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1Samaja Karyada HejjegaluJournal of Social WorkVol. III, No-8, August 2013,

CONTENTS

1. Editorial

Ramesha MH - 1-2

2. Impressions of an International Social Work

Placement in an Indian School in Dubai

Amanda Kay, Venkat Pulla -3-18

3. Indian and Australian Experience of Community

Recovery in Natural Disasters

Abraham P. Francis - 19-45

4. Culturally Competent Community Development

in a Globalized World

Narayan Gopalkrishnan - 46-65

5. Community Based Psychosocial Support

Programme for Resiliency Building in Tsunami

Rehabilitation of Kanyakumari District

Subhasis Bhadra - 66-86

6. Tamil Nadu Child and Family Health Study :

A Preliminary Study

Wright. R, Krygsman. A, Ilango. P, Levitz. N - 87-104

7. Micro Social Work Practice in the Context of

Bangladesh

Tulshi Kumar Das, Md. Fakhrul Alam - 105-122

8. Building Resilience in the Families Living with

Individual with an Alcohol Addiction

Jitendra S. Gandhi and Venkat Pulla - 123-138

9. CSR: Role in Community DevelopmentK.Hemalatha, Manu Mathew, Lovis Praveen - 139-153

10. Mobilizing Local Resources as a Catalyst in

Community Development A Case Study of

Kudumbasree Units in Kerala

Vidya Vijayan - 154-170


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1Samaja Karyada HejjegaluJournal of Social WorkVol. III, No-8, August 2013

Editorial

This special issue on Building Resilient

Communities: Communitarian Social Work is Edited by Dr. Venkat

Pulla. After reading all the articles included here in this special issue,

we feel they make a great contribution to the social work literature.

We can also feel expertise shown in editing this special issue.

Dr Venkat has carefully edited all the articles with great interest and

passion. We have received a total of sixty nine expressions of interest

and twenty seven finally accepted abstracts. All abstracts and articles

have gone through a peer review process.

This is the first quarterly special issue brought out in the place of

bilingual monthly during 2010-13. Our readers know that we have

brought out 31 issues. Based on the feedback we have decided to

convert monthly into quarterly with the intention of publishing theme

based issues. The journal further has changed its format, size from

the previous one. We have reconstituted the advisory and editorial

boards. On this occasion I sincerely thank all the former advisoryand active committee members for their service. We are happy to

state that the Advisory and Editorial Committee have decided to

dedicate this Special Issue to Dr H.M. Marulasiddaiah, Rtd professor

of social work, Bangalore University, who has made a significant

contribution to social work in Karnataka, by designing novel

programmes and literature particularly in Kannada. We are delighted

to inform you that Karnataka Association of Professional Social

Workers has recently (on 18-8-2013) presented an award to him

namely Samajakarya Ratna. We are proud to have him as the chief

advisor on the board of this journal.

We are glad and also proud that our Niruta publications book

Social work and Social Welfare (author Shankar Pathak) is selected

under subsidy scheme of the National Book Trust, I think it may be

the first book from the social work discipline to be selected by NBT

under the subsidy scheme.


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2

Dr BT Lawani is working on the next forthcoming special issue

on Leadership Crisis in India : Social Work Perspective. This issue

will probably be brought out in the month of January 2014, you can

contact us if you are interested in contributing articles on this subject

for the special issue.

I sincerely thank Dr Venkat Pulla for editing this special issue

and I also thank Dr. R. Shivapppa for being in the editorial team. I

thank all the contributors for this special issue.

Ramesha M H

Editor


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Impressions of an International Social Work

Placement in an Indian School in DubaiA journey begins before the traveller departs (Charmaz, 2006)

Amanda Kay1*, Venkat Pulla2

Abstract:

This paper accounts the development of our propositions and agrounded theory in the wake of an international field placement ofan Australian university masters qualifying student of social work,in an Indian private school in Dubai. We define the components ofthis journey that allowed a constructive involvement in the crosscultural milieu. We undertook relevant comparative methodadvancing and testing the efficacy of relevant theoreticaldevelopments; conducting literature reviews and finally the processof conducting action research that allowed for testing beliefs andimpressions in a systematic way (Glaser, 1978; Strauss, 1987). Aschool social work placement has all the action which brings thenotions of human agency and the emergent processes. It providesopportunities to attempt problem solving approaches and allowsresearchers to keep an open ended approach to the study of action.

The association of reflective practice throughout the placementallowed the authors to add new pieces to the research puzzle orconjure entire new puzzles during the data collection, thus gaininga clear focus on what is happening in the data without sacrificingthe detail of the what is being enacted (Charmaz, 2006). Thisarticle additionally provides a reflection on the sensitivities ofinternational social work practice in the context of striving for culturalcompetence whilst providing robust critical analysis.

Keywords:School social work, Grounded theory, Action research,

Qualitative research, Cultural competence

An indirect practicum involving an Australian Masters of Social

Work (professional qualifying) student (the first author) in an Indianschool in Dubai (the school), with an Australian Indian mentor (the

principal supervisor), provides an environment for a very unique

1. School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South

Wales, Australia

2. Dr Venkat Pulla, BSc, BJ, (Osmania), MA- URCD, (TISS), Mumbai, PhD, (Karnatak), MAASW,

(Accredited), teaches Social Work at, the School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Charles Sturt

University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2678, Australia. Email [email protected];

[email protected]

* Corresponding Author: [email protected]

pp. 1-16


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4

experience where one may not initially expect opportunities for the

creation and sharing of knowledge that can be of benefit to any other

than those school social workers practicing in a similar context. To

the contrary, the knowledge sharing opportunities are possibly broader

primarily due to its very nature of being a placement at the confluence

of varied factors;

for researchers, a social work practicum that creates an

ideal environment in which to explore the meeting of two

seemingly conflicting imperatives of cultural competence

and rigorous research and critical reflection;

for sociological research in general, the situation of applying

constructionist grounded theory (Charmaz, 2006) in a time

limited practicum, within the context of power differentials

and the resultant hesitancy inherent in the student/practicum

agency relationship;

for the social work association guiding practicum

requirements, the implications of these requirements in an

international social work placement, where social work

practices and values are not universal; and

for school social work, where stigma and the incumbentstudent resistance impedes the ability of social workers to

practice for optimal outcomes.

Each of these possibilities for contributing to the expansion of

the relevant bodies of knowledge has encouraged the authors to

develop an account of the practicum and research process.

Grounded Theory

Upon commencement of the practicum and continued throughout,

the approach of the researcher, under the guidance of her mentor,

was to gain familiarity with the philosophies, values, practices andpriorities guiding school social work in the school. Through this process

and in consultation with the field educators and mentor, the broad

parameters of a research project were mapped out. Planning, a

literature review and further refinement of the research questions

was followed by the preparation for focus groups to be conducted

Amanda Kay, Venkat Pulla


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with students and parents separately. The research questions

established were to seek participant understanding of a Strengths-

based practice (SBP) approach in one-to-one counselling, explore

the current view of the school social work role and the expectations

of that role.

