“Sociology has only one independent variable, class.” (Stinchcombe, quoted in Wright, 1979, p.3)

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EDM 6210EDM 6210Education Policy and SocietyEducation Policy and Society

Lecture 7Lecture 7Education Policy and Social Differentiation:Education Policy and Social Differentiation:

The Class-Structure AnalysisThe Class-Structure Analysis

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“One of the objects of class theory has been to identify the principal line of social cleavage within a given system ——the structural ‘fault’ running through society to which the most serious disturbances on the political landscape are thought to be ultimately traceable.” (Parkin, 1979, p.3)

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“Sociology has only one independent variable, class.” (Stinchcombe, quoted in Wright, 1979, p.3)

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Class Analysis

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Class Structure Analysis: Formulation of the Problem

Three approaches to structure of class inequalityThree approaches to structure of class inequality Gradational approach Gradational approach to class structure to class structure Relational approach Relational approach to class structure to class structure

Weberian structure of class relation Weberian structure of class relation Marxist structure of class relationMarxist structure of class relation

Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of social spacesocial space

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MarxistMarxistClass Structure AnalysisClass Structure Analysis

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Marist’s Class Structure Analysis

Marx’s Legacy on Class

(Wright, 1985, p.6)

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Wright’s formulation of Marxist class analysis agenda Two dimensions of class analysis

Theoretical objects of class analysisLevels of abstraction

The research agenda of the Analytical Marxists

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Wright’s formulation of Marxist class analysis agenda

The research agenda of the Analytical Marxists

Level of Abstraction

Theoretical Object of Analysis

Class Structure Class Formation

Mode of Production

Polarized class relations Epochal struggle between classes

Social Formation

Co-exitence of classes based in different modes of production and different stages of development of a given mode

Class alliances

Conjunction Institutional variability in class relations in given jobs

Concrete class organizations: parties, shop floor organization unions

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Wright’s conception of contradictory class location (1979) Re-conceptualization of class relation

Economic ownership of means of production Possession of means of production

• Control over physical means of production

• Control over the labor power of others

The class structure with contradictory class locations in advanced capitalism

13(Wright, 1979, p.75)

14(Wright, 1979, p.76)

15(Wright, 1979, p.76)(Wright, 1975, p.63)

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Wright’s conception of assets of exploitation (1985)

Re-conceptualization of class relation Relation of means of production Relation of authority Relation of scarce skills

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(Wright, 1985, p.83)

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Wright’s conception of assets of exploitation (1985) Re-conceptualization of class relation

Relation of means of productionRelation of authorityRelation of scarce skills

Three-dimensional class structure in advanced capitalism

19(Wright, 1997, p.24)

20(Wright, 1997, p.25)

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Wright and Burawoy’s conception of class reproduction Class reproduction: The fundamental question in

class analysis

“What are the mechanisms that explain the capacity of capitalists to actually appropriate surplus labor from workers? …How is it…that capitalists manage to get workers to perform sufficient actual labor effort to produce a profit above the cost (wages) of that labor-power?”

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Wright and Burawoy’s conception of class reproduction Bowles and Gintis’s thesis of “Contested

Exchange” The threats of being fired Surveillance

• Bureaucratic control

• Fordism: Deshilling and intensification of work

• Neo-Fordism

• Post-Fordism

Wages : Cost of losing the job Trade-off between surveillance and wages

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Wright and Burawoy’s conception of class reproduction Wright and Burawoy’s two-dimension mechanism

Cognitive mechanisms underlying explanation of behavioral compliance• Strategic rationality

• Behavioral norms

• Evaluative norms

Immediate rational basis for behavioral compliance• Domination

• Asymmetrical reciprocity

25(Wright, 1994, p.76)

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WeberianWeberianClass Structure AnalysisClass Structure Analysis

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Weberians’ Class Structure Analysis

Giddens’ theory of class structuration and basic constituents of Weberians’ class structure analysis Class structuration as “process whereby

economic classes become social classes” (Giddens, 1981, p. 105)

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“We speak of a class when (1) a number of people have a common and specific causal component of their life chances, in so far as (2) this component is represented exclusively by economic interests in the possession of goods and opportunities for income, and (3) is represented under the conditions of the commodity or labor markets. This is class situation…. Class situation is, in this sense, ultimately market situation.”

