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Pertanika Journal o f Social Science & Humanities Volume 6 Number 1 March jggg

Contents

T each er Effectiveness: T he Beliefs o f Effective Bahasa M elayu T eachers 1- Mohd Majid Konting

Factors R elated to P ercep tion o f Paren ta l Efficacy - Rozumah Baharudin 13 an d Jan Lai M un

T he Effect o f an E xport Levy on the Malaysian Cocoa Industry - 23 M ad Nasir Shamsudin

Sourcing Practices o f M anufacturers in the Malaysian E lectronics an d 31 E lectrical P roducts Industry - Samsinar Md. Sidin an d Ng Gek Cheng

G en d er D ifferences in the B oundary Perm eability betw een W ork an d 43 Family Roles - Aminah Ahmad

L atihan Sebagai S trategi P em b an g u n an M am pan: Satu Kajian Kes - 51 Mazanah M uhamad dan Saidin Teh

K eberkesanan M odul P erkem bangan Kerjaya B ersepadu T e rh ad ap 63 P en ingkatan Motivasi P encapaian Pelajar Sekolah M enengah di N egeri Sem bilan - Sidek Mohd Noah dan Mohd Ali Jaamat

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 6(1): 1 - 12 (1998) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Teacher Effectiveness: The Beliefs o f Effective Bahasa Melayu Teachers

MOHD. MAJID KONTING Faculty of Educational Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: teachers’ beliefs, teacher effectiveness, Bahasa Melayu teachers, teacher education, secondary school curriculum

ABSTRAKKepercayaan mempunyai pengaruh yang besar pada penerimaan guru terhadap sesuatu inovasi pendidikan seperti Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) di Malaysia. Kertas ini menerangkan tanggapan guru yang berkesan terhadap makna gagasan keberkesanan guru yang berasaskan kepada pemahaman teori dan amalan pengajaran mereka. Dua belas orang guru Bahasa Melayu yang dikenal pasti oleh pihak berwibawa pendidikan sebagai berkesan dalam pengajaran dikaji dengan menggunakan soal selidik berstrukstur separa yang kemudiannya diperjelas dengan temu bual. Dapatan menunjukkan sebahagian kepercayaan mereka tidak sama dengan apa yang disarankan dan dijangkakan oleh KBSM. Hasil kajian ini mencadangkan agar kepercayaan guru diambil kira dalam perancangan dan pelaksanaan program-program pendidikan guru untuk memastikan pembangunan profesional mereka lebih bermakna.

ABSTRACTBeliefs play a major role in the way teachers respond to an educational innovation such as the Integrated Curriculum for Secondary Schools (KBSM) in Malaysia. This paper gives an account of the effective teachers’ perceptions of the notion of teacher effectiveness based on the teachers’ theoretical understanding and their classroom practices. Twelve Bahasa Melayu teachers who were identified as effective in their teaching by the education authorities were studied through a semi-structured questionnaire which was later clarified through interviews. The results indicated that some of their beliefs are not parallel with those recommended and expected by the KBSM. This paper suggests that there is a need to consider teachers’ beliefs in the planning and implementation of meaningful teacher education programmes.

INTRODUCTIONMohd. Majid (1997) argues that effective teachers of Bahasa Melayu tend to follow only some of the classroom prescriptions of the Integrated Curriculum for Secondary Schools, better known by its Bahasa Melayu acronym, KBSM. The p re s c r ip tio n s in c lu d e m a in ta in in g th e engagem ent of pupils on the task and utterance of the various types of teachers’ questions. He elaborates that neither the teaching nor the le a rn in g p rocesses u n d e rly in g th e KBSM curriculum of inculcating knowledge, skills and values are being im plem ented. According to him, the KBSM cannot be considered as giving new status to the teacher as counsellor and the pupils as the key players, let alone the pupils becom ing active actors and the teacher a source of stimulus and a mover of teaching and learning, as claimed by the Ministry of Education (Ministry

o f E d u ca tio n 1990a). Why, th e n , has an educational innovation such as the KBSM failed?

For an e d u c a tio n a l in n o v a tio n to be successfully im plem ented, Fullan (1991) has suggested three aspects that should be changed in practice. They are the alternation of beliefs on the theories and pedagogical assumptions underlying the new curriculum , the use of new teaching strategies, and the use of new or revised teach in g m ateria ls. A ccordingly , b o th the teachers’ beliefs as well as their practices ought to be changed. Since changes in the classroom involve changes in the teachers’ conceptions and role behaviour, the question of w hether the teachers can work on the p ercep tio n and definitions that relate to teacher effectiveness in line with Fullan’s (1991) three dim ensions can be investigated from the perspective of the development, dissemination and im plem entation

M ohd. Majid Konting

of the notions. The KBSM existing teachers’ own beliefs about teacher effectiveness might hinder their understanding of the concepts being pursued in the KBSM. As a result, they m ight be resistant to change through such in-service teacher education programmes. Thus, in order for meaningful professional developm ent to take place, there is a need to consider the existing teachers’ beliefs about the notion of teacher effectiveness.

Teachers ’ Belief in Effectiveness Over the years, attem pts to define teacher effectiveness by researchers (O rnstein 1991; Wang and W alberg 1991; Cullingford 1995) reveal that the concept is contentious. The failure to arrive at an agreed definition of the concept can be predicted from the various problems inherent in defining teaching.

For the past four decades, Western theories o f teach ing have been do m in a ted by the “p ro g re ss iv e ” m e th o d (A lex an d e r 1992). P a rticu la rly , th e d o m in a n t p ro g ressiv e prescription in which teaching is posited as “neutrally” (Knight 1993) fails to consider that “effectiveness” entails value judgem ent about “... the nature of teaching and what is educationally worthwhile” (McNamara 1992: 280). Prescriptive views o f good practice are no t necessarily compatible with the “root definition” of effective teaching which is based on teachers’ espoused theory and good practices and in which the “practicality eth ic” (Doyle and Ponder 1977) looms large. The failure is especially significant since the progressive view seldom recognizes the practitioners’ point of view (Fullan 1992; Sikes 1992) and raises the issue of whose values are represented in any particular notion of teacher effectiveness.

The progressive view can best be represented by the Plowden Report (1967) which described it as an approach of teaching based on child- centred teaching strategies which departed from the tra d itio n a l te a c h e r-c e n tre d teach in g . According to pupil-centred teaching and learning strategies, learning can best be achieved through pupils’ own inquiries (Bennett 1987). It is a teaching strategy based on flexible, informal, individualized teaching m ethods (Galton 1989; Knight 1993). In essence, with the good teacher acting as their guide, pupils are responsible for their own learning. The teacher’s responsibility is primarily facilitating learning via appropriate

classroom and curriculum organization, and th ro u g h in d iv id u a liz e d m o tiv a tio n . T h e progressive Plowden strategy has had a major influence on the KBSM (Ministry o f Education 1990a).

The Plowden teaching strategy, however, has been treated with scepticism, especially in the past two decades (Galton et al. 1980; Bennett 1987; G alton 1989; A lex an d e r 1992). In particu lar, m ost teachers have difficulty in u n d e rs ta n d in g a n d a c c o m m o d a tin g th e recom m ended practices, especially when their meanings are unclear, as frequently is the case with general prescriptions for teaching practice (Doyle and Ponder 1977; Fullan 1992; Sikes 1992). W hat is needed , accordingly, is an empirical work to exam ine how teachers assign m eaning to the notion of teacher effectiveness.

Beliefs play a major role in how teachers respond to an educational innovation such as KBSM. Research indicates that teachers’ beliefs reflect their practices (Pajares 1992; Ross 1995; Fang 1996; Ennis et a l 1997). Teachers would consider the prescriptive provisions of teaching strategies in terms of the diversity encountered in their classrooms. T heir belief structures give form to the incom ing inform ation that they receive and direct their inform ation process. In essence, beliefs significantly in fluence how teachers understand the innovation and how they teach. A challenge for research is, therefore, to establish the m eanings that teachers assign to any prescription of effective teaching, such as that explicit in the KBSM and the interplay of those meanings with their notion of teacher effectiveness grounded in cultural norm s and in practicality of the teachers.

Effective teaching entails using m ethods that are fit for learning purposes. Since different subjects, different operations within a subject and different contexts all affect the learning purposes, it is argued that effective teaching involves the strategic use of m ultiple teaching methods. This reflects general ambiguity about the nature of teaching itself. It implies that empirical investigation is necessary to describe em bedded teacher beliefs that are characteristics of effective teaching and teacher effectiveness and , hence , to illum inate the progress of curriculum im plem entation. The gap between the KBSM’s provisions and the teachers’ concepts of effectiveness could best be evaluated by the beliefs of effective teachers, the ones who are

2 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & H um. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Teacher Effectiveness: T he Beliefs o f Effective Bahasa Melayu T eachers

considered by the education au thorities as effective by the KBSM’s standards.

OBJECTIVESThe main objective of this study was to examine and describe the beliefs of effective Bahasa Melayu teachers about teacher effectiveness. It exam ined, firstiy, how the meanings of effective teachers of Bahasa Melayu are attributed to the term “an effective teacher” and their perceptions of such teachers’ characteristics. Secondly, it detailed their accounts o f the things that they do, the things that they would not do and the things that normally happen in their classrooms. Thirdly, it explored their opinions on w hether an effective teacher can or cannot influence pupils’ academic achievement and development, and the extent of such an influence. Finally, the study probed w hether their notions of teacher effectiveness are distinguished from their notions of good and average teachers o f the KBSM. The study also considered the implications of the findings on educational reform and teacher education.

DESIGNThe study focused on the beliefs o f the effective B ahasa M elayu te a c h e rs a b o u t te a c h e r effectiveness. As the national language, Bahasa Melayu has been prom oted as the main m edium of instruction in the Malaysian schooling system. All pupils o f the KBSM have to take the subject as a core subject in the Lower Secondary School Evaluation, and a pass in it is compulsory.

The approach for eliciting the teachers’ beliefs followed the idea that beliefs can provide a m easure of w hether the teachers understand and work on the new m eaning of educational change and teacher effectiveness as prescribed in KBSM (Fullan 1991; Vulliamy and Webb 1991; Ross 1995; Ennis et a l 1997). This approach was based as far as possible on the ways the teachers themselves thought and talked about their beliefs about teacher effectiveness. Hence, the notions are derived from the bottom upwards, although the research in stru m en ts th a t gu ide th e ir reflections were developed from the review of the literature and preliminary interviews.

A reasonable period of time is needed for the practitioners to practise the KBSM in order to eliminate the effect o f “im plem entation d ip ” (Joyce and Showers 1988) in which, in the words of Fullan (1992), “things get worse before they

get better as people grapple with the m eaning and skills of change”. A ttention was focused on Form O ne teachers. Not only had the teachers m ore th an fo u r years o f KBSM teach in g experience but also concentrating on one group of pupils controls effects that m ight be derived from pupil motivation. Furtherm ore, as their pupils had been exposed to pup il-cen tred teaching in their six years of primary schooling, the Form O ne secondary school teachers can work to KBSM prescriptions without first needing to induct their pupils into new ways o f learning.

INSTRUMENT AND DATA COLLECTIONThe study used a semi-structured questionnaire which was later followed by and clarified through interviews. R esearchers such as C ohen and Manion (1994) have stressed the advantages of using both m ethods for soliciting beliefs, using each approach to com pensate for the inheren t weaknesses of the other. The developm ent of items in the semi-structured questionnaire and interview schedule were p lanned to stimulate the teach ers’ responses to the eigh t m ain questions associated with teacher effectiveness.

The schedule was then evaluated, especially in terms o f its face and conten t validity as well as its usability, by a group of three lecturers in the teaching of Bahasa Melayu as the First Language. The improved schedule' was piloted with three teachers of Bahasa Melayu who had been identified by their school authorities as effective in their teaching of the subject. The three teachers were not included in the main study. The questions were asked in Bahasa Melayu.