In the early stages of planning the researcher raised the query to

her mentor, do we need to prepare for the possibility that nothing

meaningful will arise from the research? As the process unfolded

she learned that this is one of the main tenets of grounded theory

(Glaser & Strauss, 1967). It is about letting the data provide thedirection (Glaser, 1992), in some ways like the less directive nature

of strengths based practice that the research was intended to explore

within the research environment. The subjects of the research

collectively reveal what is to be found and it emerges from their

perspective (Glaser, 1992). Ultimately, the data to some degree led

the researcher away from the response to the understanding of a

strengths approach in a school setting, and instead became more

focused on the school social work role. The short presentation and

role play demonstrating the efficacy of SBP, limited due to the time

constraints of the practicum, meant that participants could only give

their views based on that brief exposure. As a result, focus groupdiscussions continuously returned to matters of priority to the

participants in relation to the role of the school social worker.

Regardless of the gradual deviation from the focus on the

research focus regarding SBP, the execution of focus groups remained

firmly grounded in the principles of SBP. A thorough understanding

by the researcher of the key principles of the approach was required.

As previously mentioned, the focus groups included an explanation

and group discussion regarding SBP principles (Pulla, 2012; Saleebey,

1992) and a demonstration of those principles via a role play. The

researcher also attempted to demonstrate SBP principles in her

engagement with the groups, and during the collation, coding, analysisand reporting of the outcomes. The researcher found applying SBP

principles such as breaking down any power imbalances, and being

collaborative, to be the most helpful and effective strategies in the

focus group environment. The parents and most of the students

appeared to feel free to discuss their opinions openly and honestly

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and the researchers genuine interest in, and exploration of, participant

views, led to rich, at times challenging, and always enlightening

discussions.

Also important in the researchers approach as the focus group

moderator was to demonstrate non-judgement by listening to each

contribution openly without defending a particular point of view. If

the researcher saw an interpretation of SBP to be not what she intended

to convey, she acknowledged and validated the participants view.

After all views were collected on the particular issue being discussed,

the researcher clarified points that had not been explained sufficiently

so that further views could be sought based on that new deeper

understanding. This combination of non-directive validation followed

by clarification and information delivery, allowed the researcher to

maintain her focus on action research whilst ensuring that focus groups

maintained direction and purpose in accordance with the ultimate

intention of grounded theory research; to deliver data that as accurately

as possible, reflects the perspective of the research participants.

Prior to and throughout the initial stages of data collection in the

focus groups, the researcher engaged in many informal discussions

with school counsellors employed in the school, some of whom were

qualified social workers, and also conducted a small amount of direct

practice herself in one-to-one counselling and larger scale preventive

functions of the school social work role. In this process it became

clear that the research would benefit from a more formal exposure

to the views of the counsellors and so preparations were made to

conduct a small number of counsellor interviews to add to the research

data.

The practicum environment provides an ideal location in which

to reassess and adjust the approach along the way. Interviews with

counsellors may seem an obvious omission to the experienced, or

inexperienced, researcher, however in the rich context of learningthat a practicum provides, the student has the freedom to stumble

along the way towards efficacy. Grounded theory in a more

sophisticated and systematic way does this deliberately through

theoretical sampling to reassess and redefine research parameters

(Glaser, 1992). Furthermore this strategy employed by grounded



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theorists provides an avenue for the deliberate returning to expanded

or alternative data collection activities to deepen and broaden

understanding of that which is being studied (Charmaz 2006).

The commitment of the researcher and the mentor to an action

research approach, and allowing for the impact of research subjects

to influence an evolving research process, was a dominant idea for

further exploration. As discussed, the researcher was led by the

participants to focus more on the school social worker role than their

response to the SBP approach demonstrated. Furthermore the

dominance of some participants over others had an impact on the

content and extent of sharing and free expression within the focus

groups. Regardless of the competence of the moderators to ensure

full participation, unspoken influences, obligations and roles seemed

to influence the level of participation and the depth of contributions.

Although this type of inhibitory influence may be undesirable in the

interests of collecting thorough and accurate data, it did provide some

information about the nature of power relationships and implicit roles

within social engagements amongst the participants. The impact of

these factors also precipitated the generation of strategies to mitigate

such influences in future where research scope may allow for a more

comprehensive approach.

Likewise, reflecting on the simultaneous construction that a cross

cultural researcher (or any researcher) imposes simply by their

presence within the research environment (Charmaz, 2006), allows

for an in-depth consideration of the challenges attendant to cross

cultural qualitative research. In many qualitative research approaches,

the intent is for the researcher to be the objective observer, gathering

factual data. Conversely, Charmaz (2006, p. 10) qualifies her research

with the acknowledgement that any theoretical rendering offers an

interpretive portrayal of the studied world, not an exact picture. One

step further, Fogel & Osborne (2011) in their critique of the limitationsof constructivist and positivist grounded theory, suggest that beyond

a constructive approach, more reflexive research strategies must be

employed to fully acknowledge and respond to, the influence and

non-objectivity of researchers. Influence can be found in all aspects

of the research approach, including interaction with participants in

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the focus groups, the interpretation involved in the coding of data, the

loss of meaning inevitable in the transcription of audio files and the

impact of a co-moderator being present (Fogel & Osborne, 2011).

This paper accounts for an attempt at a more reflexive approach to

grounded theory by making the role of the researcher and other

mediators (p. 11) more transparent.

The self-reflection involved in the process of striving for cultural

competence and in the learning focus of a practicum arrangement,

creates an ideal foundation for reflexive practice in the process of

doing research. The researcher explicitly acknowledged to participantsthat she would be unable to divorce her own world view from the

outcomes of the research regardless of her attempts to do so and

welcomed discussion around this idea. She also engaged in candid

conversations with her co-moderators to seek their views on her

effectiveness, influence and objectivity in the focus groups, and their

interpretations of the data collected and codes allocated. Although

these attempts to make transparent the constructive nature of the

research being conducted were quite superficial, it did provide an

opportunity for the researcher to reflect on more comprehensive ways

of operating more reflexively in future research.

In spite of Fogel and Osbornes (2011) critique, the applicationof grounded theory, being an inductive, iterative, interactive and

comparative process (Thornberg & Charmaz, 2011, p. 41), requires

constant reflection and reassessment. The time limited nature of a

social work practicum, in this case, an indirect practicum focussed

on research, requires that the whole practicum process be completed

within 490 hours. The researcher and her mentor found that these

competing pressures created a unique motivator for an intense focus

on constant self-reflection, timely collaborations, regular

teleconferences, and highly concentrated planning and preparation.

On reflection of substantially more thorough grounded theory

applications (Khaw, 2012) and collaborative partnerships (Pieters &Dornig, 2013), it seemed that this brief foray into the arena of

emergence and construction was insignificant. However, at least for

the researcher, it was an invaluable glimpse at the simultaneously

cumbersome and thrilling journey that qualitative research and

grounded theory offers.