(Weber, 1978, p. 927-28)

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“A ‘social class’ makes up the totality of those class situations within which individual and generational mobility is easy and typical” (Weber, 1978, p.302).

“A ‘social class’ exists only when these class situations cluster together in such a way as to create a common nexus of social interchange between individuals” (Giddens, 1982, p. 49)

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Social Classes

(Weber, 1978, p. 305)

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Giddens’ theory of class structuration and basic constituents of Weberians’ class structure analysis Class structuration as “process whereby economic

classes become social classes” (Giddens, 1981, p. 105)

Construction of socioeconomic index as measures of economic class

Mobility-table analysis as measures of social class Status attainment analysis as measures of class

structuration

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Socioeconomic status measure Constituents of SES measure: Occupation,

education and income

Occup = ß0 + ß1 Edu + ß2 Inc + r

Duncan’s socioeconomic index Nam and Powers’s approach to SES measure

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Social mobility analysis Class schema

Duncan’s 17-category class schemaClass schema of the Oxford Social Mobility Group

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Social mobility analysis Class schema

Duncan’s 17-category class schemaClass schema of the Oxford Social Mobility Group

The structure of the mobility table

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Fathers’ Class Position

Sons’ Class Positions

1 2 3 4 5

1

2

3

4

5

The Structure of Mobility Table

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The Structure of Mobility Table

Sons’ Class Positions Fathers’ Class Position

1 2 3 4 5

1

2

3

4

5

Upward Mobility

Downward MobilityClass

Inherit

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Class structuration in Hong Kong Construction a SES index for Hong Kong

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Class structuration in Hong Kong Construction a SES index for Hong Kong In search of the class schema for HK

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Class structuration in Hong Kong Construction a SES index for Hong Kong In search of the class schema for HK Mobility-table analysis of HK

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Origin and destination: Status attainment analysis

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(Oxford Mobility Study)

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(Wisconsin Model)

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Education as Mechanism of Class Reproduction:

The Marxist Theories

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Louis Athusser (1971) Ideology and Ideological State Apparatus

Repressive Repressive state apparatusstate apparatus Ideological Ideological state apparatusstate apparatus

School as an essential ideological state apparatus School as an essential ideological state apparatus in reproduction of labor powerin reproduction of labor power

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“Unlike social formations characterized by slavery or serfdom, this reproduction of the skills of labour power tends decreasingly to be provided for ‘on the spot’, but is achieved more and more outside production: by the capitalist education system, and by other instances and institutions.

What do children learn at school? …They learn to read, to write and to add – i.e. a number of techniques, and a number of other things as well, including elements of ‘scientific’ or ‘literary culture’, which are directly useful in the different jobs in production. Thus they learn ‘know-how’.

But besides these …children at school also learn the 'rules' of good behaviour, i.e. the attitude that should be observed by every agent in the division of labour, according to the job he is ‘destined’ for: rule of morality, civic and professional conscience, which actually means rules of respect for socio-technical division of labour and ultimately the rule of the order established by class domination.” (Authusser, 1971, p. 132)

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Bowles and Gintis' thesis of the rise of mass education in the US

In In pre-capitalistpre-capitalist and colonial American and colonial American Elite education was restricted to a selected few and Elite education was restricted to a selected few and

it serves as "the aristocratic penchant for it serves as "the aristocratic penchant for conspicuous intellectual consumption." (1976, p. conspicuous intellectual consumption." (1976, p. 156)156)

Education for the fortunate few was "narrowly Education for the fortunate few was "narrowly vocational, restricted to preparation of children for vocational, restricted to preparation of children for a career in the church, the 'learned professionals', a career in the church, the 'learned professionals', or the still inconsequential state bureaucracy." or the still inconsequential state bureaucracy." (1976, p. 156)(1976, p. 156)

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In In early capitalistearly capitalist economy economy Mass education as means of to resolve institutional Mass education as means of to resolve institutional

crisis of US early capitalist economy and migrant crisis of US early capitalist economy and migrant societysociety Mass education as means of assimilation, integration and Mass education as means of assimilation, integration and

control of transient, even foreign, elements came to control of transient, even foreign, elements came to constitute a major segment of the population in US Urban constitute a major segment of the population in US Urban areas in the 19areas in the 19thth century century