The inter-observer reliability of the schedule was established by employing ano ther trained professional education observer. The teachers’ responses gathered from the questionnaire and interview were independendy classified according to the categories derived from iterate content analysis. Forty-six categories were derived and were classified under four main divisions, namely, teachers’ personal qualities, knowledge base for effective teaching, behaviour and actions, and teaching outcomes. Using these categories, the o th er observer was asked to categorize the responses gath ered from the p ilo ted th ree tea c h e rs . E x cep t fo r “ju s t ic e ” w hich has percentage agreem ent values of 0.72, the in ter­observer consistency for all 46 categories was satisfactory with a value above 0.8 (Croll 1980). The Spearm an Rho correlation coefficient for

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & H um . Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998 3

Mohd. Majid Konting

overa ll c a te g o rie s o f effec tive te a c h e rs ’ characteristics was satisfactory with a value of0.94. The coefficients for all the four main categories were significant at least at 0.01 level of significance.

A tape recorder with built-in time index recording was used to tape the interview. This tape recording constituted an archive, which serves both as an aide memoire to the researcher and as a source against which the adequacy of the research methods may be judged. The archive is available for inspection.

SUBJECTSThe study employed the evaluative judgem ent of the education authorities to identify a sample of effective Bahasa Melayu teachers (Berliner 1986; Mohd. Majid 1997). All the 12 secondary schools authorities in one education district were asked to nom inate, if any, the most effective Bahasa Melayu teachers of Form O ne pupils. It was stipulated that the teachers m ust have had professional education training in the subject. The authorities were also asked not to reveal to the nom inated teachers that they had been selected because they were “effective” teachers. Some of the schools could not nom inate any teacher because there was no teacher who met the criteria. O ther schools had difficulty in selecting only one teacher and nom inated two instead.

Asked abou t the criteria used for the selection, there was an agreem ent am ong the principals that the teachers had over several years “produced pupils with good examination results” in their subject. As revealed later at the end of the field-work, all the teachers (five male and seven female) failed to realize that they were selected for the study because they were effective according to their respective school authority’s own criteria. When asked a question at the end o f the field-work on why they participated in the study, most of them , except three replied that their principal requested them to “represent the school”. The three o ther teachers did not bother to find out, even at the end of the field-work, why they were involved in the study.

DATA ANALYSISThe analysis was based on the parallel case study .approach (Glaser and Strauss 1967). The effective teacher information was organized into a case

study. T he data were then sum m arized by searching for patterns and regularities in each of the four major categories. The first category related to personal qualities, including the noble values em bodied in KBSM. The second category comprised the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for effective teaching. Shulm an’s (1987) seven categories of knowledge base for effective teaching were used as a guide to categorize the data. The th ird category was teach e rs’ re p o rte d behav iour an d actions, drawing on Shulm an’s (1987) six aspects of pedagogical reasoning and action. The fourth category com prised the teaching outcom es the effective teachers believed they p ro m o ted , including pupils’ academic achievem ent as well as the ir spiritual, m oral, social, em otional, attitudinal and skills developm ent (Ministry of Education 1990a).

A constant com parison m ethod (Glaser and Strauss 1967) was used to sort responses in each category. The researcher coded and com pared th e co d es, re c o rd in g a g re e m e n ts an d disagreements. Then, a cross-case analysis was employed by investigating patterns and them es com m on to te ach e rs over all cases. T he p ro ced u res to analyse d ocum en ts and the interview were designed to ensure systematic and re liab le cod ing o f effective te a c h e rs ’ responses by them e as well as to capture holistic impressions over time for each teacher. The d a ta w ere su m m arized an d p re se n te d as descriptive statistics.

RESULTSBeliefs about Effective Teachers ’ Personality It is expected that effective KBSM Bahasa Melayu teachers use teaching and learning strategies which instil a spirit of nationalism and also inculcate 16 noble values of the society (Ministry of Education 1989). Before the teachers could prom ote these values in their teaching, they themselves are expected, as all of the respondents in the study said, to possess the personal characteristics which are seen as sine qua non for an effective KBSM Bahasa Melayu teach er (Ministry of Education 1990a).

S eventeen effective te a c h e rs ’ p e rso n a l qualities were identified from the docum ents and interview (Table 1). Twelve are the noble values in the KBSM, namely “kindness”, “self- re lia n c e ”, “se lf-resp ec t”, “m u tu a l re sp e c t”, “coring”, “ju s tice”, “cou rage”, “physical and

4 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998

Teacher Effectiveness: The Beliefs o f Effective Bahasa Melayu T eachers

TABLE 1Frequency with which 12 respondents cited

categories of teachers’ personality when describing effective Bahasa Melayu teachers

CategoryPercentage

of all respondents

1. Courage* 75.02. Model for pupils 66.73. Physical and mental purity* 58.34. Kindness* 50.05. Diligence* 41.76. Honesty* 33.37. Respected by others 33.38. Self-reliance* 25.09. Rationality* 25.0

10. Moderation* 25.011. Caring* 25.012. Creativity 25.013. Innovativeness 16.714. Self-respect* 8.315. Mutual respect* 8.316. Justice* 8.317. Progressive 8.3

Note: * denotes the “noble values” which are explicitly prescribed by the KBSM.

m e n ta l p u r i ty ”, “h o n e s ty ”, “d i l ig e n c e ”, “m oderation”, and “rationality”. The o ther five noble values are “model for pupils”, “respected by o thers”, “creativity”, “innovativeness”, and “progressive”. Among the noble values, “courage” (75.0% of all respondents), “model for pupils” (66.7% of all respondents), “physical and mental purity” (58.3% of all respondents), “kindness” (50.0% of all respondents) and “d iligence” (41.7% of all responden ts) were the m ost frequently m entioned. Least m entioned are “self- respect”, “m utual respect” and “justice” which were cited by 8.2% of the respondents. It is surprising, however, that the analysis failed to detect four of the noble values com m ended by the KBSM, nam ely “c o -o p e ra tio n ”, “public spiritedness”, “gratitude” and “independence”.

Beliefs about Effective Teachers' Knowledge Bases for TeachingThe effective Bahasa Melayu teachers possess a num ber o f knowledge bases for teaching (Table 2). They cited as im p o rtan t know ledge of

“conten t” (83.3% of all respondents), of “general pedagogy” (66.7% o f all re sp o n d en ts ) , o f “pedagogical co n ten t” (75.0% of all respon­dents), o f “learners and their characteristics” (75.0% of all respondents) and o f “educational g o a ls” (75.0% o f all re sp o n d e n ts ) . Least m e n tio n e d , how ever, w ere “know ledge o f curriculum ” (50.0% of all respondents) and “knowledge of educational contexts” (25.0% of all respondents).

Knowledge of ContentThe primary source of pupils’ understanding of the Bahasa Melayu curriculum is the teachers. N o t only sh o u ld te a c h e rs have in -d e p th understanding of the subject m atter as stated by 50.0% of the respondents, but, said 83.3% of the respondents, they also should have good general knowledge. Said Teacher 7:

General knowledge, including the knowledge about the origin of the p lanet and its substances, will complement the teaching of Bahasa Melayu in order for the teachers to guide their pupils towards truth.

Knowledge of General Pedagogy Effective teachers, they said, com prehend broad principles and strategies of classroom m anage­m e n t (50.0% o f all re s p o n d e n ts ) an d organization (41.7% of all respondents). In terms o f classroom organization, no t only should effective teachers be knowledgeable about pupil- centred strategies, as dem anded by the KBSM (41.7% of all respondents), but they should understand teacher-centred strategies as well (33.3% of all respondents).

Knowledge of CurriculumE ffective B ahasa M elayu te a c h e rs sh o u ld understand the Bahasa Melayu program m es and m aterials, and those for o th er subjects too (Ministry of Education 1990a). Effective teachers, said 50.0% of the respondents, should know the “vertical curriculum ”, that is the conten t in the Bahasa Melayu curriculum that precedes and follows Form O ne work. Only 25.0% of the respondents said that they should know the “lateral curriculum ”, that is the conten t of o ther subjects studied by pupils in Form One, although this is explicitly com m ended in KBSM.

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c H um . Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998 5

Mohd. Majid Konting

TABLE 2Frequency with which 12 respondents cited categories of teachers’ knowledge

bases for teaching when describing effective Bahasa Melayu teachers

CategoryPercentage

of all respondents

1. Knowledge of Content:a. Knowledge of general, liberal educationb. Knowledge of subject matterc. Attitude towards subject matterd. Attitude towards general knowledge

2. Knowledge of Pedagogical Content:a. Adaptation to pupils’ characteristicsb. Representationc. Preparationd. Instructional selection

3. Knowledge of Learners and Their Characteristics:a. Pupils’ developmentb. Pupils’ motivation and interestc. Pupils’ abilityd. Pupils’ aptitudee. Pupils’ prior knowledgef. Pupils’ prior skills

4. Knowledge of Educational Goals:a. Of developing pupil’s behaviour*b. Of achieving truth*c. Of improving pupil’s knowledge*

5. Knowledge of General Pedagogy:a. Classroom managementb. Classroom organization:

1. Pupil-centred strategies*2. Teacher-centred strategies

6. Knowledge of Curriculum:a. Vertical curriculum knowledgeb. Lateral, integrated curriculum knowledge

7. Knowledge of Educational Contexts:a. Knowledge of workings of the cultureb. Knowledge of workings of the parents

83.350.050.033.3

58.350.025.016.7

50.041.725.025.0

8.38.3

75.058.358.3

50.041.741.733.3

50.025.0

16.716.7

83.3

75.0

75.0

75.0

66.7

50.0

25.0

Note: * denotes teacher’s disposition of knowledge base or teaching as explicitly recommended by KBSM.

Knowledge of Pedagogical Content E ffective te a c h e rs have, they said , an understanding of pedagogical content, that is, know ledge o f ways o f r e p re s e n tin g an d form ulating the subject to make it com pre­hensible to the pupils. In particular, the teachers should have in-depth com prehension not only of representation of the Bahasa Melayu subject m atter’s ideas (m entioned by 50.0% of all respondents), but they also know how to adapt the m ateria l to the pupils (58.3% o f all respondents). However, it is surprising that effective teachers give less emphasis to knowledge of preparation and instructional selection. They

were m entioned only by 25.0% and 16.7% of the respondents respectively.

Knowledge of Learners and Their Characteristics Given the im portance of adapting the subject to the pupils, it follows that effective teachers should have immense knowledge about the pupils and their characteristics. Seventy-five per cent o f all respondents said that effective teachers do have this knowledge. Yet, effective teachers placed little emphasis on understanding pupils’ prior knowledge and skills (m entioned by 8.3% of all re sp o n d e n ts ) , a lth o u g h they stressed the

6 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Teacher Effectiveness: The Beliefs o f Effective Bahasa Melayu T eachers

im portance of considering pupils’ motivation and interest (41.7% of all respondents) and pupils’ developm ent (50.0% of all respondents).

Knowledge of Educational Contexts Although knowledge of educational contexts is com m ended in KBSM in-service training modules (Ministry of Education 1990a, 1990b), only very few respondents perceived it as such (see Table 2). In fact, there was no m ention of knowledge of the workings of pupil groups, nor of the classroom, which are im portant according to the KBSM materials.

Knowledge of Educational Goals O ne finding is that the effective Bahasa Melayu te a c h e rs possess im m en se kno w led g e o f educational goals, that is, of the purposes and values of education. All three sub-categories of knowledge of educational goals, that is, of ach iev in g t ru th , o f im p ro v in g p u p i ls ’ com prehension , and o f developing p u p ils’ behaviour were m entioned frequently (58.3, 58.3 and 75.0% of all respondents respectively). The effective teacher, said Teacher 10, is one:

... who has assim ilated the in teg ra ted educational concepts which place knowledge and practice in a harmonized and sturdy association incorporating her/h is cognitive, spiritual and physical aspects.

