Socialization: Media Socialization: Media and Peersand Peers

Chapter 16Chapter 16

Media OwnershipMedia Ownership 1945: 1% of homes 1945: 1% of homes 1950: about 10% 1950: about 10% 1955: about 60%1955: about 60% 1960: almost 90%1960: almost 90% 1980: almost 98%; 52% more than 1980: almost 98%; 52% more than

oneone Current numbers are slightly higherCurrent numbers are slightly higher

• Figure 16.1. Average number of hours per day that American children and adolescents spend watching television. FROM LIEBERT & SPRAFKIN, 1988.

Development of Television LiteracyDevelopment of Television Literacy– Ability to understand Ability to understand – Prior to 8 or 9, process content in a Prior to 8 or 9, process content in a

piecemeal fashionpiecemeal fashion Explicit vs. implicit informationExplicit vs. implicit information

– 2nd, 5th, and 8th graders were shown a 2nd, 5th, and 8th graders were shown a filmfilm

In moderation, not likely to impairIn moderation, not likely to impair– Cognitive growthCognitive growth– Academic achievementAcademic achievement– Peer relations Peer relations

Televised AggressionTelevised Aggression Possible effects:Possible effects:

– direct imitationdirect imitation– general increase general increase – desensitizationdesensitization

Methodological ProblemsMethodological Problems ExperimentationExperimentation

– EthicsEthics– OverexposureOverexposure

ObservationObservation

Televised ViolenceTelevised Violence 58% of programs between 6 am and 11 pm 58% of programs between 6 am and 11 pm

contain violent scenes, often in the form of contain violent scenes, often in the form of repeated aggressive acts against a victim that go repeated aggressive acts against a victim that go unpunishedunpunished

73% of the violent scenes had a perpetrator who 73% of the violent scenes had a perpetrator who neither displayed remorse nor received any neither displayed remorse nor received any penalty or criticismpenalty or criticism

Most don’t show victims experiencing serious Most don’t show victims experiencing serious physical harm; few condemn violence or depict physical harm; few condemn violence or depict alternative ways of solving problemsalternative ways of solving problems

Over 1/3 embedded in humor, rises to 2/3 for Over 1/3 embedded in humor, rises to 2/3 for children’s showschildren’s shows

9% above average in children’s programming9% above average in children’s programming

TV violence instigate aggression?TV violence instigate aggression?– Positive correlationPositive correlation– Experimental resultsExperimental results– Longitudinal studiesLongitudinal studies

Research – Experimental Research – Experimental Bandura: Bobo doll studiesBandura: Bobo doll studies

– Reward or no consequence imitated a Reward or no consequence imitated a lot, those who saw punishment didn’t lot, those who saw punishment didn’t

– Similar results with cartoonsSimilar results with cartoons– CriticismsCriticisms

Used doll instead of human victimUsed doll instead of human victim Didn’t use real TV showsDidn’t use real TV shows

Research – ExperimentalResearch – Experimental Liebert & Baron (1972) Liebert & Baron (1972)

– 5-6, & 8-9 y/o watch 6 minutes of TV5-6, & 8-9 y/o watch 6 minutes of TV– experimental: experimental:

chase, 2 fist fights, 2 shootings, and a chase, 2 fist fights, 2 shootings, and a knifingknifing

– control: control: sports program – track and field events sports program – track and field events

– Box with red and green buttonsBox with red and green buttons– Choice of toy (violent, nonviolent)Choice of toy (violent, nonviolent)

Research – Observational Research – Observational try to document relationship try to document relationship

between naturally occurring TV between naturally occurring TV viewing and naturally occurring viewing and naturally occurring violenceviolence

several studies have found a several studies have found a relationship between a preference relationship between a preference for violent TV programs and the for violent TV programs and the level of aggressionlevel of aggression

Other Effects of Televised Other Effects of Televised ViolenceViolence

Approval of ViolenceApproval of Violence– Mean-world beliefsMean-world beliefs

Desensitization HypothesisDesensitization Hypothesis

CommercialsCommercials Desire for productDesire for product Request for advertised productRequest for advertised product Consumption of advertised productConsumption of advertised product

Social StereotypesSocial Stereotypes Gender stereotypes Gender stereotypes

– Generally negative, can be a positive Generally negative, can be a positive influence if roles are reversedinfluence if roles are reversed

Stereotyped views of minorities Stereotyped views of minorities – Usually negativeUsually negative– However, if portrayals are positive, can However, if portrayals are positive, can

reduce stereotypingreduce stereotyping

TV and Children’s HealthTV and Children’s Health One of the strongest predictors of One of the strongest predictors of

future obesity is the amount of time future obesity is the amount of time spent watching TVspent watching TV