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Although the commitment and diligence required by the

researcher and the mentor was clear, from the practicum agency, a

genuine openness to, and support for the research, and a willingness

to facilitate the process of data collection, ultimately determined the

feasibility of the research being possible at all. Without the support

of these factors, a research focussed practicum based around

grounded theory principles may not be possible. In itself, coding and

analysis of the counsellor interviews and the writing of the research

report for this practicum went beyond the allocated hours. In a similar

situation, without the same level of participation and facilitation from

the mentor and the practicum agency, it is possible that data collection,

transcription, multi-level coding and analysis within grounded theory

methodology would not be completed.

The coding process is very labour intensive, especially when

doing it manually, even when the sample size is relatively small. In

her initial review of the data, the researcher employed initial coding

and incorporated some InVivo coding to preserve participant

terminology (Saldana, 2009). This approach allowed the researcher

to keep intact the original language used within the focus groups to

facilitate meaningful and thorough post group consultations with her

co-moderators to verify interpretations and assumptions being made

during the coding process. The coding method employed allowed

the data to dictate the direction of the coding. After a general sense

of the data was developed, patterns and the beginnings of theory

began to emerge via a constant comparative method of moving back

and forward between the initial coding and focused coding (Charmaz,

2000). The focused coding is a secondary but parallel process that is

driven by the primary interpretation and analysis of what is emerging

from the data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). From a theoretical perspective

this comparative method ensured the full content of the data maintained

its position at the centre of the analysis. From a practice point ofview it inspired forward movement during what can be a cumbersome

process, as a higher level perspective was becoming visible to the

researcher whilst being immersed in the detail of the data.

Also occurring in parallel was some theoretical coding, where

relationships were interpreted to exist between codes and categories

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of codes (Thornberg & Charmaz, 2011). A specific example of this

was a connection interpreted by the researcher between stigma felt

by students in relation to being associated with the school counsellor,

their resistance to approach or express themselves openly to the

counsellor, and the perception of questionable confidentiality or

discretion by the counsellors. This sensitising concept (Blumer, 1969),

where an idea is suggested without claiming to be truth, began from

individual focus group participants indicating a causality between

stigma and student resistance, and grew as more participants in that

and other focus groups discussed similar concepts and brought in the

notion of confidentiality. The linkages between the three elements

became clearer and theoretical codes were the result.

From the beginning of the literature review and throughout the

data collection, transcription and the multi-level coding process, memos

were written by the researcher to capture thoughts, questions or ideas

which would be later pooled, considered, compared and consolidated

to initiate and facilitate the report writing phase (Thornberg &

Charmaz, 2011). The memos allowed the researcher to begin

conceptualising within the flow of the research process, further

enhancing the power of the data to be drawn out and represented

accurately in the final research report.

For this paper the research and mentor adopted the following

from Pulla (2012) to describe the efficacy of the school social worker

in a school setting.

Every individual student is capable of displaying his strengths.

Every student is capable of identifying resources, display

knowledge, talents, capacities, skills, and resources to

mobilize in order to pursue aspirations.

Students who face adversity typically develop ideas,

capacities, and strategies that also serve them.

School counseling and social work must recognise this

adversity as an opportunity to make resiliency work.

Despite the knowledge that the students may not be mature

enough to know what is best for them, School social work

and counseling requires practice of a non-judgemental

attitude.



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School social work requires a personal, friendly, empathic,

and accepting relationship that should provide the student

with the opportunity to share his story.

The overall goal of school social work is to see

transformation, regeneration, and resilience.

School social work gains respect and productive relationship

through mingling, connection and affection, rather than

through overt or covert controls.

On reflection of these, the primary outcomes of the research

project provided an interpretation of the existing strengths and

resources available to the school counsellors, some challenges and

limitations they face in applying them, and the participants

understanding and views of SBP. The process of appreciative inquiry

(Pulla, 2011) which via the research approach employed, was begun,

allows for the identification and exploration of what the school

counsellors are doing well as the basis for developing improvements.

This switch in focus from the more traditional approach of responding

directly to problems and challenges, allows an organisation to help

increase stakeholder investment and utilization (Pulla, 2011, p. 3). In

other words, when people are asked to reflect on and explore what

they are doing well, it helps to encourage and further mobilise those

strengths, attributes or resources to leverage existing momentum to

move the organisation further towards its goals.

Striving for Cultural Competence

As a research based placement, the researcher was required to

qualitatively gather and collate the views of students, parents and

counsellors. During this process the researchers perspective of

respectful observer necessarily shifted. Her role became blurred as

she tentatively stepped into areas of critical reflection and analysis,and to some degree, advocacy for students and parents as she gained

a better understanding of their expectations of the school social work

role. Even the researchers rationalisation of considering the social

work role in the context of the schools stated intentions through

various motherhood statements guiding operations, became

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inadequate. The researchers critical review and analysis came to

be guided by the cultural understanding she was gaining through being

to some degree immersed within the Indian culture, and what she

was able to acquire from the academic literature in relation to Indian

social work (Anand, 2010; Verma, Sharma & Larson, 2002; Nagpaul,

1993; & Arulmani, 2007).

The documentation of the research outcomes via a number of

papers and a presentation, depending on the audience, sought to either

provide a high level overview of the implications for school social

work in general, or more specific agency focussed possibilities for

responding to those implications. The researcher attempted to develop

those implications or possibilities, which in many ways read as

recommendations, in a way that demonstrated a position of respect

and humility. That tentative approach that many striving for cultural

competence employ to ensure sensitivity (Dean, 2001), was met with

a request from the field educator for more explicit and direct feedback

to ensure that meaningful considerations could be made at the

organisational level to develop improvements. This encouraged the

researcher to reflect that a more even balance between the hesitancy

of cultural sensitivity and the acknowledged naivety of overt and

sometimes clumsy pursuit of learning would be of benefit. Sometimes

one needs to step outside that which is comfortable to risk measurable

consequences in pursuit of a deeper and richer experience and a

more comprehensive learning opportunity.

The researcher found herself to be inspired by the dedication

and authenticity of the school counsellors, and intrigued by the elements

of resilience and expectancy that were being incorporated into more

traditional approaches such as Cognitive Behaviour Therapy and

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy. An interesting revelation that

arose from the interviews with counsellors was that many, if not all

of the counsellors, are applying some aspects of strengths basedpractice. The researchers initial impression due to pressure on

academic performance, common within the Indian culture (Verma,

Sharma & Larson, 2002), was that school counselling in at least this

Indian school context, is more of a therapist-led activity, where

improved study habits and optimal learning techniques are focussed



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on and the counsellors are providing solutions and advice. The direct

nature of conversations, in contrast with the researchers own

experience of the western tendency towards political correctness

and tactful mistruths or omissions to protect egos, suggested that

strengths based principles were not prominent. The careful use of

language to support the development of deeply rooted hope and

resilience (Pulla & Mariscal, 2013), seems to be at odds with the

very direct, honest, and vibrant qualities possessed by many people

of Indian origin. However, after further exploration it was found that

many principles of strengths based practice are being implemented

by the Indian School counsellors in their engagement with students.