Apparent visibility of inequality of wealth in urban areasApparent visibility of inequality of wealth in urban areas Erosion of traditional simple legitimizing ideologies, i.e. Erosion of traditional simple legitimizing ideologies, i.e.

the divine right of king and the divine origin of social rankthe divine right of king and the divine origin of social rank Universal franchise in electionUniversal franchise in election

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In early capitalist economyIn early capitalist economy Contributions of mass schooling to social Contributions of mass schooling to social

assimilation and controlassimilation and controlSchooling inculcates work attitude necessary for Schooling inculcates work attitude necessary for

oppressive factory in primitive capital accumulation in US oppressive factory in primitive capital accumulation in US capitalism capitalism

Mass schooling as representation of ostensible openness Mass schooling as representation of ostensible openness of the US society State-sponsored education as means to of the US society State-sponsored education as means to inculcate acceptance of public authority of the Federal and inculcate acceptance of public authority of the Federal and state Governmentstate Government

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Schooling in Schooling in corporate capitalismcorporate capitalism for differentiated for differentiated labor forcelabor force Class politics in Urban School Reform in the early 20Class politics in Urban School Reform in the early 20thth century century The education-stratification effect of progressive education The education-stratification effect of progressive education

movement movement Progressive education principle Progressive education principle "Needs of the child" replaced "Needs of the child" replaced

common school ideal common school ideal The rise of vocational educationThe rise of vocational education

The invention of objective educational testing and the The invention of objective educational testing and the institutionalization of educational tracking by "scientific" institutionalization of educational tracking by "scientific" designdesign

The expansion and stratification of higher education in the mid The expansion and stratification of higher education in the mid 2020thth century and the proletarianization of white-collar workers century and the proletarianization of white-collar workers

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Bowles and Gintis' thesis of class-reproduction function of education

Education stratification reproduce class Education stratification reproduce class stratificationstratification Stratified schooling system reproduced the Stratified schooling system reproduced the

stratified thestratified the technical and cognitive skill of labortechnical and cognitive skill of labor Stratified schooling system reproduced Stratified schooling system reproduced

differentiated personalitiesdifferentiated personalities necessary for the necessary for the modes of control in capitalist labor processmodes of control in capitalist labor process

Legitimizing the economic inequalityLegitimizing the economic inequality of capitalism of capitalism and inculcating the value of possessive and inculcating the value of possessive individualism individualism

Constituting and reinforcing the Constituting and reinforcing the fragmented and fragmented and stratified consciousnessstratified consciousness of the subordinate of the subordinate economic classeseconomic classes

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The The Correspondence principleCorrespondence principle in capitalist in capitalist schoolingschooling The The structure correspondencestructure correspondence between the social between the social

relations of the schooling system and those of relations of the schooling system and those of capitalist workplace capitalist workplace

““The structure of the The structure of the social relationssocial relations on on education…inures the students to the discipline of education…inures the students to the discipline of the workplace” the workplace”

It “develops the types of It “develops the types of personal demeanorpersonal demeanor, , modes of self-presentation, self-image, and social-modes of self-presentation, self-image, and social-class identifications which are the crucial class identifications which are the crucial ingredients of job adequacy”. ingredients of job adequacy”.

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The Correspondence principle in capitalist The Correspondence principle in capitalist schoolingschooling The The hierarchical relationshierarchical relations between administrators and between administrators and

teachers, teachers and students, and among students teachers, teachers and students, and among students replicate the hierarchical division of labor and vertical replicate the hierarchical division of labor and vertical authority lines in the workplace. authority lines in the workplace.

