Sociological Research
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Transcript of Sociological Research
Sociological Research• How does social research add to our knowledge of
human societies?
• What is the relationship between theory & research?
• What are the main steps in the sociological research process?
• Why is it important to have different research methods?
Why is Soc Research necessary?
Sociologists try to understand social behaviour
Sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behaviour through research
The sociological perspective
incorporates theory and research
to arrive at a more informed understanding
of the “hows” and “whys” of human social interaction.
5 Ways of Knowing the World
There are several ways of knowing the world:◦Personal Experience◦Tradition◦Authority◦Religion◦Science
All are valid sources of understanding.
Personal Experience
We have discovered for ourselves many of the things we know
◦If we put our tongue on a frozen doorknob, we learn that removing it can be very painful
Tradition
People hold firmly to a belief because “everyone knows” it to be true
◦Tradition tells us that something is correct because it has always been done that way
◦We accept what has always been believed rather than finding out the answers by ourselves
Authority
Experts tell us that something is true
◦We do not need to go to the moon to discover its mineral composition, but instead accept the judgment of space scientists.
◦In practice, much of what we know about medicine, crime, and many other phenomena is based on what authorities have told us
Religion
A specific type of authority is religious authority
◦We accept the truths that our particular scriptures and religious officials advocate
◦ Factors as diverse as morality, diet, ◦ dress, and hair styles are based on
◦ religious authority
Scientific Knowledge
The scientific way of knowing involves controlled, systematic observation
◦Scientists insist that all statements be tested and that testing procedures be open to public inspection
Approaches to Research
Empirical Approach◦Its findings are based on the assumption that
knowledge is best gained by direct, systematic observation
Normative Approach◦Uses religion, tradition, or authority to answer
important questions◦Based on beliefs about what is right & wrong,
and what is desirable in a society
Scientific Research
Empirical approach
Systematic & public
Self-correction, re-evaluation
Objectivity is valued◦Methods, processes are transparent
How to recognize an Empirical Article?
Article abstract includes details of a study, observation, or analysis of a # of subjects
Article is fairly lengthy (5-30+ pages)
Article contains subsections marked:
◦Methodology, Research Methods, or Methods ◦Results, or Findings
Sociological Research
Sociologists tend to use 2 types of empirical studies:
◦Descriptive◦Attempt to describe social reality or provide facts about
some group, practice, or event◦ i.e. The Canadian Census
◦Explanatory◦Attempt to explain relationships and to provide
information on why certain events do or do not occur
Theory & Research Cycle
Theory a set of logically interrelated statements that
attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events
Attempts to explain why something is the way it is
Theory & Research CycleT&R Cycle consists of 2 approaches:
◦The deductive approach◦Begin with a theory & use research to test the theory
◦The inductive approach◦Collect information or data & then generate theories
from the analysis of that data
Battling Bad ScienceBen Goldacre
http://www.ted.com/talks/ben_goldacre_battling_bad_science.html
Pankaj Ghemawat: Actually, the world isn't flat◦http://www.ted.com/talks/
pankaj_ghemawat_actually_the_world_isn_t_flat.html
Tali Sharot: The optimism bias◦http://www.ted.com/talks/
tali_sharot_the_optimism_bias.html
Theory & Research Cycle
Theory & Research form a continuous cycle that encompasses both deductive and inductive approaches
The Deductive Approach
The researcher begins with a theory & then collects & analyzes research to test it
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The Inductive Approach
The researcher collects & analyzes data & then generates a theory based on that analysis
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The Sociological Research Process
2 Dominant Theories on Research:
◦Quantitative
◦Qualitative
The Sociological Research Process
◦Quantitative Research
The goal is scientific objectivity Focuses on data that can be measured numerically
◦Qualitative Research
Interpretive description (words) are used rather than statistics (numbers) to analyze meanings and patterns of social relationships
Quantitative
Uses numerical data to measure the results of the study.
Select and define the research problem.Review previous research.Formulate the hypothesis.Develop the research design.Collect & Analyze the data.Draw Conclusions & Report the Findings.
Qualitative
Uses observation, interviews, reflections, field notes, etc.
Problem formation: general approach.Collect and analyze data to assess the
Validity OF the starting position: refining concepts.
Detailed view of the topic: smaller number of cases and many variables.