The researcher witnessed and heard accounts of counsellors

seeking to identify and build on strengths so that the students energy

could be focussed towards activities that develop confidence and

mastery in specific activities. This focus was engaged with the

intention that this would germinate more positive behaviours in other

areas. The researcher also explored with one counsellor her practice

of ignoring established diagnostic labels given children to facilitate an

engagement that wasnt predetermined by established limits and

hindrances. Those are specific examples, however in many

conversations with counsellors, the researcher found that in many

ways counsellors are collaborating with students, working with them

to explore and engage with identified strengths and encouraging them

to introspect and seek understanding and solutions from within.

This prevalence of strengths based principles in the school

counselling role, is however embedded within a cultural environment

that does not necessarily comply with the broader application of

established SBP practices. Power and hierarchy are tools which are

used extensively by teachers and counsellors to manage behaviour

within the school environment and whilst counsellors often use positive

language very deliberately to encourage positive behaviour, very directand often labelling language seems to be the more powerful influence

in the school as a whole.

The making of these observations formed the foundation of the

internal struggles the researcher felt as she strived to maintain a

perspective of openness and non-judgement. Throughout the

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practicum, the researcher attempted to make transparent within her

own self-reflection, assumptions and power relationships that may

be present (Evans, Seem & Kincade, 2001). The implications of her

representing a western culture that is a derivative of a culture that

has a history of colonial rule over Indian society, made her vigilant of

her own thought processes and assessments in relation to critically

reviewing that which she was observing.

The role of a student on an international placement in a culture

diverse from their own is not entirely clear. Guidance is provided in

relation to the challenges of establishing the placement andexpectations of the prospective student (Cleak & Wilson, 2007) and

conditions for compliance with Australian Association of Social

Workers (AASW) guidelines (AASW, 2012). However, advice in

relation to the challenges students face in the process of responding

to accreditation requirements such as satisfaction of the learning goals

is not provided. One example of these learning goals is the

requirement to review, critique and suggest improvements to the

practicum agencys systems, processes or policies (AASW, 2003).

A practicum within ones own culture in itself can be challenging

especially for people who have strived to establish a non-judgemental

approach. It is one thing to identify areas for improvement in ones

own workplace as a paid employee, however to present oneself as a

student who suggests she knows a better way of approaching a

profession that the recipients of her ideas have been doing for many

more years than her, requires a different sensitivity. Taking the next

step to not only be in a workplace that is not ones own, but an entirely

different culture, creates a new challenge that is intimidating and

exciting for every moment of the practicum. As a result the

intersection of cultural sensitivity and robust research design and

critical organisational analysis, create the basis for a practicum

approach that yields meaningful learning outcomes for the student,

practicum agency and university liaison alike.

Universal Application of Social Work Principles and Values

As discussed above, a component of completing the requirements

of the practicum, the researcher was required to satisfy learning goals

drawn from the AASW practice standards (AASW, 2003) and the



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AASW Code of Ethics (AASW, 2010). The AASW in recent years

made it possible for Australian based Social Work students to complete

one of their two field practice placements overseas (AASW, 2012).

This provision suggests that the learning goals, and therefore the

documents they are drawn from are universal in their application to

social work practice. Whilst this deduction cannot be assumed

necessarily, it does raise an interesting challenge for social work

students to navigate.

An example that demonstrates this concept of universality of

ethics or values was in the researchers exploration of an ethical

dilemma involving the notion of confidentiality. A specific situation

that arose that would ordinarily be an optimal opportunity for

considering the ethical implications of disclosure to a third party raised

a second layer of ethical questions for consideration. The higher

level ethical issue that had to be solved before addressing the presenting

ethical dilemma was the consideration of whether the student could

apply the AASW Code of Ethics to a non-Australian cultural

environment. Australia, with its western values of individualism and

self-sufficiency, represents an entirely different cultural context to

the Indian culture that places a greater importance on collective

responsibilities, and interpretations of power, status and ownership

distinct from the researchers. So to expect that a conversation in

supervision could begin with the discussion in relation to disclosure

misses an enormous collection of issues in relation to universal

application of values, imposition of power, assumptions of superiority

of social work practice, among others.

As an international social work placement, this opportunity has

provided the researcher with the ideal environment to explore the

application of grounded theory and strive for cultural competence. A

willingness to be open and genuinely curious about the role of a school

social worker in that environment was the researchers primary focus.Her postmodern preferences and previous narrative therapy practice

experience provided an ideal foundation for that perspective. The

researcher strived throughout her placement to maintain an awareness

of her perceptions, judgements and assessments with a view to

reflecting on them and considering the impact of her own culture and

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values on their nature. The researcher tried to balance the requirement

to meet the AASW practice standards, with her self-imposed

obligation to recognise that many of those practice standards are not

necessarily relevant or valuable within the context of the placement.

Throughout the placement the researcher attempted to align her

learnings with the AASW practice standards and gain new insight as

a social work practitioner through that process. At the same time

she was focused on gaining an understanding of the priorities of social

work in the Indian context, and how to represent her sensitively withinthat context.

Conclusion

Taking the time to explore and reflect on the experience of being

a student placed in an international social work practicum solidifies

the experience and makes clear the rich learning opportunity that it

was. This is true not only for the educational and professional benefits

gained but also the personal development that resulted. All of the

conditions within which this practicum occurred may not be, or need

to be, recreated to generate a similarly rich experience. However

hopefully, what has been shared herein will provide some usefulconsiderations to explore for all parties directly or indirectly involved

in such an arrangement.

References

1. Australian Association of Social Workers (2003). Practice standards for

social workers: Achieving outcomes. Canberra: Author.

2. Australian Association of Social Workers (2010).AASW code of ethics . Canberra:

Author.

3. Australian Association of Social Workers (2012). Guideline 1.2: Guidance on

field education programs. In Au st ra li an So ci al Wor k Ed uc at io n an d

Accred itat ion Standards (ASWEAS) 2012. Canberra: Author.4. Anand, M. (2010). Practising social work in schools: Reflections from Delhi.

Practice: Social Work in Action, 22(4), 233-244.

5. Arulmani, G. (2007). Counselling psychology in India: At the confluence of

two traditions. Applied Psychology: An Internat ional Review , 56(1), 69-82.

6. Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: University of California Press.



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19Samaja Karyada HejjegaluJournal of Social WorkVol. III, No-8, August 2013 pp. 17-43

We live in times of crisis and uncertainty, but times of crisis

are also times of opportunity, and in uncertain times the

impossible can become merely difficult, and the difficult can

become feasible. (I fe, 2003,p.7)

AbstractThis paper is based on field experience. Disasters, natural or

man-made, affect the lives of individuals, families and communities.