To summarize: the results o f the effective Bahasa Melayu teachers’ beliefs indicated that effective teachers em phasize know ledge o f content, pedagogical content, learners and their characteristics, educational goals and general pedagogy. However, they place little emphasis on knowledge of curriculum and educational contexts. In fact, they did no t make m uch of som e a rea s o f c la ssro o m m a n a g e m e n t, preparation, instructional selection, pupils’ prior know ledge an d skills, an d know ledge o f educational contexts. If effective teachers give such a low priority to such knowledge, it can be postulated that the com plete KBSM program m e has not been internalized by the respondents in the study.

Beliefs about Effective Teachers ’ Behaviour and Actions The introduction of KBSM had implications for teachers’ behaviour and actions. In order to clarify their perceptions, six major categories of

pedagogical reasoning and action, suggested by Shulm an (1987), were em ployed. T able 3 summarizes the findings.

It can be noted that effective teachers gave priority to “understanding educational goals” (75.0% of all respondents), transform ing their understanding into understanding of the pupils (91.7% o f all r e s p o n d e n ts ) , “m an a g in g , organizing, and presenting” their lessons (all respondents), and “evaluating” their teaching acts (91.7% of all respondents). They, however, p u t less em phasis on “re flec ting” on the ir teach in g (58.3% o f all re sp o n d e n ts ) and “u n d e rs ta n d in g th e lim ita tions o f te ach e r effectiveness in the KBSM context” (16.7% of all respondents).

Comprehension and Reasoning Effective teachers, they said, must first understand the educational goals and the ideas to be taught (58.3 and 41.7% of all respondents respectively). The goals, they said, are to produce pupils who are no t only knowledgeable but also possess virtuous values.

DeliveryEffective teachers, they said, m ust transform the ideas and goals into form s which are not only pedagogically powerful, bu t also adapted to pupils’ understanding . This delivery requires the teachers to prepare by critically exam ining the choice of teaching materials for their lessons (41.7% of all respondents), and to represen t the key ideas to be taught e ither in the form of analogies, exam ples, m etaphors, and the like, or in com bination (50.0% of all respondents). An exam ple o f how effective teachers prepare and represen t their goals and the ideas to be taught was given by T eacher 1 who explained that:

Before teaching, I would think first what ideas I want to teach and the objective to be achieved.I then try to relate the topic to the environment the pupils are living in. Besides that, I would instruct the pupils to use objects around them. For example, for teaching a writing topic such as an essay “I am a car”, I would bring the pupils to see for themselves the components of a car.

Furtherm ore, as evident from Teacher l ’s description, the delivery of the ideas requires

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M ohd. Majid Konting

TABLE 3Frequency with which 12 respondents cited categories of teachers behaviour and

actions when describing effective Bahasa Melayu teachers

CategoryPercentage

of all respondents

I. Instruction: 100.0a. Presentation 100.0b. Organization: 83.3

1. Teaching style: 83.3Whole class 83.3Group 25.0

2. Teaching strategies: 75.0Conventional methods 75.0Pupil-centred* 50.0

c. Management 75.0d. Interaction: 58.3

1. Teacher-centred discussion 58.32. Pupil questioning 25.0

e. Other features of instruction 50.02. Delivery: 91.7

a. Adaptation 91.7b. Instructional selection 66.7c. Representation 50.0d. Preparation 41.7

3. Evaluation: 91.7a. Interactive assessment 75.0b. Summative assessment: end of lesson or topic, 50.0

evaluation on pupils4. Comprehension and Reasoning: 75.0

a. Of teaching purposes 58.3b. Of ideas to be taught 41.7

5. Reflection: Comparing performance and 58.3achievement with teaching objectives

6. Understanding Limitations of Teacher Effectiveness: 16.7Of teaching purposes, subject matter, pupils,

teaching and self, and consolidation of newunderstandings from experience

Note: * denotes teacher’s behaviour and actions as explicitly commended in the KBSM.

effective teachers to select from the available instructional approaches. The im portance of instructional selection for effective teachers was m entioned by 66.7% of the respondents. T he process o f de livering the ideas also dem ands that teachers adapt them to the ir pupils by tailoring the inpu t o f teaching no t only to the g ro u p ’s ability and requ irem en t (25.0% of all respondents), bu t most evidently, as m entioned by 91.7% of the respondents, to the needs and capabilities of the individual pupils.

InstructionAt least five aspects o f effective te ach e rs’ behaviour and actions during the teaching act can be identified from the effective teachers’ perceptions; those re la ted to m anagem en t (75.0% of all respondents), organization (83.3% o f all re s p o n d e n ts ) , p re s e n ta t io n (all r e s p o n d e n ts ) , in te ra c t io n (58.3% o f all respondents), and o ther features o f instruction (50.0% of all respondents).

In terms of classroom organization, most of these effective teachers used conven tional

8 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998

Teacher Effectiveness: T he Beliefs o f Effective Bahasa Melayu Teachers

teaching strategies (75.0% of all respondents). In con trast, only a few effective teachers em p lo y ed th e c o m m e n d e d p u p il-c e n tre d teaching and learning strategies such as role play (8.3% of all respondents), inquiry approach (25.0% of all respondents), discussion (33.3% of all respondents) and brainstorm ing (8.3% of all respondents).

It is also evident, as revealed in Table 3, that the majority of the effective teachers (83.3% of all respondents) employed whole class teaching, contrary to the recom m endation of the KBSM. O nly a few te a c h e rs said they used the recom m ended group teaching strategies (25.0% of all respondents).

In presenting their lessons, effective teachers, said 83.3% of the respondents, are concerned with m aintaining pupils’ attention and interest. For example:

I like to discuss current issues, especially those related to adolescence such as smoking and drug abuse to attract their attention to the lesson. [Teacher 11].

However, it is surprising to note that only 50.0% o f the re sp o n d e n ts said th a t they incu lca ted the nob le values, even th o u g h inculcating the values is the prim e concern of not only the curriculum but also the teachers them selves. In a d d itio n , co n tra ry to th e recom m endations of the KBSM, teacher-centred discussion still d o m in a ted th e p a tte rn o f classroom interaction and was employed by the m ajo rity o f th e te a c h e rs (58.3% o f all respondents). Only 25.0% of the respondents said that classroom interaction centred on pupils’ questioning.

EvaluationEffective teachers put emphasis no t only on the interactive phase of teaching assessment (75.0% of all respondents), but also on evaluation at the end of each lesson (50.0% of all respondents). In terms of interactive assessment, the majority o f th e te a c h e rs c h e c k e d th e p u p i ls ’ u n d erstan d in g (75.0% o f all resp o n d en ts) th ro u g h activities such as hom ew ork and additional verbal and writing exercises.

ReflectionReflection on teaching and learning is a process through which a professional teacher learns from

h e r/h is experience. Fifty-eight per cent o f the respondents reported reflecting on their own teaching by com paring their perform ance and achievements with their teaching goals.

Limitations to Teacher Effectiveness Only 16.7% of the respondents said that they themselves develop new com prehension and skills from th e ir teach ing . T his does n o t necessarily m ean that effective teachers do not develop their knowledge and skills at all. On analysing the respondents’ perceptions, it may be suggested tha t they have difficulties in explaining exactly how their knowledge and skills develop.

Almost all of the effective Bahasa Melayu teachers (91.7% of all respondents) reported some problem s in im plem enting the KBSM’s teaching strategies. First, the teachers themselves report difficulty in m astering and using the standard Bahasa Melayu language (66.7% of all respondents), although Bahasa Melayu is the offic ia l la n g u ag e o f c o m m u n ic a tio n an d knowledge of the country (Ministry of Education 1990a). In spite o f the fact that the teachers are subject specialists, they are no t able to properly use the standard Bahasa Melayu’s pronunciation in their classroom teaching because, said 50.0% of the respondents, o f a mixing between the standard language with the Johor-Riau dialect of Bahasa Melayu. The dialect is m ore established and commonly spoken in the area of the study. The problem was fu rther exaggerated, 33.3% of the respondents said, by the various languages spoken by not only different ethnic groups but also within groups.

S e c o n d , a lth o u g h th e te a c h e rs a re encouraged , w henever ap p ro p ria te , to use teaching materials and aids, they cannot utilize them fully (41.7% of all respondents). They say that they lack the necessary knowledge and skills for producing interesting and attractive materials a p p ro p r ia te to th e top ics (25.0% o f all re s p o n d e n ts ) . T h e p ro b le m was f u r th e r com plicated since relevant published materials are, as Teacher 4 declared, “almost un-available”.

Third, the effective teachers seldom used educational technologies such as overhead p ro je c to rs , e d u c a tio n a l te lev is io n , v id eo p re s e n ta t io n s a n d s lid es (83.3% o f all respondents). While 25.0% of the respondents said that they lack the knowledge and skills in using the technologies, 50.0% of the respondents

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c H um . Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998 9

M ohd. Majid Konting

said that there was not enough money available to buy or maintain the equipm ent. However, their main reason for not using the technologies, m entioned by 66.7% of the respondents, can be inferred in words of Teacher 10:

The class timetable is not suitable for the TV [te lev ision ] program m e. A lthough the programme can be recorded, no particular officer is assigned and is in charge of recording. There is no socket in the classroom. The use of batteries is too expensive. To exchange classes with other classrooms which have a socket would create the problem of missing pupils’ belongings in those classes and also waste much time during the exchange process.

Fourth, some effective teachers (58.3% of all respondents) have difficulty in organizing and m ain tain ing the group work which is encouraged by the KBSM. The two main reasons m entioned by the respondents are the limited time available (41.7% of all respondents) and the size of the classes (33.3% of all respondents).

F ifth , th e KBSM has co m m en d ed an integrated, cross-curricular subjects teaching approach. Unfortunately, this recom m endation cannot be fully im plem ented, claimed 66.7% of the respondents. Not only do some effective Bahasa Melayu teachers lack the knowledge of o th e r subject d iscip lines such as science, mathematics and living skills (the curriculum structure of the Lower Secondary School itself, which comprises 11 core and two additional different subjects), they find them difficult, if not impossible, 50.0% of the respondents said. In addition, the emphasis on good examination results and the repercussions of failing to deliver them exert a trem endous pressure on the teachers, 41.7% of the respondents said, to finish the content of the Bahasa Melayu syllabus before the end of the school year.

Sixth, 41.7% of the respondents said that while they im plem ented the KBSM’s recom m en­dations, they also put additional emphasis on examinations. As Teacher 3 recalled, “[n]ormally after finishing a lesson on a topic, I would ask pupils to identify the topic in the exam ination paper”.

It can be postulated that there is a tendency even among the effective KBSM teachers of Bahasa Melayu towards the examination-oriented type of teaching which was inherited from the preceding curriculum . Explained Teacher 8,

"... now every school em phasizes academ ic achievement which means that the syllabus must be completed before the end of the school year”.

Beliefs about Effective Teachers ’ Teaching Outcomes All the effective Bahasa Melayu teachers believed that effective teachers influence pupils’ academic achievement and developm ent (Table 4). In terms of pupils’ developm ent, about 50.0% of the respondents perceived that effective teachers influence pupils’ attitude and enthusiasm as well as their moral development. However, very few respondents believed that they influence pupils’ spiritual, social, em otional and skills develop­m ent, despite the priority they said that they give to these areas (see Table 1). However, the effective teachers’ perception also indicated that they did not refer to the cognitive aspect of pupils’ learning.