Research Terminology
HypothesisConceptVariable
◦Dependent vs Independent variableOperational definitionReliabilityValidityAnalysisReplication
How Theory & Research Work Together
Theory Helps Interpretation of Data
Theory Generates Questions for Research
Research Helps Generate Theory
Q V. Q
Quantitative Research Methods
Emphasis on Precise Measurement
Uses Statistics and Numbers
Qualitative Research Methods
Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and
Interpreting Behavior
Research Methods
ExperimentsSurveysSecondary Analysis of Existing DataField Research
Review the chart of page 60 of the text.
Experiments
A carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects’ attitudes or behaviour
Experiments
Designed to create real-life situations
ideally under controlled circumstances
the influence of different variables can be modified & measured
Key Terms
Experimental Group Subjects are exposed to an independent variable
Control Group Subjects are not exposed to the independent V.
Conventional Experiments require that subjects be divided into these 2 group
Key Terms
Independent Variables Presumed to cause or determine a dependent V.
◦Age, sex, race, ethnicity
Dependent Variables Assumed to depend on or be caused by the indp V.
◦The outcome/effect
Example:
Hypothesis: women are more likely to be altruistic than men
◦Independent variable:◦gender
◦Dependent variable:◦Degree of altruism
Example:
The context of the study determines whether a variable is Dep. Or Indp.
◦Investigate the relationship between a family’s income & the likelihood of their child graduating from university
◦University education = dependent V
◦Study the relationship between university education & voting behaviour
◦University education = independent variable
Experiments
Subjects are divided into Control & Experimental groups
The Indp V is manipulated by researchers
The Dep V is measured by researchers
Experiments
Subjects may be matched for similar characteristics or be randomly assigned so comparisons can be made
This ensures the groups are equivalent at the beginning of the study
Simple Experiment Design
1 - Subjects are pre- tested◦Measured in terms of the Dep V in the Hypothesis
2 - Exposed to a stimulus representing an Indp V
3 - Post-tested◦Re-measured in terms of the Dep V
4 – Experimental & Control groups are compared to see if they differ in relation to the Dep V & Hyp. is confirmed/rejected
Types of Experiments
Laboratory Experiment◦Subjects are studied in a closed setting so
researchers can maintain control over research
Natural Experiment◦Real-life occurences (floods) that provide
researchers with “living laboratories”
Field Experiment◦Researchers stage events in a natural setting
Case Study: Bystander Effect
Pages 45 - 49
Terms you should know:
Experiment◦Laboratory◦Natural◦Field
Experimental Group
Control Group
Terms you should know:Hypothesis
Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
Quantitative
Qualitative
Terms you should know:Experimental Group
Subjects are exposed to an independent variable
Control Group Subjects are not exposed to the independent V.
Terms you should know:Laboratory Experiment
◦Subjects are studied in a closed setting so researchers can maintain control over research
Natural Experiment◦Real-life occurences (floods) that provide
researchers with “living laboratories”
Field Experiment◦Researchers stage events in a natural setting
Terms you should know:Independent Variables
Presumed to cause or determine a dependent V.◦Age, sex, race, ethnicity
Dependent Variables Assumed to depend on or be caused by the indp V.
◦The outcome/effect
Terms you should know:
Terms you should know:Quantitative Research Methods
Emphasis on Precise Measurement
Uses Statistics and Numbers
Qualitative Research Methods
Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and
Interpreting Behavior
Surveys
A number of respondents are asked identical questions through a systematic questionnaire or interview
Answer questions about their attitudes, opinions or behaviour
Surveys
Most common in Sociology
Very important research method…
◦Can study things that are not directly observable (attitudes & beliefs)
◦Can describe a population too large to observe directly
Survey Terminology
Respondents:◦Persons who provide data for analysis through
interviews or questionnaires
Population◦The total group of people about whom we want
to know
Survey TerminologySample
◦The small group chosen from the population to be studied
Representative Sample◦A selection from a larger population that has
the essential characteristics of the total population
Random Sample◦Every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected
Survey Terminology
Questionnaire:◦A research instrument containing a series of
items to which subjects respond face-to-face, telephone, internet or self-administered
Interview:A data collection encounter in which an
interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers
Case Study 2: The Gift of Blood
Research Ethics
Weighing the social benefits of research against the potential physical and emotional costs to participants
Check out some of the ethical issues in these articles:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/ethics