Also promotes poor eating habitsAlso promotes poor eating habits– Snacking during TV, eat what is Snacking during TV, eat what is

advertisedadvertised

Beneficial Effects of TVBeneficial Effects of TV Educational Television and Children’s Educational Television and Children’s

Prosocial Behavior Prosocial Behavior – Watching prosocial programming lead to Watching prosocial programming lead to

more prosocial behaviormore prosocial behavior Only lasting effects if adult monitors Only lasting effects if adult monitors

programs and encourages actionsprograms and encourages actions

Beneficial Effects of TVBeneficial Effects of TV Television as a Contributor to Television as a Contributor to

Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development– Limited research on very young childrenLimited research on very young children– Preschool children – Sesame StreetPreschool children – Sesame Street

Improved cognitive skillsImproved cognitive skills– Numbers, letters, vocabulary, classification, Numbers, letters, vocabulary, classification,

orderingordering– Beneficial for all children, regardless of SESBeneficial for all children, regardless of SES

ComputersComputers 1996: over 98% American public 1996: over 98% American public

schools used as instructional toolsschools used as instructional tools 2003: over 60% American homes; 2003: over 60% American homes;

over 50% homes with internetover 50% homes with internet

ComputersComputers Computer-assisted instruction – Computer-assisted instruction –

– Learn more, enjoy school moreLearn more, enjoy school more– Discovery programs presented as Discovery programs presented as

games are bestgames are best– Word processing programs Word processing programs

Increases writing skillsIncreases writing skills– Computer programmingComputer programming

Facilitates cognitive and metacognitive Facilitates cognitive and metacognitive developmentdevelopment

ComputersComputers Concerns about Video GamesConcerns about Video Games

– Moderate correlation between playing Moderate correlation between playing violent video games and real-world violent video games and real-world aggressionaggression

– Actively involved in performing violence Actively involved in performing violence – Reinforced for successful symbolic Reinforced for successful symbolic

violenceviolence– May be more serious than TV violenceMay be more serious than TV violence

ComputersComputers Concerns about Social InequalitiesConcerns about Social Inequalities

– Economically disadvantaged families Economically disadvantaged families may not have a computer at homemay not have a computer at home

– Boys were more interested in computersBoys were more interested in computers Gender gap has disappearedGender gap has disappeared

ComputersComputers Concerns about Internet ExposureConcerns about Internet Exposure

– Web exposure helps with research for Web exposure helps with research for school topicsschool topics

– Chat rooms can lead to cybersexual Chat rooms can lead to cybersexual relationships and potential exploitationrelationships and potential exploitation

– Web is a recruiting tool for cults and Web is a recruiting tool for cults and hate organizationshate organizations

Figure 16.7 Developmental changes in children’s companionship with adults and other

children. ADAPTED FROM ELLIS, ROGOFF, & CROMER, 1981.

Importance of PeersImportance of Peers HarlowHarlow Anna Freud & Sophie DannAnna Freud & Sophie Dann

Developmental Course of Peer Developmental Course of Peer RelationshipsRelationships

0-2 months0-2 months 3-4 months3-4 months 6 months6 months 6-12 months6-12 months Second yearSecond year 2-5 years2-5 years

Peers – Play Peers – Play Sociability during the Preschool PeriodSociability during the Preschool Period

– Nonsocial activities Nonsocial activities – Onlooker playOnlooker play– Parallel playParallel play– Associative playAssociative play– Cooperative playCooperative play

Play also becomes more cognitively Play also becomes more cognitively complex with agecomplex with age– Predicts future social competenciesPredicts future social competencies

Heather:Heather: My mother yelled at me. Let’s My mother yelled at me. Let’s say you gave me a spanking, Kathy say you gave me a spanking, Kathy O’NeilO’Neil

Kathy:Kathy: No, my name is AnnieNo, my name is Annie Heather:Heather: Let’s say you gave me a Let’s say you gave me a

spanking. And I call you mom.spanking. And I call you mom. Andy:Andy: (talking on phone):(talking on phone): Hi, Hi,

Kathy…Kathy… Heather:Heather: No, her name is AnnieNo, her name is Annie

Boy playing father. Girl playing mother.Boy playing father. Girl playing mother.– Boy: So long. I’ll see you later. It’s time to go Boy: So long. I’ll see you later. It’s time to go

to work.to work.– Girl: Hey, wait for me! I gotta go to work too!Girl: Hey, wait for me! I gotta go to work too!– Boy: Hey, my mom don’t work…you stay here.Boy: Hey, my mom don’t work…you stay here.– Girl: Well my mom works…lotsa womens Girl: Well my mom works…lotsa womens

works you know. My mom is a perfessor at the works you know. My mom is a perfessor at the college.college.