Drawing on field experiences both from India and Australia, the

author illustrates various phases and social processes that the

communities go through to re-establish a sense of community

following disaster. Drawing from personal experiences and

associations with various disasters like, Bhopal Gas tragedy

(India,1984),Gujarat earthquake(India,2001), fire, frost, floods, and

drought (South Australia, 2006), and recent Cyclone Yasi

(Queensland Australia, 2011), the author examines the relevance of

the conceptof community development. Response to natural

disasters occurs from various corners of the society. In this article,

highlighting the community recovery work initiated by someschools

of social work in India, the author discusses the relevance of

community development education in social work and implications

for practice in a global context. This paper was originally

presented at the international conference on Eco-social Justice:

Issues, challenges, and ways forward:Kerala,India,in

November 2011.

Key words: Natural Disasters, Community, Recovery,

Resilient Community, Social Work Education.

Note : The purpose of this paper is to introduce some of the contemporary

approaches and practice frameworks in community development to the social

work practitioners in India and to initiate further dialogue and researches in thearea of community participation, engagement and development with an emphasis

on documenting such experiences.

Indian and Australian Experience of Community

Recovery in Natural Disasters

Abraham P Francis1

1. Dr Abraham P Francis teaches Social Work at James Cook University, Australia

[email protected]

Note: This paper was presented at the international conference on Eco-social Justice: issues,

challenges and ways forward: Kerala, India, in November 2011 and this is a brief version of the full

text which is due for publication in November 2013.


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20 Dr. Abraham P. Francis

Introduction

In this paper I intend to discuss the nature of community,

approaches to community development work, reflections on personal

experiences of how a community responds to tragic realities, the

process of rebuilding communities, and how lessons learned from the

field could be incorporated into social work education to prepare social

workers to effectively contribute to recovery work using a

developmental approach. For this purpose, I have drawn on experience

and lessons from Australia and India. Hence, the focus here is onsocial work practice and education in the light of my practice

experience in these two countries.

Disaster has struck many countries and each countrys experience

has been quite unique and different. While I base this discussion

solely on my practice experience, I will also draw upon the experiences

of other practitioners, educational institutions, and agencies to provide

a broader view of the issues that could be addressed by the social

work profession.

Approaches to community development

The term communitywas coined by the merging of two Latin

wordscomand munis.The English meaning of these two words

are together and to serve. Therefore community means to serve

together. Most of the definitions of community refer to a group of

people living in the same place, having a particular characteristic in

common, or a group of people living together and practising common

ownership. The main point here is place, neighbourhood or common

interests that bring people together. The term community is used for

different purposes in sociologyparticularly in the description and

analysis of society. However, in social work literature, it is used to

denote a particular spatial or geographical unit (Siddiqui, 1997). It isalso popularly employed in such descriptive phrases as a sense of

community, meaning an attitude of co-operation (Harper & Dunham,

1959).Heller (1989, p.3, as cited in Taylor, Wilkinson & Cheers, 2011)

suggests that community is based on a location such as a

neighbourhood, town or city. Furthermore Heller (2011) describes


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the respective roles for communities, governments, and practitioners;

and each may be effective given the policy context, the task to be

achieved, and the community (Taylor et al., 2008). These concepts

are discussed in brief here to provide an overview of the conceptual

frame work that can be applied in community work. This conceptual

clarity in turn will be useful for social workers or human service

professionals to conceive, develop, and initiate community development

or recovery work. It is also important to review the appropriateness

of each approach before attempting to implement them in the

workplace. Each approach can be adopted by incorporating local

wisdom and the needs of the area, depending on the desired outcome

and particular context.

The contributions approach

The contributions approach considers participation by the

community primarily as voluntary contributions to a project, rather

than decision-making about a project. Professionalsoften external

to the communityusually lead participation. This approach is based

on voluntary donations of time and expertise, reciprocal relationships

are valued and community is seen as contributor rather than active

participant. Often this approach is not sustainable for the long term

as community participation may not be sustainable. (Taylor et al.,

2008, p.93).

The instrumental approach

The instrumental approach is the dominant approach in community

health and social care in Australia today. This consists of services

and a set of practices that encourage competition among potential

contractors: a high value is placed on cost efficiency, and there isdevelopment of criteria to measure efficiency and effectiveness around

programme design, budgets and costs (Taylor et al., 2008). There is

a general feeling that consultation with the community is not complete

and often power does not transfer from the professionals to the

communities (Rifkin, 1996). In this approach Community participation


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is according to a pre-determined strategy which is led by professional

who would have led the design objectives, strategies, etc. The main

purpose is to achieve pre-determined outcome. A distinguishing

feature of this approach is that is undertaken using methods consistent

with a professional power-base and process are activated and directed

by professionals. (Taylor et al., 2008,p.95)

The community empowerment approach

The community empowerment approach seeks to empower and

support communities, groups and individuals to take greater control

over issues that affect their health and wellbeing. It includes the notions

of consciousness-raising, personal development and social action and

givingpower or authority to an individual or group(Williams &

Labonte, 2003, as cited in Taylor et al., 2008.p.88).Rifkin (1996,)

describes it as community participation as the result of community

of people, essentially the poor, gaining information, access to resources,

and eventual control over their own lives rather than being dominated

by the authorities by whom they have been exploited(p. 82).Local

people become involved in solving problems, increase their knowledge

and skills, and achieve a sense of control over their environment.

The developmental approach

The developmental approach conceptualizes health and social

care development as an interactive, evolutionary process, embedded

in a community of place or interest. Local people, in partnership with

professionals, have a role in decision-making and in achieving the

outcomes they consider important. The developmental approach is

underpinned by principles of social justice. In this approach local

people are actively involved in a project over which they can exertsome influence. Cheers and Luftoff (2001, p. 135) describe the

developmental approach as enhancing the quality of life of the whole

communitysocially, economically, culturally, spirituality, and

ecologicallyby increasing community agency, primarily through

broadly based local participation.


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Models and perspectives of community work

There are many different models and perspectives of working

with communities. There is no definitive or right way to engage in

community work, as we all see the world in our own ways and so

some things may resonate more than others. The theoretical

understanding provided in this paper will not only enrich our response

to realities, but will also provide support in developing strategies to

address recovery work. It is not intended here to look at each of themodels and analyse them but rather to orient readers to this important

aspect that will help shape the way we design and implement recovery

efforts. The reason why we emphasise working from a particular

model goes back to what we discussed earlierthe clarity of purpose,

the context in which a desired result is expected. If we are not clear

about the principlesand the context of our practice; our work may be

fragmented, ineffective, and we may not be able achieve the desired

outcome as planned. Therefore, it is vital for practitioners to examine

the theoretical perspectives and approaches to practice before

launching any developmental initiatives. Following are some

perspectives that practitioners can draw on.An ecological perspectiveconcentrates on environmental and

social sustainability. The goal is to build sustainable communities using

sustainable methods. This approach is very holistic, as it examines

the entirety of the issue and determines the most sustainable way to

approach practice. This looks at which resources are available to the

community and makes sure that community benefits are long term.

This also takes into effect the inter-generational effects of community

developmenthow will future generations be assisted or impacted.

This should also place the community into its wider environmenta

part of the global ecological perspective (Ife & Teserio, 2006).