TABLE 4Frequency with which 12 respondents cited categories of teachers’ teaching outcomes

when describing effective Bahasa Melayu teachers

Percentage Category of all respondents

1. Academic, cognitive achievement 100.02. Pupil’s development: 100.0

a. Moral 50.0b. Attitude and enthusiasm 50.0c. Spiritual 33.3d. Social 16.7e. Emotional 16.7f. Skills 16.7

“Effective” Teachers versus “Good” and “Average” TeachersAll bu t 16.7% of the respondents of the study saw the difference between “effective” and “good” and “average” teachers of the KBSM. Effective teachers are good in many ways com pared to both the good and the average teachers who excel in fewer of the qualities. Unlike good teachers, effective teachers are som etim es ferocious and firm, and will be appropriately infuriated. T here is little difference between effective teachers and good and average teachers in term s o f teachers’ know ledge bases bu t

10 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998

T eacher Effectiveness: T he Beliefs o f Effective Bahasa Melayu T eachers

effective teachers’ com m and of the knowledge base can be reflected in terms of their general knowledge.

Many of the differences between effective and good and average teachers are located in the teachers’ behaviour and actions. Though both groups of good and effective teachers want their pupils to achieve the highest success possible, 83.3% of the respondents of this study said th a t they have d iffe ren t pedagog ical reasoning and actions. For example, said Teacher7, “ ... o ther [good] teachers only deliver the knowledge. At the end of the school year, they [good teachers] just com pleted the syllabus”. There are also differences between effective and good and average teachers in terms of teaching outcomes.

CONCLUSIONThe effective Bahasa Melayu teachers believed that an effective teacher possesses most of the necessary qualities and knowledge bases for effective te ach in g . T h o u g h p ro p o s itio n a l knowledge is im portant for effective teaching (Shulman 1987), the teachers’ possession of it is variable, as revealed in this study. T here is evidence which suggests that little is known about how effective teachers develop new knowledge and skills from their teaching. Furtherm ore, it is also e v id e n t th a t they have no c le a r u n d erstan d in g of the re la tionsh ip betw een teacher effectiveness and teaching outcomes, especially those outcomes associated with effective domains. They do believe that effective teachers are m ore g oa l-o rien ted , firm er and m ore com m itted to learning itself than are o ther teachers.

While not all factors that m ight influence teachers’ beliefs about the notion of teacher effectiveness are studied, some of their beliefs, as revealed in this study, are not parallel with those recom m ended and expected by the KBSM such as in the areas of noble values, pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge of educational c o n te x ts , c la ssro o m o rg a n iz a tio n , lesson presentation and classroom interaction. These findings tend to support those of Anderson and Burns (1989), who concluded that teachers vary on a wide variety of personal and professional characteristics, and that teachers’ characteristics do not impact directly on pupil achievement.

T h e m ism atch b e tw een th e effec tive teachers’ beliefs and the KBSM’s dem ands of

teacher effectiveness calls for im provem ent in te ach e r ed u ca tio n , w hich shou ld con sid er modifying teachers, especially their prior beliefs and images of teaching (Kagan 1992). Beliefs change gradually . T each ers n eed tim e to accommodate new information, accept and reject ideas, modify existing belief systems, and adopt new beliefs (Pajares 1993). Furtherm ore, the belief system of the school may influence the teacher by itself. Conventional acquisition of te a c h e r know ledge w hereby te a c h e rs a re in troduced to new ideas and inform ation in the hope of altering their beliefs is unlikely to change beliefs. An experientially based program m e that infuses know ledge an d ex p erien ces ab o u t working with economically and culturally diverse pupils is critical in p reparing teachers (Cabello and Burnstein 1995). T eachers’ educational theory and practice must be systematically linked to the classroom experience with coursework to foster the acquisition of knowledge and skills. In addition, local research on teaching and learning strategies should be increased. Further cu rric u lu m re fo rm sh o u ld co n s id e r early involvem ent o f teachers at the earlier stage of its p lanning. The reform ough t to be based on a m o re lim ited set o f e d u c a tio n a l goals supported upon teacher-defined view of good practice.

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(Received 9 September 1997)

12 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 6(1): 13-21 (1998) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Factors Related to Perception o f Parental Efficacy

ROZUMAH BAHARUDIN and JAN LAI MUN Jabatan Pengajian Pem bangunan Keluarga

Fakulti Ekologi Manusia Universiti Putra Malaysia

43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: family background, quality of parenting, parent-child relationship, parenting knowledge, parental efficacy, parental behaviour

ABSTRAKKajian ini menentukan perkaitan di antara faktor terpilih dalam konteks sosial keluarga (iaitu latarbelakang keluarga: pendidikan, pendapatan keluarga, dan bilangan anak; dan faktor keibubapaan: kualiti keibubapaan yang diterima semasa kanak-kanak, kepuasan hubungan keibubapaan, dan pengetahuan keibubapaan) dengan persepsi keberkesanan keibubapaan. Responden terdiri daripada 118 orang ibubapa yang mempunyai anak Darjah Lima daripada 2 buah sekolah di Subang Java, dan telah dipilih secara persampelan rawak berlapis. Data telah dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan soalselidik yang dijawab sendiri oleh responden. Persepsi keberkesanan keibubapaan telah diukur menggunakan skala ‘Perception of Parental Efficacy’ (Luster 1985). Kualiti keibubapaan yang diterima semasa zaman kanak-kanak telah diukur menggunakan skala ‘Supportive Parenting’ (Simon et al 1992) yang telah dimodifikasi. Kepuasan hubungan keibubapaan telah diukur menggunakan 5 item yang telah diadaptasi daripada skala ‘Relationship Satisfaction’ (Simons et al 1993) dan ‘Parent-child Rational Quality’ (Umberson 1989). Pengetahuan keibubapaan telah diukur menggunakan 5 item yang telah diadaptasi daripada skala ‘Parental Influence’ (Simon et al 1993) dan ‘Parenting Knowledge’ (Rozumah 1995). Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa diperingkat bivariat, pendapatan keluarga, kepuasan hubungan keibubapaan, dan pengetahuan keibubapaan mempunyai perkaitan signifikan dengan persepsi keberkesanan keibubapaan. Apabila kesemua variabel konteks sosial keluarga dikawal secara statistik, hanya pengetahuan keibubapaan sahaja menyumbang secara signifikan kepada persepsi keberkesanan keibubapaan. Kajian ini menyimpulkan bahawa beberapa faktor dalam konteks sosial keluarga boleh mempengaruhi persepi ibu bapa terhadap keberkesanannya sebagai ibu bapa. Hasil kajian menunjukkan kepentingan mengambilkira konteks di mana ibu bapa dan anak berinteraksi apabila membantu ibu bapa. Ibu bapa juga perlu diberi kesedaran ten tang kepentingan interaksi yang berkualiti dengan anak dan impak pengetahuan keibubapaan terhadap keberkesanan keibubapaan dan perkembangan kanak-kanak.

ABSTRACTThe present study determined the relationships between selected factors within the family social context i.e.

family background: education, family income, and number of children; and parenting factors: quality of parenting received as a child, satisfaction with the parent-child relationship, and parenting knowledge) and perception of parental efficacy. Respondents were 118 parents with Standard Five children from 2 primary schools in Subang Jaya, and were selected using the stratified-random sampling procedure. Data were gathered using a self-administered questionnaire. Perceived parental efficacy was measured using Luster’s perception of parental efficacy scale . Quality of parenting received as a child was measured using a modified version of Simons et a l \s supportive parenting scale. Satisfaction with the parent-child relationship was assessed using 5 items adapted from Simons et a l ’s relationship satisfaction scale and Umberson’s parent-child rational quality scale. Parenting knowledge was measured using 5 items adapted from Simons et a l ’s parental influence scale and Rozumah’s parenting knowledge scale. Results from the study show that at the bivariate level, family income, parent-child relationship satisfaction, and parenting knowledge are significantly related to perception of parental efficacy. When all of the family social context variables were statistically controlled, only parenting knowledge showed significant contribution to perception of parental efficacy. The study concludes that several factors within the social context of the family may influence parents perception of their efficacy. Findings from the study indicate the importance of considering the context in which the parent and child interact when working with parents. In addition, parents should be made aware of the importance of quality parent-child interaction and the impact of parenting knowledge on parental efficacy and child development.

Rozumah Baharudin and Jan Lai Mun

INTRODUCTIONAs o u r society becom es m ore and m ore industrialized, there is a danger of parents becoming too involved in providing their families with the economic necessities and neglecting their ch ild ren’s psycho-social needs. Parents will tend to spend more time in paid employment outside the hom e, thus leaving them with very little time to interact with their children. Low level parent-child interaction is expected to be detrim ental not only to parents’ perception of th e ir paren tin g efficacy, bu t also to the ir ch ildren’s developm ent (Luster and Kain 1987; Simons et al 1990; Teti and Gelfand 1991).

Luster and Kain defined perceived parental efficacy as the degree of belief parents have regarding their influence on the development of their children. They noted that some parents believe that they have a major impact upon their children’s value, self-concept and life choices, while others believe that these factors are largely beyond their control. According to Simons et al (1990), when a parent believes that he or she has no skill or competence in getting a fruitful result in a particular parenting activity, he or she will invest very little time and energy in it. This behaviour is consistent with Bandura’s (1989) theory of self- efficacy, which states that people who have a high sense of efficacy visualize success scenarios that yield positive guides for performance and they cognitively rehearse good solutions to potential problem s. Those who ju d g e themselves as inefficacious tend to visualize failure scenarios and often dwell on how things will go wrong. Bandura further asserts that such inefficacious thoughts weaken motivation and undermine performance.

The present study was designed to determ ine the relationships between selected factors within the family social context and perceptions of parental efficacy. These factors include family background (i.e. paren t’s level of education, family incom e, n u m b er o f ch ild ren ) and paren ting factors (i.e. quality of paren ting received as a child, satisfaction with parent-child relationship, and parenting knowledge). The selection of variables for the present study was influenced by past research . F u rtherm ore , p ro p o n e n ts o f the ecological perspective emphasized the im portance of considering the context in which the parents and child interact in order to understand parenting and parental

. efficacy (B ronfenbrenner 1979; Belsky 1984; Bubolz and Son tag 1993).

Few resea rch ers have focused on the influence of factors within the social context of the family on the perception of parental efficacy. However, these researchers have prov ided evidence that parents who have higher levels of educational attainm ent and family income, have fewer children, experienced quality parenting during childhood, have a satisfying relationship with their children, and have a higher level of parenting knowledge, perceive themselves as having a higher level of parental efficacy (e.g. Luster and Kain 1987; Teti and Gefland 1991). L u ste r an d Kain (1987) e x a m in e d th e relationships between several variables associated with a paren t’s status in society (for example, income, education, occupation, race and marital status) and perceived parental efficacy. Parents in , the study were asked, “Considering all the things that can influence children today, how much effect do you think parents can have in determ ining how their children will turn out — — a great deal, a fair am ount, a little, or almost none?” The study found that majority o f the parents surveyed (n = 3,000) thought that parents exerted “a great dea l” of influence on the developing child. Only 7% of those sampled perceived that parents could do little or nothing to influence how children turned out. Race, ed u ca tio n and incom e w ere fo u n d to be significant predictors o f perceived efficacy. The study concluded that parents who are highly educated and financially secure are m ore likely to perceive themselves as being highly influential than low socio-economic status parents.

The num ber o f children in the family can change or modify a paren t’s beliefs or perception of his or her parenting effectiveness. Findings from previous studies indicate that parents with a larger num ber of children dem onstrate less effective p a ren tin g behav iour (Blake 1989; M enaghan an d Parcel 1991; H an n an and Eggebeen 1995), and thus are m ore likely to perceive themselves as inefficacious parents. These studies noted that having a greater num ber of children in the family could reduce the am ount o f individual parent-child interaction. In addition, these parents may be overwhelmed with the challenge o f having to control and m eet the needs of a larger num ber of children. Parents who have a poor sense of internal locus of control and poor perception o f efficacy may therefore, be incapable o f perform ing effectively as parents.