The The alienating featuresalienating features in schooling learning prepare in schooling learning prepare students for the alienating features in the Fordist labor students for the alienating features in the Fordist labor processprocess

The “The “destructive competitiondestructive competition among students through among students through continual and ostensibly meritocratic ranking and continual and ostensibly meritocratic ranking and evaluation” nurtures the fragmented and stratified evaluation” nurtures the fragmented and stratified consciousness in the workplace and legitimatize the consciousness in the workplace and legitimatize the economic inequality in capitalismeconomic inequality in capitalism

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Differentiation of correspondence principles between Differentiation of correspondence principles between the education stratification and the occupational the education stratification and the occupational hierarchy hierarchy

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Educational Hierarchy Occupational Hierarchy

Patient, compliant, obedient, docile

Dependable, Self-disciplined, Self-sufficient

Independent, Creative, Aggressive

Rule Following

Rule Implementing

Rule Setting

Goal Setting

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Differentiation of correspondence principles between Differentiation of correspondence principles between the education stratification and the occupational the education stratification and the occupational hierarchy hierarchy

The correspondence principles between the social The correspondence principles between the social relations in family and those in schools relations in family and those in schools

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Educational Hierarchy Occupational Hierarchy

Patient, compliant, obedient, docile

Dependable, Self-disciplined, Self-sufficient

Independent, Creative, Aggressive

Rule Following

Rule Implementing

Rule Setting

Goal Setting

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Debate on Reproduction Theory of Education

Resistance theorists’ critique on structuralist Resistance theorists’ critique on structuralist reproduction theory reproduction theory The rediscover of the knowledgeability of the The rediscover of the knowledgeability of the

agentsagents The resistance capacity of both students and The resistance capacity of both students and

teachersteachers

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The rediscover of the knowledgeability of the agents

“Reproduction theorists have overemphasized the idea of domination in their analysis and have failed to provide any major insights into how teachers, students, and other human agents come together within specific historical and social contexts in order to both make and reproduce the conditions of their existence. … Human subjects generally “disappear” amidst a theory that leaves no room for moments of self-creation, mediation, and resistance. These accounts often leave us with a view of schooling and domination that appears to have been pressed out of an Orwellian fantasy; schools are often viewed as factories or prisons, teachers and students alike act merely as pawns and role bearers constrained by the logic and social practices of the capitalist system.”

(Giroux, 1983, p.259)

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teachersteachers The incoherence in the structure capitalist systemThe incoherence in the structure capitalist system

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The incoherence in the structure capitalist schooling system

“In resistance accounts, schools are relatively autonomous institutions that not only provide spaces for oppositional behavior and teaching but also represent a source of contradictions that sometimes make them dysfunctional to the material and ideological interests of the dominant society. Schools are not solely determined by the logic of the workplace or the dominant society; they are not merely economic institutions but are also political, cultural, and ideological sites that exist somewhat independently of the capitalist market economy. …Moreover, instead of being homogeneous institutions operating under the direct control of business groups, schools are characterized by diverse forms of school knowledge, ideologies, organizational styles, and classroom social relation.”

(Giroux, 1983, p.259)

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teachersteachers The incoherence in the structure capitalist systemThe incoherence in the structure capitalist system The dialectic and contradictory nature of capitalist The dialectic and contradictory nature of capitalist

systemsystem

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Revision of the reproduction theory: Structural Revision of the reproduction theory: Structural contradictions thesiscontradictions thesis Bowles and Gintis’ conceptions of sites and Bowles and Gintis’ conceptions of sites and

practicepracticeDifferentiating sites: Family, state, and capitalist production Differentiating sites: Family, state, and capitalist production Differentiating Practices: cultural, political, appropriative, and Differentiating Practices: cultural, political, appropriative, and

distributive practicesdistributive practicesStructural delimitations of sitesStructural delimitations of sitesTransportation of practices across sitesTransportation of practices across sites

Carnoy and Levin’s conception of education in Carnoy and Levin’s conception of education in democratic-capitalist societydemocratic-capitalist society

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Carnoy and Levin’s conception of education in democratic-capitalist society

“Girous (1981) and Apple (1982) call on Gramsci’s dialectical concept of hegemony and counterhegemony in arguing that schools reproduce class but the practices of schooling…are resisted by counterhegemonic tendencies in working-class youth, young women, and minorities. However, counterhegemony as Gramsci defined it is necessarily rooted in social and political movements, as in 1968 in France and Mexico or in 1970 in the United States. The relation between movements and resistance to the hegemonic “hidden curriculum” in schools is not spelled out by Apple and Giroux.”

