview people.

• It can provide a historical view of a topic.• It can give a social context to a topic. For example, novels often describes social

attitudes of a particular time in history.

Disadvantages

Some of the disadvantages of using written evidence as a method include:

• The information may be biased. For example, a novel may be written by a middleclass author such as Jane Austen.

• There may be no way of making sure information is correct. For example, theresearcher cannot go back in time an check the information.

• Many sources are non-sociological.

Choice

Some of the reasons a sociologist might chose this method are:

• It may be the only evidence that is available to the researcher.• The sociologist wants a historical view of a topic. For example, he/she wants to

know the social attitude to marriage in the 19th century.• May want to compare a sociological view with that of an ordinary person.

Range

Written evidence can cover almost any aspect of sociology which requirescomparison or some type of historical perspective e.g.• education• family• women• attitude• power• class.

Scope

This is limited because the researcher cannot always check what has been said. Theresearcher has to take what is written at face value. In-depth study can therefore bedifficult.


Written evidence (Int 1)

Worksheet

One type of written evidence is given below. Can you identify one other. Write thisin the box provided.

1. Diaries

2.

Given below are four statements. Choose the two which are advantages and writethem in the box provided. Choose the two which are disadvantages and write them inthe box provided.

• There may be no way of making sure information is correct.• It can provide information which might not be available• Many sources are non-sociological.• Can provide a historical view of a topic

Advantages1.

2.

Disadvantages1.

2.

Choice

Give one reason why a sociologist might choose this method of research


Range and scope

• Given below are two statements.• One refers to range and one to scope.• Decide which one refers to range and which one refers to scope and write your

answer in the box provided.

Statement A: There are limits to using this method because the sociologist cannotcheck what has been said.

Statement B: Written evidence can cover almost any aspects which requirescomparison or some type of historical perspective.

Statement A refers to:

Statement B refers to:


Written evidence (Int 2)

Worksheet

Diaries are one type of written evidence. Can you identify three others. Write this inthe box provided.

1.

2.

3.

Describe two advantages and two disadvantages of written evidence as a method ofresearch.

Advantages1.

2.

Disadvantages1.

2.

Describe why a sociologist might choose written evidence as a research method.


Range and scope

• Given below are two statements.• One refers to range and one to scope.• Decide which one refers to range and which one refers to scope and write your

answer in the box provided.

Statement A: There are limits to using this method because the sociologist cannotcheck what has been said.

Statement B: Written evidence can cover almost any aspects which requirescomparison or some type of historical perspective.

Statement A refers to:

Statement B refers to:


VISUAL EVIDENCEe.g. paintings, photographs,video evidence, magazines


TUTOR GUIDE TO HANDOUTS, OHT ANDACTIVITY ON VISUAL EVIDENCE

1. The first handout summarises some of the types of visual evidence that sociologistsmight use in research. It covers the main use of visual evidence and then describesfour sources of evidence. Each type of evidence can be discussed in turn and, iftime allows, some of the following activities could be considered to bring eachtype of source ‘alive’.

• A visit could be arranged to an art gallery or museum and paintings examined toascertain particular features of social interest. Alternatively, if there are art booksavailable in the library these could also be examined.

• Students could bring in old photographs obtained through parents, grandparents orother family members. Features such as fashion, interiors of houses, number ofpeople in the family, etc., could be examined.

• Video evidence such as 42+ or other archive material could be considered andpoints about social attitudes, accent, dress, etc. could be commented on.

• Magazines could be examined to see what type of messages they carry -particularly their pictorial content. If students or tutors can find old magazines thiswould also be very useful in tracing social attitudes such as women’s place in thehome and in relation to fashion.

2. The OHT summarises the main advantages and disadvantages and tutors can

expand on each in relation to the four types of evidence. 3. The second handout summarises factors involved in the choice, range and scope of

this method of research. It can be used as the basis for class discussion. 4. This activity is designed to bring together the student learning from this method of

research. It can be used as a revision tool or as a formative assessment.Intermediate 1 and 2 levels have been differentiated for this worksheet with moresupport being given at Intermediate 1 level.


Visual evidence

There are various types of visual evidence that a sociologist might use in sociologicalresearch. The main use of this type of evidence is as a historic source. Thesociologist may also use visual evidence if other sources such as written evidence isnot available. This is a secondary source of data collection.

Paintings

Paintings can be very useful because often painters/artists reflect scenes of family life,buildings, fashion, what was considered beautiful, and so on. Paintings can often tellus something about such things as work, the rise of industry, farming, serfs, slavery,etc. In this way sociologists can find out something about what went on at a particulartime in history.