– Boy: O.k. then, just hurry so we won’t be late. Boy: O.k. then, just hurry so we won’t be late. Are you sure you wanna work?Are you sure you wanna work?

Functions of play in early childhoodFunctions of play in early childhood– Play in individualistic societies teaches Play in individualistic societies teaches

children to be individualschildren to be individuals– Play in collectivistic societies teaches Play in collectivistic societies teaches

children to keep egos under control, children to keep egos under control, promotes group harmonypromotes group harmony

– Teaches effective communicationTeaches effective communication– Provides chances for compromiseProvides chances for compromise– Allows for emotional understandingAllows for emotional understanding

Peer Sociability in Middle Childhood Peer Sociability in Middle Childhood and Adolescenceand Adolescence– 6-10 years – like formal games6-10 years – like formal games– Contacts occur in peer groupsContacts occur in peer groups

Interact on a regular basisInteract on a regular basis Provide a sense of belongingProvide a sense of belonging Formulate normsFormulate norms Develop a hierarchical organizationDevelop a hierarchical organization

FriendshipsFriendships Gottman – recorded conversations Gottman – recorded conversations

of friendsof friends– 3-73-7– 8-128-12– 13-1713-17

Early adolescenceEarly adolescence– Form cliques – 4-8 same-sex members Form cliques – 4-8 same-sex members

sharing values sharing values Midadolescence – same-sex cliques Midadolescence – same-sex cliques

interact forming heterosexual cliquesinteract forming heterosexual cliques Cliques may also merge into crowds Cliques may also merge into crowds

– similar attitudes and activities– similar attitudes and activities– Help form an identity, pave way for Help form an identity, pave way for

dating relationshipsdating relationships

Dunphy: observed adolescents Dunphy: observed adolescents – isolated unisexual cliquesisolated unisexual cliques– unisexual cliques in group interactionunisexual cliques in group interaction– upper status members form upper status members form

heterosexual cliqueheterosexual clique– CrowdCrowd– disintegration of crowddisintegration of crowd

Peer Acceptance and Peer Acceptance and PopularityPopularity

Positive NominationsPositive Nominations Rating ScaleRating Scale

positive nominations – index of positive nominations – index of number of friends number of friends

rating scale – measure of overall rating scale – measure of overall acceptability, likeability acceptability, likeability

Peer Acceptance and Peer Acceptance and PopularityPopularity

PopularPopular RejectedRejected NeglectedNeglected ControversialControversial Average-statusAverage-status

Why Are Children Accepted, Why Are Children Accepted, Neglected, or Rejected by Peers?Neglected, or Rejected by Peers?– Parenting styles - warm, sensitive and Parenting styles - warm, sensitive and

authoritative parenting results in authoritative parenting results in likeable childrenlikeable children

– Temperamental characteristics - Temperamental characteristics - Irritable, impulsive children may have Irritable, impulsive children may have

negative reactions with peers, causing negative reactions with peers, causing rejectionrejection

Cognitive SkillsCognitive Skills– Popular children have well-developed Popular children have well-developed

role-taking skillsrole-taking skills– Rejected children tend to score lowest Rejected children tend to score lowest

on IQ testson IQ tests Social BehaviorsSocial Behaviors

– Popular children are warm, cooperative, Popular children are warm, cooperative, and compassionateand compassionate

Neglected children are often shy or Neglected children are often shy or withdrawn, but have good social skillswithdrawn, but have good social skills– Worry about their social anxietyWorry about their social anxiety

Rejected-aggressive childrenRejected-aggressive children– Alienate peers by forcefully dominating themAlienate peers by forcefully dominating them– Overestimate popularityOverestimate popularity

Rejected-withdrawn childrenRejected-withdrawn children– Socially awkward, immature, react to criticism Socially awkward, immature, react to criticism

with aggressionwith aggression– Withdraw when they begin to be actively Withdraw when they begin to be actively

excludedexcluded

Differences Between Popular Differences Between Popular and Unpopular Childrenand Unpopular Children

Gottman: observed K-4 in four Gottman: observed K-4 in four situationssituations

– Popular with popularPopular with popular– Unpopular with unpopularUnpopular with unpopular

what do children do when entering what do children do when entering a group of children who are already a group of children who are already playing together? playing together?

Teaching Social SkillsTeaching Social Skills Asher: 3rd and 4th graders were Asher: 3rd and 4th graders were

given 6 sessions of coaching over a given 6 sessions of coaching over a 4 week period4 week period

– results: improved ratings on “play results: improved ratings on “play with” question at end of training and with” question at end of training and one year laterone year later

Hartup – 3 to 6 year oldsHartup – 3 to 6 year olds