(Carnoy & Levin, 1985, p.160)

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“Our view is that resistance is embedded in social conflict, and social conflict outside the schools has historically shaped the class-structured schooling now being resisted by some subordinate groups. …The constant struggle to expand democratic rights, both political and economic, also takes place within education, expanding the role of schools in the process of social mobility and in the more equitable treatment of subordinate groups. Therefore, social conflict shapes educational change over time. Resistance to ideologically based curricula and other schooling practices has to be set in the context of this conflict. Such resistance is not independent of the struggle going on outside the school.”


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“The schools are an arena of conflict because they have the dual role of preparing workers and citizens. The preparation required for citizenship in a democratic society based on equal opportunity and human rights is often incompatible with the preparation needed for job performance in a corporate system of work. …One the one hand, schools must train citizens to know their rights under the law as well as their obligations to exercise these rights through political participation. …On the other, schools must train workers with the skills and personality characteristics that enable them to function in an authoritarian work regime. This requires a negation of the very political rights that make for good citizens.”


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Education as Mechanism of Class Reproduction:

The Weberian Theory

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Weber’s thesis on The Typological Position of Confucian Education

Classifying Characteristics

Types of Educational System

A B C

Educational Content Heroic/Magical Cultivation Specialized expert Training

Legitimate Base Charismatic Authority

Traditional Authority

Legal-Rational Authority

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Collin’s theory of political economy of culture

Distinction between productive labor and political Distinction between productive labor and political laborlabor ““Productive laborProductive labor is responsible the material production of is responsible the material production of

wealth.”wealth.” ““Political laborPolitical labor sets the conditions under which the wealth is sets the conditions under which the wealth is

appropriated. To the extent that one is paid for one’s appropriated. To the extent that one is paid for one’s productive contribution, this does not happen automatically productive contribution, this does not happen automatically but because political labor has shaped the organizational but because political labor has shaped the organizational structure and the labor market to make this possible.” structure and the labor market to make this possible.” (Collins, 1979, p. 50)(Collins, 1979, p. 50)

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Distinction between material property and positional Distinction between material property and positional propertyproperty Material propertyMaterial property refers to one’s possession of material and refers to one’s possession of material and

financial asserts which can generate wealth.financial asserts which can generate wealth. Positional propertyPositional property refers to one’s possession of the refers to one’s possession of the

capacity or authority to determine how wealth are distributed capacity or authority to determine how wealth are distributed among productive positions in organization and in labor among productive positions in organization and in labor market at large, and more fundamentally among class market at large, and more fundamentally among class positions in a class structure. positions in a class structure.

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Cultural market and cultural currencyCultural market and cultural currency Cultural market refers to the field in which cleavage lines (i.e. Cultural market refers to the field in which cleavage lines (i.e.

distinctions) among positional groupings (e.g. status distinctions) among positional groupings (e.g. status groups) are constituted, alliances among them are formed, groups) are constituted, alliances among them are formed, and closures and barriers restricting inter-grouping mobility and closures and barriers restricting inter-grouping mobility are set. In short, are set. In short, cultural market is where the definition of the cultural market is where the definition of the positional property of a given society is institutionalizedpositional property of a given society is institutionalized..

Cultural currency refers to the Cultural currency refers to the most commonly accepted most commonly accepted cultural goodscultural goods in a given market. Collins asserts that in a given market. Collins asserts that educational qualifications in the form of credentials have educational qualifications in the form of credentials have risen to the position of universally accepted cultural risen to the position of universally accepted cultural currency in modern societies.currency in modern societies.

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Professionalization and the constitution of monopoly Professionalization and the constitution of monopoly of expertiseof expertise Professionalization of supply

Institutionalization of professional knowledgeInstitutionalization of professional practiceInstitutionalization of professional career

Professionalization of demand Professionalization of work-organization

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Lecture 7Lecture 7Education Policy and Social Differentiation:Education Policy and Social Differentiation:

The Class-Structure AnalysisThe Class-Structure Analysis

END

“Sociology has only one independent variable, class.” (Stinchcombe, quoted in Wright, 1979, p.3)

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Transcript of “Sociology has only one independent variable, class.” (Stinchcombe, quoted in Wright, 1979, p.3)