Photographs

The photograph is a more recent invention although they can be similar to paintings inthe information they give. For example they can show us the way in which peopledressed, how wealthy they were, and other things such as what the inside of homeslook like. However, like paintings they only tell us about one moment in time.

Video evidence

Video evidence or film material can provide more information than a singlephotograph or painting. For example, a video or film may have sound and thereforethe researcher can hear people speaking. It may also show people interacting. Videoor films can tell us what people found important, the language they used, what wasallowed on film, and social attitudes and behaviour.

Magazines

Pictures and adverts in magazines are another rich source of information. Forexample, the pictures may reflect the attitudes of the readers. Pictures in magazinesfrom the 40s and 50s may show women at home with children whilst the man goesoff to work. The image of women may be another area where we can studymagazines. For example, at one time women were expected to be well-roundedwhereas in the 80s and 90s magazine pictures tend to show very slim girls as the idealwoman.


VISUAL EVIDENCE

Advantages:

• Useful for historical comparison.

• It can give information not available inprint.

• Can support other existing information.

• Can make a comment on social life of thetime.


Disadvantages:

• Only a snap shot of social life.

• May be difficult to verify what we see.

• May be biased.

• May be painted/photographed for aparticular purpose.

• Non-sociological.

• May be difficult to explore in-depth.


Visual evidence (Int 1/2)

Choice

Some of the reasons a sociologist might chose this method are:

• There may not be any other information available. It may be the onlyevidence that is available to the researcher.

• The sociologist may want more information than is available through the

written word. • Pictures can support views such as the way the image of women has

changed over the year.

Range

The range of this method is quite wide. For example, this method can be usedto study a number of topics which include:

• work• women• family• body image• power

Scope

• This method is good for examining historical information and historicalcontext.

• Use of video may show natural or interactive behaviour. • It is limited in some ways because the researcher cannot check the

information that he/she sees. Therefore in-depth study is difficult.


Visual evidence (Int 1)

Name two types of visual evidence

1. 2.

Given below are two advantages and two disadvantages of using visual evidence as aresearch method. Select the ones which are advantages and which are disadvantagesand write them in the boxes provided.

• It can give information not available in print• May be biased• May be difficult to explore in-depth• Useful for historical comparison

Advantages

1

2

Disadvantages

1

2

Given below are two statements. Which refers to the range of visual evidence as aresearch method and which refers to the scope of visual evidence.

This method is good for examining historicalinformation and historical context.

Refers to:……………………………..

This method can be used to study a number of topicssuch as: work, women, family, body image and power.

Refers to:……………………………

Give one reason why a sociologist might choose this method


Visual evidence (Int 2)

Worksheet

Name three types of visual evidence

1. 2. 3.

Given below is one advantage and one disadvantage of using visual evidence as aresearch method. give two other advantages and two other disadvantages of using thismethod.

Advantages

1 It can give information not available in print2 3

Disadvantages

1 May be biased2 3

Describe the range and scope of visual evidence as a research method.

Range :

Scope :

Give one reason why a sociologist might choose this method


CHOICE, RANGEAND SCOPE


TUTOR GUIDE ON OHT, HANDOUT ANDEXERCISE ON CHOICE, RANGE AND SCOPE

Although the issues of choice, range and scope have been included in the teaching andlearning of each particular research method, this section has also been included tosupplement that material.

1. The OHT is an introduction to what is meant by the three terms: choice, range andscope. These can be difficult as sometimes factors will overlap. Choice, range andscope are also affected by the advantages and disadvantages of each method and asociologist has to take all of these things into account when deciding on a methodof research.

2. The handout expands on the points made in the OHT and can be used as the basis

for class discussion or can be used for revision purposes. There is a handout forIntermediate 1 and Intermediate 2. They have a similar content but Intermediate 1has more support in the text.

3. The exercise is designed to draw on the knowledge gained through the study of

selected research methods. Students are asked to choose methods and apply theirlearning to the issues of choice, range and scope. Intermediate 1 and 2 are asked toundertake similar tasks although Intermediate 2 requires a greater number ofmethods to be completed.


CHOICE

The reasons why a sociologist might choosea particular method. These include:

• cost• time• the topic they are researching

RANGE

This refers to the types of topics whichcould be investigated using a particularmethod.

SCOPE

This includes:

• The depth to which a topic could beinvestigated using a particular method.

• What type of information could beobtained using a particular method.