A social justice and human rights perspective highlights

equality and empowerment, ensuring that human rights are upheld

and all people are respected and encouraged, regardless of race,

gender, disability or age. Here we would be looking at challenging

the dominant structures and attitudes that oppress and marginalise


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people. Respect and inclusion are primary within a social justice and

human rights perspective (Ife & Teserio, 2006).

Feminist perspectives look at our society and challenge the

structural issues of oppression, which are primarily dominated by

men and quite rigid. The feminist slogan the personal is political is

certainly applicable to community development. What feminist theory

demonstrates is that the personal aspects of our lives have context in

wider society. Collectivism and the encouragement of social action

and participation drive this perspective (Ife & Teserio, 2006).

Strength-based approachesidentify and build on the positive

strengths that are present within individuals and the community rather

than highlighting problems, while emphasizing social justice, respect,

inclusion, and self-determination (Pulla, 2012; Francis, 2012).

Identifying strengths and community capacity is an important element

in community practice. These approaches to practice/ strategies

equalize power relations and bring about change by promoting

strengths. Social work has been defined by the International

Federation of Social Workers as a profession [that] promotes social

change, problem solving in human relationships and the empowerment

and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilizing theories of

human behavior and social systems, social work intervenes at the

points where people interact with their environments. Principles of

human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work (IFSW,

2012). For Cowger and Snively (2002, p. 106), the empowerment

perspective is central to social work practice andclient strengths

[provide] the fuel and energy for that empowerment. Miley et al.

(2004, p. 91) write that a strengths-oriented social work practice

incorporates empowerment as both a concept and a process. In the

context of disasters and recovery this approach empowers the

community as it enables local participation, active choices, and control

of their own destinies(Tan,2009,p.4).Further, I will focus more on the initiatives by communities and

groups in responding to natural disasters in their own respective places

and in their own ways. It would be advisable for a practitioner to be

clear about the ideological principles and practice frameworks before

committing to being part of a community recovery process.


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description will capture the nature of the disasters, response from

the field, and will address the issues that need further action from the

field.

1. Bhopal Disaster (1984)

The Bhopal disaster (commonly referred to as the Bhopal

gas tragedy) was a gas leak incident in India and considered one of

the worlds worst industrial catastrophes. It occurred on the night of

December 2, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide

plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. A government affidavit in2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries, including 38,478

temporary partial injuries and approximately 3,900 severely and

permanently disabling injuries. As many as 25,000 deaths have been

attributed to the disaster in recent estimate (Bhopal gas tragedy, n.d.).

This tragedy caused a number of problems in the communitymany

people died due to the incident, many more became subject to severe

medical conditions, and this led to significant mental health issues in

the communities. Because of the impact of the disaster, many people

moved away from Bhopal. Greif and loss permeated the environment

and families. The problems caused by this incident have not been

resolved and thousands of people are still struggling to grapple withthe outcomes of this tragedy.

How did the community respond to this tragedy? This type of

question has always compelled me to critically examine the practices

and literature on community development. Reflection on this disaster

reveals that a great sense of belonging and connectedness was seen

during this period and has contributed to the ongoing social action in

the community. The aspect of locality and social interaction was

quite evident in this context. This again helps us to understand the

processes involved in community development and some important

lessons can be drawn from this incident, particularly in understanding

the bonding, de-bonding and re-bonding experiences of communities.Although there have been a number of efforts by government and

non-government agencies, initially their main concern was to provide

relief to the affected communities.

The discussion here is limited to cover the concept of recovery

and peoples engagement. During this period of disaster, I was a


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social work student, and I was also involved in some aspects of the

recovery work. As a student, I can now reflect on the tremendous

impact this tragedy had on me both personally and professionally.

What I observed during this period was that the entire community

came together irrespective of caste, creed, religion or ethnicity. Human

kindness and compassion were visible everywhere. People from all

walks of life came together to support each other and what united

them was a state of emergency, a need for protection and a sense of

caring for the affected. This was very evident in the way people

quickly organised after the disaster. I also observed the emergence

of local leadership and community involvement in the recovery efforts.

One thing I still remember is the way in which the community provided

emotional support to grieving families. This organised community spirit

was later transformed and manifested in the way of local social action

projects.

2. Bhuj earthquake, Gujarat, India (2001)

The Bhuj earthquake that shook the Indian Province of Gujarat

on the morning of January 26, 2001 was one of the most deadly

earthquakes to strike India in its recorded history. One month after

the earthquake, official Indian government figures placed the death

toll at 19,727 and the number of injured at 166,000. Indications are

that 600,000 people were left homeless, with 348,000 houses destroyed

and an additional 844,000 damaged. It was a major tragedy for the

whole nation(India). The questions in my mind at the time were

how can we respond to this social reality affecting millions of people

in the country? Do we share a sense of loss? What can be done?

During this time, I was a social work lecturer at Delhi University

and the immediate response of the faculty was to organise the students

to engage in community campaigns and initiate fundraising activities.

Students from the college organised local communities to respond tothe needs of the community in Gujarat. I could see the emergence of

local leadership, especially among university students in action in the

response to the natural disaster that occurred in the country. The

students later visited the site along with professionals and activists to

carry out the recovery work. Again, what I observed was the spirit


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of wanting to help people in crisis. On reflection, I see that this was

indeed a relevant response from the social work department, which

not only took proactive steps to mobilise the students but also allowed

the students to use this experience for critical reflection and learning

in social work practice. It is in this context that I introduce the work

of the Delhi school of social work as they responded to the crisis in

Gujarat. A project titled UDAI (University for Development Action

and Integrated Learning) was conceived and implemented under the

leadership of Prof.Sanjai Bhatt,Department of Social Work, University

of Delhi and became a movement in addressing similar situations inthe country.

The UDAI Response

The Department of Social Work at Delhi University in India very

quickly and effectively responded to the emergency situation after

the Gujarat earthquake in 2001. The University for Development

Action and Integrated Learning (UDAI) was born to address the

needs of the people in Gujarat. Students from various departments

were trained and sent to the earthquake-affected areas to undertake

relief work along with faculty members. While some of the students

were in the field, the students in the city mobilised funds, resources,and other materials to be sent to Gujarat. This generated a lot of

community response in and around Delhi in support of the cause and

the UDAI continued to support some of the long-term rehabilitation

plans. Based on the experience of working in the earthquake recovery

efforts in 2001, the UDAI initiated its second phase for the flood

affected people in Bihar (2008).It was one of the most disastrous

floods in the history of Bihar, a state in India, which occurred on 18

August 2008. The river changed course and inundated areas which

hadnt experienced floods in many decades. The flood affected over

2.3 million people in the northern part of Bihar. UDAI Phase 2 had

twofold objectives:Tocontribute to relief and rehabilitation of floodaffected victims on a long-term basis, and to bring back experiences

of learning into the knowledge system of the university.The UDAI

team worked at three levelsimmediate relief, long-term post-rescue

relief, and long-term rehabilitation. The team was led by the social

work faculty along with students (UDAI, 2008). This experience


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provided students with on-site exposure and an opportunity to develop

their skills in working in such demanding situations.