14 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Factors Related to Perception o f Parental Efficacy

In his influential model of the determ inants of parenting, Belsky (1984) explains that paren t’s psychological well-being and parental functioning may be traced back to the experiences parents had while growing up. The quality of parenting received during childhood has an effect on an adult p aren t’s parenting ability and efficacy. Simons et a l (1993) found in their study on 451 two-parent families that parental satisfaction with their own children is related to the quality of parenting they received during childhood. The re sea rch ers assert th a t p a ren ts who have experienced and involved in supportive parenting when they were young have ideas conveyed to them that parenting is a pleasant and gratifying endeavour. T hese p aren ts la te r take th e ir parenting tasks positively, which subsequently help them to feel confident and efficacious as parents.

Past studies have shown th a t pa ren ta l knowledge on child rearing influences the quality of care parents provide for their children (Parks and Smeriglio 1986; Rozumah 1995). Based on a sample o f 126 m others of varying socio­economic status, Parks and Smeriglio found that infant mental development is related to parenting know ledge. M others w ho u n d e rs ta n d the developmental needs of their infant were found to be m ore responsive to the infant. Rozum ah’s study on a sample of 60 Malay m others with children aged 8 to 9 years lends support to this finding. The study revealed significant and p ositive r e la tio n s h ip s am o n g p a re n tin g knowledge, quality of stimulation in the hom e, and ch ild ren ’s academ ic perform ance. The findings seemed to imply that m others with a higher level of parenting knowledge have a better insight into how to provide stimulation conducive to their ch ildren’s developm ent than m others with a lower level of knowledge.

Many sociological and psychological theories have suggested that the parent-child relationship is one o f the strongest social ties available to individuals, and has im portant implications for the p aren t’s behaviour, attitudes, values and adjustments (Um berson 1989). Based on his study on 1502 parents, Um berson concludes tha t a positive paren t-ch ild re la tionsh ip is beneficial to paren ts’ psychological well-being, for it can enhance paren ts’ self-confidence in performing their parenting tasks. Langenbrunner and Blanton (1993) interviewed 15 m others and fathers regarding their level of satisfaction in

their parent-child relationship. They found that parents with children who displayed affection to them and engaged in frequent verbal transaction with them , expressed higher levels o f satisfaction in their relationship with their children. Such positive parent-child in teraction will enable parents to perceive themselves as efficacious parents.

Thus, the literature reviewed indicates that paren ts’ perception of their paren ting efficacy is influenced by various factors em bedded within th e c o n te x t in w h ich th e p a re n t-c h ild re la tio n sh ip is evolving. In line with past research and theory, the following hypotheses were tested in the study:

1. Respondents with a higher level of education are m ore likely to have a h igher level of perceived parental efficacy.

2. Respondents with a h igher level of family incom e are m ore likely to have a higher- level o f perceived parental efficacy.

3. Respondents with fewer children are more likely to have a h igher level of perceived parental efficacy.

4. R espondents who received be tte r quality parenting during childhood are m ore likely to have a h igher level of perceived parental efficacy.

5. Respondents who experienced a higher level of satisfaction in their parent-child relationship are m ore likely to have a higher level of perceived parental efficacy.

6. Respondents with a h igher level o f parenting knowledge are m ore likely to have a higher level of perceived parental efficacy.

METHODSampleThe research sample consisted of 118 parents from Subang Jaya, Selangor, who were identified via the ir S tandard Five ch ild ren using the stratified-randomized selection procedure. O f the 5 primary schools in Subang Jaya, two schools w ere se lec ted at ran d o m -S ek o lah R endah Kebangsaan Subang Jaya and Sekolah Rendah Kebangsaan Sri Subang Jaya. From these two schools, 25 parents were random ly recruited through the cohort of all the 16 classes of S ta n d a rd Five c h ild re n . F rom th e 400

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & H um. Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998 15

Rozumah Baharudin and Jan Lai Mun

questionnaires distributed to the children, only 161 were returned to the researchers. However, only 118 of the 161 questionnaires were complete and usable.

Data CollectionA bilingual (Malay and English) questionnaire was used as a tool for data collection. The questionnaire was taken hom e by the children, com pleted by either of the children’s parents, and returned to the school after 3 days. The pretested questionnaire consists of 2 parts, the first focusing on the family social context variables (i.e. family background and parenting factors) and the second focusing on perception of parental efficacy.

The family background measures included age, gender, race, marital status, num ber of years of formal education completed, occupation, family income (total income of respondent and spouse) per m onth, and num ber of children in the family.

The paren ting factors included in the analysis comprised three measures: quality of parenting received as a child (QPC), satisfaction with parent-child relationship and parenting knowledge.

The QPC was measured using a modified version of Simons et aV s (1992) supportive parenting scale. The scale consists of 7 items that focus on various com ponents of supportive parenting, for example, concern, communication and assistance. An example of an item included in the scale is: “How often did your parents talk to you about what was going on in your life during your childhood days?” The response format for each item on the scale is 1 ‘never’, 2 ‘sometimes’ (3 out of 10 occurrence), 3 ‘often’ (6 out of 10 occurrence) and 4 ‘very often’ (9 out of 10 occurrence). The total score on the scale is achieved by adding the scores of all 7 items. Scores attainable by the respondents ranged from 7 to 28. A high score on the scale indicates high quality parenting received by the respondent as a child, and vice-versa. Cronbach alpha for the scale was found to be 0.89.

The parent-child relationship scale (PRS) assesses parents’ satisfaction with their relationship with their children. The scale consists of 5 items adapted from Simons et aV s (1993) relationship satisfaction scale and U m berson’s (1989) parent- child rational quality scale. Each item was rated on a four-point scale, from 1 (strongly disagree)

to 4 (strongly agree). A sample item is, “Has being a parent to your child been an enjoyable experience?”. Possible scores on the scale ranged from 5 to 20. Parents with high scores were considered to be experiencing a high level of satisfaction in the ir re la tionsh ip with the ir children. Reliability assessment of the scale yielded an alpha coefficient of 0.88.

The parenting knowledge (PK) scale measures the extent to which parents understand the effect of their caregiving behaviour on the developm ent o f th e ir c h ild ren . T he scale comprises 5 items (3 positive and 2 negative) adapted from Simon et al.'s (1993) parental influence scale and Rozum ah’s (1995) parenting knowledge scale. Examples of items on the scale are:(i)« Parents’ behaviour largely determ ines a

child’s self-concept (e.g. self-image o f a child) (positive).

(ii) Parents should treat their children like adult so that they can m ature quickly (negative).

The response for each item on the PK scale ranged from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). Positive items were recorded so that higher scores indicated a higher level of parental knowledge. Scores attainable by the respondents on the scale ranged from 5 to 20. A high score on this m easure ind icates a high level o f parenting knowledge. Cronbach alpha for the study sample was calculated to be 0.48.

The Perception of parental efficacy (POPE) scale was designed to measure two aspects o f paren t perception on effectiveness or efficacy-parent’s perceived contingency and perceived im portance of extrafamilial influences (Luster 1985). The instrum ent has 7 items (3 positive and 4 negative) with responses ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (4). Examples of positive and negative items are:

(i). The way children turn ou t has m uch to do with how their parents raised them (positive).

(ii). Success in bringing up a child has m uch to do with luck (negative).

The 3 positive items were recorded so that h ig h e r scores in d ica ted a h ig h e r level o f perceived efficacy. The highest score attainable on the scale is 28, and the lowest possible score is 7. High scores indicate a high level of perceived parental efficacy. C ronbach’s alpha of the scale was calculated to be 0.48 for the study sample.

16 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Factors Related to Perception o f Parental Efficacy

RESULTSDescriptive AnalysisTable 1 displays the descriptive statistics of the sample, including the family social context variables and perception of parental efficacy. Seventy-eight of the respondents were fathers, and the rest (40) were mothers. A majority (54.2%) of the respondents were Malays, with Chinese (33.1%), Indians (11.9%) and others (0.8%). The age of the respondents ranged from 33 to 56 years with a m ean o f 41.8. Nearly all (96.6%) of the respondents were m arried at the time of the study. On average (50%), they com pleted secondary level (mean = 13.8 years, SD. = 3.9) education. The m edian of the total family income per m onth of the respondent was RM4548, and the m ean was RM5338 (SD. = RM4583). The average num ber o f children in the family was 3.5 (SD. = 1.6), and the range was from 1 to 12.

As p resen ted in Table 1, the re sp o n d e n ts ’ scores on the QPC ranged from 7 to 26, with a m ean o f 16.2 (SD. = 4.6). Most (71.4% ) of the resp o n d en ts scored betw een 10-20 po in ts on the QPC scale. Only a small p ercen tage (20 .2% ) o f th e re s p o n d e n ts se e m e d to experience high quality p a ren tin g as a child . N evertheless, the responden ts tend to indicate th a t they have a high level o f satisfaction in th e ir re la tionsh ips with th e ir own ch ild ren . Most o f the resp o n d en ts achieved high scores (>15) on the PRS scale. T he PRS scores of the resp o n d en ts ranged from 5 to 20, and the m ean was 17.4 (SD. = 2.7). M ore than ha lf (56.9%) o f the re sp o n d en ts were also found to have a high level o f p aren ta l know ledge. T he ir average scores on the PK scale was 15.8 (SD. = 1.9), and the range was from 8-20. The re sp o n d e n ts ’ scores on the POPE ranged from 12 to 27, with a m ean o f 20.7 (SD. = 3.1). A large p ro p o r tio n (56.8% ) o f the respo n d en ts ten d to perceive them selves as having a high level o f p aren ta l efficacy (see Table 1).

Test of the HypothesesT he P earson p ro d u c t-m o m e n t c o rre la tio n analyses were conduc ted to de te rm ine the relationships between the independen t and the dependent variables as stated in hypotheses 1-6 presented earlier. Table 2 presents the results of the correlational analyses. T he correla tions

TABLE 1Descriptive statistics o f respondents and study

variables (n = 128)

n %

GenderMale 78 66.1Female 40 33.9

RaceMalay 64 54.2Chinese 39 33.1Indian 14 11.9Other 1 0.8

Age<40 34* 29.340 - 50 80 69.0>50Mean: 41.8 SD: 4.4

2 1.7

Marital StatusMarried 114 96.5Divorced 3 2.5Widowed 1 0.8

EducationHSC or below 59 50.0Diploma 18 15.3Bachelor’s degree 24 20.3Master’s degree 8 6.8Ph.D. degree 2 1.7Other professional qualification

7 5.9

Mean: 13.8 years SD: 3.9 years *

Monthly Family Income (RM)< 1000 22 16.61000 - 5000 82 68.7>5000Mean: 5,338 SD: 4,583

14 14.7

Number of Children<4 68 57.64 - 6 46 39.0> 6Mean: 3.5 SD: 1.6

4 3.4

QPC Scores< 10 10 8.410 u 20 84 71.4>20Mean: 16.2 SD: 4.6

24 20.2

PRS Scores< 10 3 2.510 u 15 19 16.0> 15Mean: 17.4 SD: 2.8

96 81.5

PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & H um. Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998 17

R ozum ah B aharudin an d Jan Lai M un

Table 1 (continued)

PK Scores< 10 2 1.610 u 15 49 41.5> 15 67 56.9Mean: 15.8SD: 1.9

POPE Scores< 10 0 0.010 u 20 51 43.2>20 7 56.8Mean: 20.7SD: 3.1

Note SD. = standard deviation. * Age of 2 respondents was not reported.QPC scores = quality o f parenting received during childhoodPRS scores = parent- child relationship satisfactionPK scores = parenting knowledgePOPE scores = perception of parental efficacy

were found to be in the expected direction. However, the size of the correlation coefficients was small to m oderate in m agnitude. At the bivariate level, only th ree of the six hypotheses were supported (see Table 2). Family incom e (r = 0.17, p < .05), parent-child relationship satisfaction (r = 0.23, p < .05) and paren ting knowledge (r = .32, p < .05) are positively and s ig n if ic a n tly c o r r e la te d w ith p a r e n t s ’ perception o f efficacy. However, p aren ts’ level of education and num ber of ch ildren in the family and quality of parenting received during ch ildhood are u n re la ted to p ercep tion o f parental efficacy. The results o f the bivariate correlational analyses therefore suggest that parents with a h igher family incom e perceived themselves as m ore efficacious com pared to parents with a lower family incom e. Similarly, p a re n ts with h ig h e r sa tisfac tion in th e ir relationships with their ch ildren and who have greater knowledge in paren ting scored h igher on the POPE scale.