Choice, range and scope (Int 1)

Choice

The choice of method is part of the research process. When designing the researchthe sociologist must decide which method would be the best for the subject he/sheis investigating. The sociologist may choose more than one. Some factors whichneed to be considered are:

• Cost.Researchers have a set amount of money for research. They have to consider thebest way to carry out research within their budget. For example, if the researchwanted in-depth information the sociologist might want to consider whether in-depthinterviews would cost more than participant-observation.

• TimeThe researcher will also have a time limit for the research he/she wishes to carry out.The researcher has to consider which method can best help them complete theirresearch within the time set. For example if project has to be completed within 2years then cannot do research such as a longitudinal study which would take manyyears.

• Topic for researchThe topic of research will have an influence on the choice of method.For example, if the sociologists wanted to know how people from different socialgroups voted they would not do participant observation. This is because they onlywant to research one aspect of behaviour and it would be much simpler, quicker andcheaper to do a structured interview or questionnaire. This would give theinformation which the sociologist needed.

Range

The range of a method means the different subjects or topics that can beresearched using a particular method. For example, questionnaires can be used for awide variety of topics including voting behaviour, attitudes, consumer preferences,religious beliefs, ownership of electrical goods, car ownership, poverty, health,education, lifestyle, and so on. On the other hand, secondary evidence such as diariesmight be more limited as they tend to cover personal accounts of social life in ahistorical context.

Scope

This is the depth to which each method can tell you something. For example ifsociologists wanted to know the way people interact they would not use a postalquestionnaire. This is because the scope of a questionnaire is limited and can onlygive superficial information. If a sociologist wanted to know how people interact theymay choose participant observation because this method has the scope to study theway in which people behave towards each other.



Choice

The choice of method is part of the research process. When designing the researchthe sociologist must decide which method would be the best for the subject he/she isinvestigating. The sociologist may choose more than one. Some factors which needto be considered are:

• Cost.Researchers have a set amount of money for research. They have to consider the bestway to carry out research within their budget. For example, if the research wanted in-depth information the sociologist might want to consider whether in-depth interviewswould cost more than participant-observation.

• TimeThe researcher will also have a time limit for the research he/she wishes to carry out.The researcher has to consider which method can best help them complete theirresearch within the time set. For example if project has to be completed within 2years then cannot do research such as a longitudinal study which would take manyyears.

• Topic for researchThe topic of research will have an influence on the choice of method.For example, if the sociologists wanted to know how people from different socialgroups voted they would not do participant observation. This is because they onlywant to research one aspect of behaviour and it would be much simpler, quicker andcheaper to do a structured interview or questionnaire. This would give theinformation which the sociologist needed.

Range

The range of a method means the different subjects or topics that can be researchedusing a particular method. For example, questionnaires can be used for a wide varietyof topics including voting behaviour, attitudes, consumer preferences, religiousbeliefs, ownership of electrical goods, car ownership, poverty, health, education,lifestyle, and so on. On the other hand, secondary evidence such as diaries might bemore limited as they tend to cover personal accounts of social life in a historicalcontext.

Scope

This is the depth to which each method can tell you something. For example ifsociologists wanted to know the way people interact they would not use a postalquestionnaire. This is because the scope of a questionnaire is limited and can onlygive superficial information. If a sociologist wanted to know how people interact theymay choose participant observation because this method has the scope to study theway in which people behave towards each other.



Choose one method from primary sources and describe the following:

Method:

Reasonsociologistmight choosethis method:

Range:

Scope:

Choose one method of secondary sources and describe the following:

Method:


Range:

Scope:



Choose two methods from primary sources and describe the following:

1.Method:


Range:

Scope:

2.Method:


Range:

Scope:


Choose two methods from secondary sources and describe the following:

1.Method:


Range:

Scope:

2.Method:


Range:

Scope:


RESOURCES


Resources

The following is a list of resources which may be used in teaching courses and units atIntermediate 1 and 2 in Sociology. They are an indication of the range of resourcesavailable, rather than being prescriptive or making any claim to provide definitivecoverage of the curriculum.

Sociology: A New ApproachMichael HaralambosISBN 1973929552

Sociology AliveSteven MooreISBN 0859506614

Introduction to SociologyMichael O’DonnellISBN 0174481772

SociologyTownroe and YatesISBN 0582257301

Companions to GCSE SociologyCompanions to GCSE Social StudiesCambridge Science BooksTracey HallCockburn StreetCambridgeCB1 3NB

Sociology Introduction to Sociology: Methods Int 1 and Int 2 · Methods of research: Questionnaires...

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