Another initiative is from Tata Institute of social science, Mumbai,

in responding to natural disasters in India. In most instances, the

Institute has worked closely with state governments and the district

administration in responding to crisis situations. In recent years, NGOs

have recognised the role of the Institute and its volunteer teams and

have sought to collaborate. Following the 2004 tsunami in India and

Sri Lanka, the TISS completed an assessment of the loss of lives,

property, livelihoods, environment, and infrastructure. It also addressedthe rehabilitation and psychological counselling needs of affected

women and children in Tamil Nadu in collaboration with 29 colleges

of social work in Tamil Nadu, involving 1500 post-graduate student

volunteers and over 100 teachers (Tata Institute of social sciences

(TISS, 2012).The TISS also sent a deputation of five faculty members

to Sri Lanka to train volunteers in psycho social support and trauma

counselling.In addition a number of other social work colleges,

departments and institutions volunteered to assist in the recovery work

when confronted with calamities in India. For the purpose of continuing

this discussion, I have only mentioned two institutions (there are many

other organisations and Social Work institutions that have responded

to disasters in their specific geographic locations) to showcase the

trend of social work response in India in responding to

disasters.Although there have been responses from social work

institutions, the feedback from such endeavours have been around

the intensity of planning the interventions and supporting volunteers

in responding to situations. This againemphasises the need for

preparingsocial work students/human service professionals/volunteers

in engaging with communities and very specially in addressing the

uncertainties in practice.

3. Drought in South Australia (2006)

A drought is a prolonged, abnormally dry period when there isnot enough water for the users typical needs. Drought is not simply

low rainfall; if it were, much of inland Australia would be in almost

perpetual drought. Because people use water in so many different

ways, there is no universal definition of drought. Meteorologists

monitor the extent and severity of drought in terms of rainfall


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deficiencies. Agriculturalists rate the impact on primary industries,

hydrologists compare ground water levels, and sociologists define it

on social expectations and perceptions (Australian Government,

Bureau of Meteorology, 2012).For the past ten years Australia

has been in the grip of a severe and unprecedented drought, with low

rainfall in many districts and record low inflows to the Murray-Darling

basin. This is having an effect on all members of the community,

from rural farmers to residents of many cities and towns, and the

situation will not be reversed until significant rains replenish dams,

streams, rivers, and aquifers.This situation has caused many issues for communities,especially

rural communities,as they tend to experience a heavier burden of

mental illness, and have been significantly more affected by the tragedy

of suicideparticularly male suicidethan their city counterparts.

Anecdotal evidence suggests there has been an increased presentation

of mental health problems and disorders associated with the drought

such as chronic stress, anxiety, depression, insomnia, and alcohol

abuse. However, there is not yet significant evidence to suggest a

drought associated increase in the rate of suicide in South Australian

rural communities. The general prevalence of mental disorders

affecting men is comparable to that of women, though each gender

has stand-out issues (Ashfield, 2007).

During this period, I was a social work practitioner and involved

in a programme called Men in Communities, which was funded by

the Government of South Australia to address the issues of men,

rural farmers, and particularly to promote wellbeing in rural

communities. This programme had a community focus and has had a

great impact in the communities. Again, a commonality with other

disasters was that people came together at times of difficulty. People

from far and wide supported one another. As a practitioner, I was

also involved in developing some community-oriented programmes

i.e. community events, support groups for people with mental illness,

and community awareness programmes to support people in the ruralcommunities. The lesson I learnt during this period was that engaging

with local community is crucial in all aspects of community work:

specifically in addressing the needs of the local community. Local

solutions need to emerge from the community partnership that the

practitioners establish with the wider community.


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4. Tropical Cyclone Yasi (2011)

Tropical Cyclone Yasi was one of the most powerful cyclones to

affect Queensland, Australia, since weather records began. The

cyclone was another blow to North Queenslands coal industry, banana

and sugar cane farming, as well as tourism;just as the state was open

for business again after massive floods in December and January,

which left 35 people dead. Tropical Cyclone Yasi caused widespread

damage when it crossed the Queensland coast. Many communities

were left devastated and are still in recovery. As Queenslanders

braced for the biggest cyclone in the nations history, Prime Minister

Julia Gillard told them, In the hours of destruction that are coming,

all of Australia is going to be thinking of [you](Far North Qld,

February 2, 2011). I could see a sense of hope and support that was

sent through these powerful messages to the people of Queensland.

As a researcher, I thought this extended notion of community

Australia as a Communityreally supported the people emotionally to

stay strong and face the disaster together while supporting one another.

A spirit of volunteerism was manifested in all these efforts. As a

survivor of this disaster myself, I found this common recovery theme

in Australia tooPeople from all walks of life came together to support

one another whether someone was a newcomer to the town, migrant,

or local. But the uniting point here was the context, the urgency and

the need for help. The community spirit was visible on the streets.

Why is a community development approach to recovery

important?

Recovery from disasters such as those experienced in Queensland

over the summer of 2010-11 requires more than the restoration of

infrastructure and rebuilding of homes. A recovery effort must also

involve building stronger, more resilient communities where people

are empowered to manage their own recovery. National and

international approaches to disaster recovery show that the inclusionof community development within community recovery can have

positive long-term implications for mental health, community capacity,

productivity, and hope. The social work approach is a bottom-up

approach and focuses on the active involvement of community

members. It is an opportunity for communities to express community


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agency such as purposive acts expressing the capacity of residents

to work together for the wellbeing of the entire community.Like the

empowering approaches, collaboration and meaningful participation

are key factors in community development. A report titledA silver

lining: Community development,crisis and belongingby Trotman

and Caniglia (2011) explored the role of community development in

Queenslands recovery from floods in 2011. Some of their

recommendations are indeed useful while responding to the issues in

communities. They are as follows:

Initiate grassroots activities that bring people together and

strengthen the supportive relationships

Promote activities that strengthen community development

capacity, resources and infrastructure

Building leadership and governance capacity in the

communities

Participatory planning Address the disadvantaged and vulnerable (p.5)

Community development is fundamentally concerned with

including everyone and uses particular methods to overcome obstacles

to the participation of groups with fewer resources and other structural

barriers preventing access. At the time of crises or disasters significant

help and assistance was offered by residents without any formal

volunteering process. The strength of nearby social networks is an

important factor in peoples capacity to prepare and recover. Francis

(2013) mentions developing safety nets in communities to respond

to the challenges of recovery. As shown in Australia as well as

disasters overseas, sometimes the disaster situation is so difficult

the social networks and relationships within and around communities

are the only source of help until disaster recovery assistance can

physically reach affected communities (Trotman & Caniglia, 2011,

p. 6).Hence the theory we discussed at the beginning of the chapter,the interactional perspective of community (Taylor etal., 2008,p.23)

becomes quite relevant here because community is bounded

geographically and includes social interactions among people who

live in that area.This again emphasises the importance of recognising

the pattern of interactions in a community context.According to the


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Community Development Alliance of Scotland (2004), community

development activities should be based on a commitment to the

following principles:

Empowerment increasing the ability of individuals andgroups to influence issues that affect them and their

communities

Participation supporting people to take part in decisionmaking

Inclusion , equality of opportunity and anti-

discrimination recognising that some people may needadditional support to overcome barriers they face

Self-determination supporting the right of people to maketheir own choices

Partnership recognising that many agencies can contributeto community development

In order to understand the role of community development in

disaster recovery, it is important to define development in this context.