TABLE 2Correlation between family social context variables

and perception of parental efficacy (n = 128)

Family Social Context r SignificanceLevel

Education 0.08 0.19Monthly family incmoe 0.17 0.04Number of children -0.08 0.18QPC 0.09 0.15PRS 0.23 0.01PK 0.32 0.01

NoteQPC = quality o f parenting received during

childhoodPRS = parent- child relationship satisfactionPK = parenting knowledgePOPE = perception of parental efficacy

4

To examine the com bined effect of the family social context (family background and parenting factors) on the outcom e of interest, and to identify which of the variables uniquely predicted the perception of parental efficacy when other variables are controlled, multiple regression analysis was perform ed. All o f the in d e p e n d e n t v a riab le s w ere e n te r e d simultaneously in the analysis. In this way the percentage of variance accounted for by each of the variables could be determ ined.

Overall, the m ultip le regression m odel perform ance is modest, F (6, 111) = 3.112, p < .05 (see Table 3). All of the regression coefficients were in the expected direction except education (see Table 4). Table 4 also shows results o f the beta weights on the regression analysis o f p e rc e p tio n o f p a re n ta l efficacy. P a re n ta l knowledge was found to be the only significant predictor of perception of parental efficacy when o th e r family social co n tex t variables were controlled. The six family social context variables m anaged to explain only 14% of the variance in the POPE scores.

TABLE 3Overall regression of perception of parental efficacy

Source DF Sum of Squares

MeanSquares

R R 2Sig- F

RegressionResidual

6111

161.07607957.54258

26.846018.62651

.37 .14 .007

Total 117 1118.6186

18 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Factors Related to Perception o f Parental Efficacy

TABLE 4Regression analysis on perception o f parental efficacy

Variable B SE B Beta T SigT

Education -0.023208 0.074742 .029207 -0.311 0.7568Familyincome

8.874890 6.274704 0.131549 1.414 0.1600

Number of children

-0.162979 0.173521 -0.083196 -0.939 0.3496

QPC 0.039099 0.061056 0.057898 0.640 0.5232PRS 0.104368 0.109724 0.93885 0.951 0.3436PK 0.449027 0.158502 0.276860 2.833 0.005Constant 11.561212 2.628782 4.398 0.000

Note.QPC = quality of parenting received during childhoodPRS = parent-child relationship satisfactionPK = parenting knowledge

DISCUSSIONThe results of the present study on 118 parents with c h ild re n in p rim ary schoo l p rov ide information on the relationships between several factors within the family social context and perception of parental efficacy. The study found that at the bivariate level, family income is related to perception of parental efficacy. Parents with a higher family income perceived themselves as having a h ig h er level o f pa ren ta l efficacy com pared to those with lower family income. This finding is consistent with earlier research on parenting and parental efficacy (Luster and Kain 1987; McLyod 1990). Luster and Kain found that parents from high income families perceived themselves as m ore efficacious, while those in the lower incom e group saw themselves as incapable of influencing the developm ent of their children. In addition, parents with financial strain experience greater em otional stress which could affect their ability to paren t effectively McLyod (1990). This inability may, in turn, affect parents’ perception on their efficacy.

P a re n t-c h ild re la tio n sh ip s , like o th e r relationships, are in terdependen t and reciprocal (Anderson and Sabatelli 1995). The present study found a significant correlation between parent- child relationship satisfaction and perception of parental efficacy. Parents who are satisfied with the relationship they have with their children tended to perceive themselves as efficacious. This finding is consistent with findings from a large body o f literature (e.g. Um berson 1989; Cheng et al 1991; L angenbrunner and Blanton

1993; Simons et a l 1993). These studies found that parents who are happy and satisfied with the relationship they have with their children perceive themselves as being able to control the developm ental outcom es of their children. A healthy p aren t-ch ild re la tio n sh ip may also enhance parents’ confidence in perform ing their parental role. As Bigner (1994) noted, the parent- child relationship is the most significant and intimate relationship among humans. This special bond can be one of the most fulfilling of hum an experiences and a challenging opportun ity for personal growth and developm ent for an adult.

Knowledge of child development is indeed an im portant asset for parents. Results from the co rre la tio n al analyses show th a t p a ren tin g knowledge is positively and significandy related to parental efficacy. After the effects of other family social context variables were statistically controlled, parenting knowledge was also found to uniquely predict parents’ perception of their efficacy. This finding parallels those of past studies (e.g. Parks and Smeriglio 1986, Rozumah 1995), which indicated that parents with a higher knowledge of child development provide better quality child rearing than those with lower knowledge. Thus the findings tended to suggest that parents who are more conversant with parenting tended to have a better insight into their efficacy.

Based on the results, the present study concludes that several factors within the family social c o n te x t may in f lu e n c e a p a r e n t ’s perception of his or her parenting efficacy. These

19Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. Sc H um. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Rozumah Baharudin and Jan Lai Mun

factors include family background characteristics (such as family income) and parenting factors (such as parent-child relationship satisfaction and parenting knowledge). Findings from this study have implications for family practitioners, family counsellors, family-life educators and those who work with parents. In particular, findings from this study will help those working with parents to consider the impact of family social context on parenting and parental efficacy. For example, parents with low socio-economic status may experience different stresses from high socio­econom ic status parents. Thus, the kind of intervention or parenting education program m e offered to these two groups must be appropriately designed to their needs and circumstances. Appropriate strategies will encourage parents to perform their child-rearing tasks effectively; in this way perception of efficacy would be positively influenced.

The interactional processes evolving within the family system, especially between the parent and ch ild subsystem , can shape p a re n ts ’ perception of their ability to influence the developmental outcomes of their children. Family developm ent agents may, therefore, need to encourage parents to engage in positive and stimulating interaction with their children. Such healthy interaction would bring happiness and satisfaction to both parent and child. Parents who experience a high level of satisfaction in their relationship with their children will likely perceive themselves as more efficacious than parents with a low level of satisfaction.

As in previous studies, findings from the present study emphasize the im portance of know ledge in c h ild b e a r in g an d ch ild development. Parenting education programmes should be made available to all parents regardless of their socio-economic status. Such programmes can create awareness am ong parents of the su b s tan tia l in f lu e n c e o f ca reg iv in g on d ev e lo p m en t. P a re n ts who a re m o re knowledgeable will realize that they can control the way their children turn out.

T he p resen t study was subject to the limitations of a self-administered questionnaire. Future research may include a similar study using the interview techn ique so tha t the respondents’ perception of their efficacy could be better described. The significant contribution of parenting knowledge to parental efficacy found in the present study underscores the

im p o rtan ce o f m ore w ork on th is fro n t. Furtherm ore, the low internal reliability obtained on the parental knowledge scale warrants further investigation.

The parenting role is only one o f the many adult roles. It would be interesting to know how other adult roles such as a spouse, a worker or an employer influence perceived efficacy am ong parents. In addition, child characteristics such as age, gender, and tem peram ental disposition may be of interest to future researchers. Future studies may also com pare the levels of parental efficacy between rural and urban parents, and between parents of different races. An ethnographic study would also fu rth e r expand and refine ou r understanding of the determ inants of parental efficacy.

4

REFERENCESA n d e r s o n , S .A . and R.M. S a b a t e l l i . 1995. Family

Interaction: A Multigenerational Developmental Perspective. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

B a n d u r a , A. 1989. Regulation of cognitive processes through perceived self-efficacy. Developmental Psychology 25(5): 729-735.

B elsk y , J . 1984. The determinants of parenting: A

process model. Child Development 55: 88-96.

B ig n e r ,J .J . 1994. Parent-Child Relations: An Introduction to Parenting, 4th edn. New York: MacMillan.

B la k e , J. 1989. Number of siblings and educational attainment. Science 245: 32-36.

B r o n fe n b r e n n e r , U . (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. MA: Harvard University Press.

B u b o lz , M.M. and M .S . S o n t a g . 1993. Human ecology theory. In Source book of Family Theories and Methods: A Contextual Approach, ed. P.G. Boss, W.J. D o h e r t y , R . L a R o ss a , W.R. Schu m m

and S .K . S t e in m e tz , p. 419-448. New York: Plenum Press.

Cheng, T.C., M.R. T a y lo r and B.H. L a d w ig . 1991. Personal well-being: A study of parents of young children. Family Perspective 25(2): 97-106.

H a n n a n , K .L . and D.J. E g g e b e e n . 1995. Stressful events and changes in the home environment. Family Perspective 29(2): 193-211.

L a n g e n b r u n n e r , M.R. and P.W. B l a n t o n . 1993. Mothers’ and fathers’ perception of satisfaction and dissatisfaction with parenting. Family Perspective 27(2): 179-193.

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L u s t e r , T. 1985. Influence on Maternal Behavior: Child- Rearing Beliefs, Social Support and Infant Temperamental. U n pub lished doc to ra l dissertation, Cornell University.

L u s te r , T. and E.L. K ain . 1987. The relation between family context and perception of parental efficacy. Early Child Development and Care 29: 301-311.

M c L y o d , V.C. 1990. The impact of economic hardship on black families and children: Psychological distress, p a ren tin g , and socioemotional development. Child Development 61: 311-346.

M e n a g h a n , E.G. and T.L. P a r c e l . 1991. Determining children’s home environment: The impact of m aterna l ch aracteristics and c u rre n t occupational and family conditions. Journal of Marriage and the Family 53: 417-431.

O k a g a k i, L. and D.J. D iv e c h a . 1993. Development of parental belief. In Parenting: An Ecological Perspective, ed. T. Luster and L. Okagaki , p. 35-67. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

P a rk s , P .L . and V.L. S m e r ig l io . 1986. Relationship am ong paren ting knowledge, quality of stim u la tion in the hom e and in fan t development. Family Relations 35: 411-416.

R o z u m a h , B. 1995. Parenting knowledge, quality of stim ulation in the hom e and academ ic performance of young children in Malaysia. Paper presented at the 8th Biennial Conference

of Asian Regional Association for Home Economics Association, Jakarta, Indonesia, July 16-18, 1995.

S im o n s , R .L , L .B .W h itb e c k , R.D C o n g e r , and J.N. M e lb y . 1990. Husband and wife differences in determinants of parenting: A social learning and exchange model of parental behavior. Journal of Marriage and the Family 52: 375-392.

S im o n s , R .L ., F.O. L o r e n z , R .D . C o n g e r and C. Wu.1992. Support from spouse as mediator and m oderator of the disruptive influence of economic strain on parenting. Child Development 63: 282-301.

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(Received 4 November 1998)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & H um. Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998 21

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 6(1): 23-29 (1998) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

The Effect o f an Export Levy on the Malaysian Cocoa Industry

MAD NASIR SHAMSUDIN D epartm ent of Agricultural Economics

Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: cocoa, export levy, supply, demand, price

ABSTRAKKajian ini Cuba menerangkan implikasi ekonomi levi eksport terhadap industri koko Malaysia. Keputusan menunjukkan bahawa levi eksport akan menurunkan harga pengeluar dan menaikkan harga eksport. Justru itu pengeluaran dan eksport akan menurun. Penggunaan domestik dan import pula akan bertambah.