The following definition is offered by the Community Development

Alliance of Scotland (2008) and it highlights both methods and

outcomes of community development. Community developments are

a process, a way of doing things. They can: Bring people together Help people to identify the problems and needs which they

share and respond to these

Help people to discover the resources that they already have Promote knowledge, skills, confidence, and the capacity to

act together

Strengthen organisation and leadership within communities Strengthen contacts between communitiesPrincipled community development work involves developing

opportunities, including those located within the community, such as

tapping into local networks; drawing on existing community resourcesand strengths; encouraging involvement from a wide range of

community members; developing and working with community leaders;

building networks of trust; nurturing social capital; developing teams

to undertake specific tasks; conducting audits of community resources;

managing conflicts; and generally building the communitys capacity


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to withstand or adapt to change processes. In all these activities

human service professionals play a crucial role in working with the

communities. Principled community development work also includes

other opportunities, involving those located outside of the community

such as developing communication channels with government

departments, non-government organisations and businesses; working

with local networks to access external resources; lobbying for the

community; addressing social policy issues as they affect the

community; and advocating on behalf of the community to ensure

that members have access to the resources they need to achievetheir goals and aspirations (Kenny, 2006). Therefore community

development practice is about maximising the participation of all

individuals within a community and it therefore relies on initiatives

arising at the local level rather than on those imposed from above

(Alston, 2009).

Understanding community strength

It has been seen from my own experience and literature that at

the time of disasters the atmosphere is filled with confusion, lacks a

sense of direction, and everyone looks for a safe place. It is in thiscontext human service professionals and volunteers walk in to support

the people and community. An understanding of the strength of the

community is of paramount importance to post-disaster work. Key

concepts of membership and inclusion contribute to a communitys

strengths. McKnight and his colleagues have been key proponents

for examining, developing, and utilising the assets of the community

(McKnight, Turner, & Kretzmann, 1999). These assets include

physical, individual, community (organisational), and societal assets.

The physical assets include land, buildings, communication,

transportation structures, and business complexes. Individual assets

are the local residents, their skills, experiences, capabilities, and theirwillingness to contribute (Kretzmann & McKnight, 2005). Community

assets are the different organisations such as voluntary associations,

social cultural groups, and faith-based organisations. The societal

institutions are public institutions, schools, courts, hospitals, as well as

political structures of the country (Kretzmann & McKnight, 2005).


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In a disaster situation, it is very difficult to assess the community

strength in terms of physical, natural or social contexts; rather, efforts

should be diverted to rebuild the strength of the community. By

involving the community members, and by adopting participatory

practice models the human service professionals work towards

restoring the hope in people. Though it is a time consuming process,

our efforts should lead to re-establishing the missing link in the

communities which will help us to focus more on social capital.

Putnams (2000) concept of social capital encompasses both bonding

and bridging capital. The ability of people to bond and support oneanother, individually and as groups, builds the bonding capital. The

relationship of the community with other communities and resources

provides bridging capital (Dynes, 2002; Putnam & Feldstein, 2003).

This model requires a deep respect for the people and communitys

capacity to adopt sensitive and culturally appropriate interventions.

Community members views and actions are valued and solicited

through public meetings, surveys, consultations, task forces, and

committees. Community action provides the impetus for social change

and community development (Tan, 2009).Through the community

development initiatives and through the participatory process we will

be able to focus more on the community capacities, and work towards

rebuilding the community strength which would instil hope in

communities and the recovery process itself.

Community involvement in disaster recovery

One of the key factors in disaster recovery process is engaging

with local communities in planning, decision making, and evaluation.

We cannot achieve anything alone as it requires community support

and participation. Networking and participation are the essence of

both community development and disaster management as they

provide the bonding and bridging capital necessary for action. Social

capital is the means for developing and mobilising the resources ofthe community (McKnight, Turner, & Kretzmann, 1999; Putnam &

Feldstein, 2003). Bonding capital focuses on the latent assets or

strengths of the community, and harnessing them for action, while

bridging capital aggregates resources and assets in other communities

that can be used if required (Putnam, 2000).


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At a time when disaster strikes a community, assessing the social

capital may be a problem but post- disaster work will be quite easy if

the community is helped to reclaim this in their specific context of

experience. It may include taking into consideration both the resources

available and those needed for rescue and recovery. This assessment

is to be done in partnership with local people, appreciating and

acknowledging the expertise of the knowledgeable from the local

community. This can be achieved through observations and dialogues

with residents, interest groups, and service providers. The strengths

approach (Saleebey, 2006) provides a positive perspective to disaster

intervention, and it considers the individual, family, and community

understanding of social situations and conditions. It also emphasises

the capacities and potential of the clients, family, and community, and

assumes that they are experts of their own situations and can best

decide what they want and need. A vital starting place is the

assessment of strengths at all levels that will assist the community in

coping with distress, and enhance wellbeing.Strength and resilience

are highly correlated concepts (Priestley & Hemingway, 2006;

Herman, 1992). Resilience is the resourcefulness of people, families,

and communities, along with their ability to bounce back. Different

people and communities are affected by disasters in various ways.

Resilience is dependent on the protective factors they have, such as

attitudes, skills, and assets. History and culture may also play a

protective role in dealing with crisis and disasters (Tan, 2009).The

question is - are the communities resilient enough to bounce back

and what is the hope that they have been able to identify through the

process of analysing the social capital.

Crisis can be an opportunity for growth and development. But

again the question is whether the community is able to see this at a

time of disaster. In this context strengths based approach allows people

to recognise their strengths and their ability to move forward, becausethe premise of the strengths perspective is that it is not problem-

focused butemphasises personal and community strengths (Saleebey,

2006; Francis, 2012). It seeks to discover uniqueness and personal

ways of coping and intervenes in a culturally appropriate way. The

strengths perspective identifies positive assets in terms of individual


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and community coping abilities, and thus the involvement of family

and community members is central in intervention.

The collaborative approach of the strengths perspective

includes working within the reality of the situation, while

searching for possibilities and potentials, as well as doing what

is meaningful for the citizens through engagement and dialogue

throughout all the phases of disaster management. This

approach includes a holistic integration of both spiritual and

contextual resources, as cultural and spiritual traditions often

provide meaning and strength to deal with disaster

situations(Tan,2009,p.4).

Practitioners reflections

Social work Magazine ,Vol 3, August Issue 8

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Transcript of Social work Magazine ,Vol 3, August Issue 8