ABSTRACTThis study attempts to elucidate the economic implications of an export levy on the Malaysian cocoa industry. The results indicate that the imposition of an export levy would lower producer prices and raise export prices. Hence production and exports would decline. Domestic utilization and imports, on the other hand, would increase.

INTRODUCTIONBearish cocoa prices and escalating production costs have adversely affected the cocoa industry. Cultivated cocoa area has declined at an average annual rate of 12.8% in the past five years. There have been cases of cocoa land being diverted into alternative, and m ore lucrative, crops such as oil palm. Hence production of cocoa beans has declined from 247,000 tonnes in 1990 to 131,475 tonnes in 1995. This reduction in production has caused a shortage of domestic cocoa beans in the m arket for grinding and further downstream activities.

The National Agricultural Policy (NAP) 1992- 2010 id en tified a strong p o ten tia l in the downstream activities as an option to sustain the growth of the cocoa industry. The local utilization rates of cocoa beans are projected to increase from a level of 28.3% (70,000 tonnes) to 45.7% (160,000 tonnes) by 2010 (Ministry of Agriculture 1992).

To ensure a sufficient domestic supply of cocoa beans, the cocoa m anufacturers group is asking the governm ent to impose a levy on the export of local cocoa beans. As the manufacturers would surely benefit from the imposition of the levy, the question arising here is who will have to pay for the levy and how m uch? Will the im porting countries bear the total am ount of

the levy or do the cocoa producers bear a portion of it? Would the in tended gains in domestic grinding through export tax imposition outweigh the expected reductions in production and exports?

Studies by Mad Nasir (1994) on palm oil and Mad Nasir and Mohd. Shahwahid (1994) on sawn tim ber indicate that the export levy reduced the producer prices and in turn the p roducer’s income. Further the levy has also resulted in reduced supply and export levels. As intended, the levy has encouraged domestic utilization owing to its effect of lowering domestic prices.

T his p a p e r a ttem p ts to e lu c id a te the economic implications of an export levy on cocoa beans. This study is useful in that it can indicate to policy makers and industry participants the favourable econom ic im pact or otherwise arising from the imposition of an export levy on cocoa beans, one of the country’s primary commodity exports.

INCIDENCE OF EXPORT LEVYThe distribution o f the burden o f the levy depends on the price elasticities of dem and and supply of cocoa. Fig. 1 provides a graphical ex p o sitio n on th is p o in t. T he free trad e equilibrium is determ ined by the intersection of the excess supply curve ESX with the excess

Mad Nasir Shamsudin

a b c d

Domestic Market Export Market

Fig. 1. The effect of fixed export levy on domestic and export markets

dem and curve ED(R) for the rest of the world. The excess supply is the horizontal difference between S and D, measuring the am ount supplied for export. In this setting, the free trade domesdc and boarder prices are Pr An imposition of a levy can be illustrated by a vertical shift in the excess supply curve from ESj to ES2 by the am ount of the levy. Assuming that the ED(R) curve is not perfectly elastic, this export tax levy pushes up border prices to P3, but depresses domestic price to P2. Thus the new equilibrium price that im porters have to pay, Pv will be higher than the pre-levy price (Pj). However, the price increase (P3-Pj) is less than the am ount of the levy. Thus the burden of the levy will be shared by im porters and producers as well. In the diagram, im porters will bear P3-P1 of the levy, while producers will bear an am ount of Pt- p2.

In the domestic market, at the free trade price Pp the export volume is ad units. Domestic production is Od and domestic consum ption is Oa. The export tax lowers the domestic price to P2, increasing domestic consum ption by ab, but decreasing production by cd. Thus, exports fall to ac.

The ability of the Malaysian producers to shift this export levy forward to im porters

depends on the elasticity of the export dem and, which in turn partly depends on the bargaining strength of the Malaysian producers. The impact on cocoa bean production and export is negative, but the shaded area JEGH is captured by the governm ent as tax revenue. Export quantity is expected to decline from OC to OH after the imposition of the tax. Together with the price reduction received, it is likely that producers will suffer declining income.

METHODOLOGYModel SpecificationsThe specifications of the cocoa beans m arket model follow that of Mad Nasir (1993). The model consists of five behavioural equations and two iden titie s . T he behav io u ra l eq u a tio n s describe the p ro duc tion , exports, dom estic dem and, imports and export price. The identities define the domestic price and stock level of cocoa beans.

Production of Cocoa BeansThe specification of the cocoa supply equation are based on the model developed by Wickens and G reenfie ld (1973). T his m odel is an im provem ent over the m odels developed by

24 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. &: Hum . Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998

T he Effect o f an Export Levy on the Malaysian Cocoa Industry

Nerlove (1958), Bateman (1965), Ady (1968) and Behrm an (1968) in the explicit treatm ent of the tree stock as capital and in constraining the harvesting decision by the existing productive capacity. Following Wickens and Greenfield, the cocoa supply can be specified as:

PRCBt - f (PRCBm, PRCBt2, I P C J (1)

where PRCB = production of cocoa beans (tonnes)

PC = price of cocoa beans (RM per tonne)

T h e p ro d u c tio n o f co co a b ean s is hypothesized to be some function of production lagged by one (PRCBtl) and two (PRCBt2) periods and a distributed lag of cu rren t and past prices.

Demand for Cocoa BeansDemand for cocoa beans is a derived dem and which can be obtained from the solution o f the m axim ization of a p ro fit function . E xport dem and for cocoa beans can be specified as follows:

EXCBt = f (EX PC, W IPT, X C R ) (2)

where EXCB = ex p o rt dem an d fo r cocoa beans (tonnes)

EXPC = export price of cocoa beans (RM per tonne)

XCR = exchange rates (RM /US$) WIPI = world industrial production

index (1980=100)

The price of final products is proxied by the industrial production index as in Yusoff (1988) and Mad Nasir (1993). Since cocoa beans are an interm ediate raw material, it can be expected that if industrial activities are higher, the dem and for cocoa beans would increase. The coefficient of exchange rate variable is expected to be positive. A depreciation of the exchange rate would m ean that cocoa beans are relatively cheaper to foreign buyers, and hence this would increase their dem and.

The domestic dem and for cocoa beans can be specified as follows:

where DDCB

IMPC

MPI

domestic dem and for cocoa beans (tonnes) im port price of cocoa beans (RM per tonne)Malaysian industrial produc­tion index (1980=100)

It is expected that the price of cocoa beans would be negatively related to the quantity dem anded. Since im ported beans are used for b len d in g with local beans, the cross-price elasticity of im port price is anticipated to be negative. The quantity dem anded should be positively associated with the econom ic activity o f the processing sector which is represented by the industrial production index.

In case of im port dem and for cocoa beans, its specification is similar to that o f export dem and, and may be specified as follows:

IMCBt = f(IMPC , MPIt, X C R ) (4)

where IMPC = im port of cocoa beans (tonnes)

Price of Cocoa BeansFollowing Hwa (1979), Tan (1984) and Mad Nasir (1993), the price equation can be expressed as:

EXPCt = f (STCB, WPC, EXPC J (5)

DDCBt = f (PC, IMPCt, MPI() (3)

where STCB = stock of cocoa beans (tonnes) WPC = world price of cocoa

beans (US$ per tonne)

Equation (5) indicates that the export price o f cocoa beans is a function of the stock levels, price in the previous periods and the world price of cocoa beans. The price is expected to have a positive relationship with one-period lagged price, and negative relationship with stock level. In o rder to link the world m arket with the domestic market, the world price o f cocoa beans is incorporated in the price equation, and its coefficient is anticipated to be positive.

The domestic price of cocoa beans (PC) can be obtained as follows:

PC = EXPC - MC - XLVt t t t

where MC = m arketing costsXLV = export levy on cocoa beans

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & H um . Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998 25

Mad Nasir Shamsudin

Closing IdentitiesThe model is closed by the following identities:

STCBt = STCBi ̂ + PRCBt + IMCBt-EXCBt - DDCBt

Data and Estimation TechniqueThe sample period for this study was from 1972 to 1995. The data applied in the analysis were obtained from the D epartm ent of Statistics, Malaysia; Ministry of Primary Industries and In te rn a tio n a l F in an c ia l S ta tis tics o f th e International Monetary Fund. The estimation technique applied to the specified model is the two-stage least squares.

RESULTS

Estimated EquationsThe estimates of the cocoa market model are presented in Table 1. In the production equation, the price of cocoa beans lagged three years is significant at the 1% level, reflecting the impact o f this variable at the time the investment decision was made. The current price of cocoa beans, which represents the harvesting decisions, however, is not an im portant determ inant of cocoa production. The coefficient is, as expected, positive. The coefficient on lagged production is significant at the 1% level, and the adjustm ent coefficient is 0.146, indicating that the adjustment to the equilibrium level is quite low, partly due to the long biological nature of the production process.

The coefficient for the price of natural rubber is negative and significant at the 5% level, suggesting that there is com petition in terms of resources between cocoa and natural rubber.

The estim ates ob tained for the export dem and equation are consistent with a priori expectations. The own price elasticity is 0.344. The industrial production index influences the dem and for many primary commodities such as rubber (Yusoff 1988) and palm oil (Mad Nasir et al 1988). The results confirm the finding by Yusoff and Salleh (1987) that the export dem and for cocoa is inelastic.

The estimated coefficients in the domestic dem and equation have the expected signs. The own price, however, is not significant. The results suggest that im ported beans and local beans are complementary in their usage, as indicated by the negative coefficient of the im port price, and

is significant at the 5% level. The im portation of cocoa beans is desirable for blending to produce prem ium chocolate products.

The results of the im port dem and equation ind ica te th a t the im p o rt p rice , in d u stria l production index and exchange rates are all significant determ inants of the im port dem and for cocoa beans. The elasticity with respect to im port price is 0.464.

The estimated coefficients in the export price equation all carry the expected signs. The price flexibilities with respect to stock levels and world prices are 0.005 and 0.579 respectively. The coefficients on lagged prices indicate that the adjustm ent of price to achieve equilibrium is relatively fast. The results are consistent with the findings by Hwa (1979) that changes in primary com m odity prices are de te rm ined by stock disequilibrium, and the speed of price adjustment tow ard eq u ilib rium is genera lly faster for a g r ic u ltu ra l c o m m o d itie s th a n in d u s tr ia l commodities.

Effects of Export LevyThe estimated model is simulated over a 20-year period, without and with the export levy. For this exercise, a duty of 20% of export price of cocoa beans is assumed. The average simulated values of the endogenous variables, w ithout and with export duty, are presented in Table 2.

The imposition of an export levy means that producers will receive a smaller share of world prices. It is found that the imposition o f an export levy of 20% lowers producer prices by an average of 14.4%, and raises the export price by 3.9%. This means that producers have to bear the burden of 70.5%, and im porting countries bear the burden of 29.5% of the 20% levy of export prices. Thus the outcom e o f the levy falls mainly on the producers ra ther than the foreign buyers. This is expected since the domestic price is basically determ ined by the world market, which in turn is influenced by the global factors such as supply, dem and and stock levels.

As the export price becomes relatively higher with the imposition of export duty, a resultant decrease in exports is expected. Exports o f cocoa beans decrease by an average of 0.6%. Production also declines, at 6.4% due to lower domestic prices. The domestic utilization and imports, however, increase by an average o f 0.8% , respectively, since the domestic price of cocoa beans is lower with the imposition o f export

26 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998

TABLE 1 Estimated structural equations

T he Effect o f an Export Levy on the Malaysian C ocoa Industry

ProductionPRCB, = 14967.791 + 0.296 PC + 0.659 PC,, + 1.089 PC,2 + 1.588 Pc ,

(0.973) (1.526) (2.524) ' (3.219)'

+ 2.153 PC,4 + 2.787 PC,., - 196.18 RSS1,3 + 0.854 PRCB,, (2.503) (1.834) (-2.137) " (17.801)

R2 = 0.992 h = -0.014

Export DemandEXCB, = -73283.372 - 5.536 EXPC, + 81.385 WIPI, + 14501.225 XCR

(-2.262) (16.940) ' (1.408)

R2 = 0.975 D.W. = 2.014

Domestic DemandDDCB, = -11193.923 - 0.559 PC, - 1.578 IMPC, + 0.729 MPI,

(1.265) (2.323) (9.272)

R2 = 0.858 D.W. = 1.740

Import DemandIMCB, = 2207.72 - 0.030 IMPC, + 0.003 MPI, - 847.241 XCR

(-2.789) ' (2.884) ' (-4.392)

R2 = 0.936 D.W. = 1.883

Export PriceEXPC, = 656.639 - 0.0014 STCB, + 1.894 WPC, + 0.281 EXPC,,

(-0.081) ' (11.660) ' (3.367)

R2 = 0.970 h = 0.495

Note: Numbers in parentheses are t-values.

TABLE 2Average simulated values of endogenous variables without and with export duty

VariablesWithout export

dutyWith export

duty % Change

Production (t) 159,633.59 149,382.72 - 6.4Export (t) 117,362.24 116,640.79 - 0.6Domestic utilization (t) 41,655.01 41,983.87 0.8Imports (t) 504.32 508.31 0.8Export price (RM/t) 4488.03 4662.86 3.9Domestic proce (RM/t) 4096.06 3507.32 -14.4

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & H um . Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998

Mad Nasir Shamsudin

duty. The increase in imports is due to the com plem entary relationship between im ported and local beans for blending to obtain the desired flavour and colour o f cocoa products.

CONCLUSIONIn light of the prevailing low cocoa bean prices, the imposition of an export duty as an instrument to d iscourage exports, and sim ultaneously encourage domestic downstream activities, should not be recom m ended since it will further lower the domestic prices and hence production. Furthermore, due to the inelastic export demand, the effect on exports is only marginal. While it is recognized that the domestic grinding and downstream activities should be encouraged, o ther strategies should be sought to overcome the problem of shortages of the local supply of cocoa beans.

One such strategy is production efficiency through labour-saving and land-augm enting technology. Like the palm oil and rubber industries, the cocoa industry is facing labour scarcity problems, i.e. the land /labour ratio is high. Labour productivity as such can be raised significantly by adopting m odern technologies w hich will s im u ltan eo u sly im prove lan d productivity.

The progress in tree mechanization has hitherto been relatively slow. Universiti Putra Malaysia has conducted studies on mechanized cocoa pod breaking, cocoa seed separation, ferm entation and an integrated roasting system. With increasing shortage and rising cost of labour, there is a need to intensify research in this area. C o llabo ra tion betw een research institutes and o ther agricultural engineering organizations abroad, as well as with local universities, is desirable in order to develop a su itab le tech n o lo g y fram ew ork fo r m ore mechanized intensive operations in the cocoa industry.

To date, there is still a wide disparity between estates and sm allh o ld ers’ yield. The po o r perfo rm ance o f the sm allho lder sector is a ttribu ted to non-optim um production and marketing practices and financial constraints. Farm m anagem ent practices are still much below the reco m m en d ed ones. T hus ag ronom ic management to improve the smallholder farming system must be emphasized to improve yield. An inventory to determ ine technology transfer and adoption among smallholders and factors that

influence technology adoption should also be undertaken.

Harvesting, postharvest, ferm entation and drying practices can influence cocoa yield. Harvesting must be done at right maturity. The use of sharp knives to harvest the fruits and uniform harvest intervals should be practised. Care should be taken to ensure that the beans are not damaged during pod splitting, and the infected and healthy beans are separated. If pod storage is practised, the pods should be kept as dry and aerated as possible by placing them in the shade for not more than nine days. Cocoa beans which have undergone spreading and pod storage before ferm entation would have a higher recovery rate (around 40%) com pared to those which are ferm ented immediately after harvest {33-35%). Drying under the sun or at 50-60°C if using an artificial dryer will ensure that the resultant beans are plum p and the shells are easily loosened during the winnowing process. Proper drying also decreases the percentage of double and clump beans. During secondary processing, the level and efficiency of roasting, grinding and winnowing processes m ust be controlled to minimize the percentage o f waste (nib in shell, dust).

The transfer of technology model in Malaysia still follows the traditional approach which was in troduced in the 1950s. In this approach, technology is created at the research institutes and transferred to the target audiences. Such an approach does not consider the differences among the farmers in a specific locality in terms of farm size, education level, age, manpower, capital and the like. Not only does this result in only the ’resource rich’ farmers adopting the recom m ended technology but in a generally low level of adoption.

While efforts in agricultural p roduction research and extension are vigorous, it appears that m arketing and m arketing extension have not been fully emphasized and developed in the past. In the chain of agricultural development, marketing in general (and m arketing extension in particular) appears to be the weakest link. This lack of emphasis on m arketing extension has been due to greater attention being given to o ther aspects of farming, lack of suitably trained personnel and the complexity of the marketing system. Thus it is very timely that marketing extension should be emphasized not only to producers but also to m arketing interm ediaries

28 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

T he Effect o f an Export Levy on the Malaysian Cocoa Industry

to obtain better quality of beans and returns and hence production.

The efforts of the Malaysian Cocoa Board and the D epartm ent of Agriculture to jointly embark on a program m e to rehabilitate the smallholding sector are very timely. Together with the on-going rehabilitation program m e undertaken by the estates, the productivity is anticipated to increase and will partially offset the p ro d u c tio n loss th ro u g h red u c tio n in hectarage.

REFERENCESAdy, P. 1968. Supply functions in tropical agriculture.

Oxford Institute Statistical Bulletin 30: 157-188.

B a te m a n , M.J. 1965. Aggregate regional supply functions for Ghanaian cocoa 1946-62. Journal of Farm Economics 47: 384-401.

B eh rm a n , J.R. 1968. Monopolistic cocoa pricing. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 50: 702-719.

Hwa, E.C. 1979. Price determination in several international primary commodity markets: A structural analysis. IMF Staff Papers 26: 157-188.

Mad N a s ir , S. 1993. The effect of import liberalisa­tion of cocoa beans on Malaysian cocoa industry. Borneo Review 4: 97-111.

M a d N a s i r , S. 1994. The effect o f expo rt liberalisation on Malaysian palm oil industry'. A Business, Economic, Technological and Educational Exchange. In Proceedings of Pan- Pacific Conference XI, ed. S.M. Lee, O. Chaiprawat and A. Chintakananda. p. 338-340. Bangkok, Thailand.

Mad N a s ir , S. and O. Mohd. Shahwahid. 1994. Economic impact of export levy on sawntimber in Peninsular Malaysia. In Opportunities and Constraints in Downstream Woodbased Industriali­sation, ed. O. Mohd. Shahwahid, p. 81-94. C entre for A gricultural Policy Studies, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia.

M a d N a s ir , S., Z .A . M o h a m e d and M .A . F a tim a h .

1988. Selected factors affecting palm oil prices. Malaysian Journal of Agricultural Economics 5: 20- 29.

M in is tr y o f A g r i c u l t u r e M a la y s ia . 1992. The National Agricultural Policy 1992-2010.

N e r l o v e , M . 1958. The Dynamics of Supply Estimations of Farmers' Response to Price. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press.

T a n , C.S. 1984. World rubber market structure and stabilization: An econometric study. In World Bank Staff Commodity Paper No. 10.

W ic k e n s , M.R. and J.W r. G r e e n f ie ld . 1973. The econom etrics of agricultural supply: An application to the world coffee market. Review of Economics and Statistics 55: 433-440.

Y u s o f f , M. 1988. Malaysian natural rubber market model. Pertanika 11: 441-449.

Y u s o f f , M. and M. S a l l e h . 1987. The elasticities of supply and demand for Malaysian primary com m odity exports. Malaysian Journal of Agricultural Economics 4: 28-41.

(Received 16 September 1998)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & H um. Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998 29

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 6(1): 31 -42 (1998) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Sourcing Practices o f Manufacturers in the Malaysian Electronics and Electrical Products Industry

SAMSINAR MD. SIDIN and NG GEK CHENG D epartm ent of M anagem ent and M arketing

Faculty of Economics and M anagem ent Universiti Putra Malaysia

43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: sourcing, vendor, electrical and electronics industry

ABSTRAKObjektif utama kajian ini ialah untuk mengenalpasti amalan pembekalan dalam industri lektrik dan elektronik di Malaysia. Hasil kajian mendapati pembuat bergantung kepada pembekal tempatan untuk bahan pembungkusan, bahan bercetak, alat logam, dan bahan kimia, tetapi tidak untuk ‘chassis’ televisyen dan alat perakam video. Hasil kajian juga mendapati harga, penghantaran keluaran dan kualiti adalah tiga faktor utama yang dipertimbangkan dalam pemilihan vendor. Pembuat pada keseluruhannya adalah lebih berpuashati dengan vendor luar negara dan adalah agak berpuashati dengan vendor tempatan untuk aspek syarat pembiayaan, penyelenggaraan dan perkhidmatan lepas jualan. Untuk lebih bersaing, adalah disarankan untuk pembekal tempatan mengutamakan penyelidikan dan pembangunan, kualiti keluaran dan perkhidmatan yang baik.

ABSTRACTThe main objective of this study was to identify the sourcing practices currently followed in the electrical and electronics products industry in Malaysia. The findings show that the manufacturers rely on local vendors for material inputs for packaging printed material, metal parts and chemicals but not for TV and VCR chassis. The study also found that price, product delivery and quality are three major factors considered in the selection of vendors. The manufacturers are in general more satisfied with non-local vendors, and are quite satisfied with the local vendors’ financing terms, maintenance and after-sales service. To be more competitive, it is suggested that local vendors emphasize research and development of their products. Local vendors also need to focus on product quality and consistently maintain good service.

INTRODUCTIONThe m anufacturing industry of electrical and electronics products forms the largest sector of Malaysian exports (Ministry of Finance). In view of this, the Malaysian governm ent developed the Industrial Master Plan 1986-1995 (IMP) to ensure that the industry is able to produce a wide range of electrical products for both the export and dom estic m arkets. T he governm ent is also im plem enting the O utline Perspective Plan 2 (1991-2000) and Vision 2020 to m aintain the country’s high export growth rate while reducing im port dependency.

The electronics and electrical p roducts in d ustry are th e lead in g in d u stry in the manufacturing group; in 1994, it contributed 26.6% to the to tal o u tp u t. T he e lectrical ap p lian ce sub -secto r, w hich in c lu d es air-

co n d itio n e rs , h o u seh o ld re fr ig e ra to rs and washing machines, contributed about 40% of the electrical products industry’s ou tput and exports. The o u tpu t of the electronics and electrical products industries expanded by 19.4% during 1994 com pared with 15.3% in 1993. Semi­conductors and o ther electronics com ponents expanded by 21.5%. In the electronics industry, semi-conductor devices accounted for 58% of the total output.

Electronics and electrical products were still Malaysia’s single largest foreign exchange earner in 1994, contributing 48.6% of the total Malaysian exports (Fig. 1). The export of these products grew by 39.4% in the first half year of 1994. This is an even more impressive export growth than the 32.2% growth registered at 1993, contributing 62.7% of the total export value of m anufactured

Samsinar MD. Sidin and Ng Gek Cheng

4.80%0.30% 5.30%

I Electrical and electronic product

8 Textiles, clothing and footwear

j Other manufactured goods

I Crude oil

| LNG

□ Tin

1^1 Timber

IE Palm oil3 Rubber

^ Rubber

fj Other commodities

Fig 1. Malaysian export structure, 1994(Source: Malaysia Economic Report 1994/95)

goods. There was a strong export growth in a line of products ranging from telecommunications to electronic household goods with exports of television receivers and sound recorders increasing by 38.1% and 61% respectively. With the recovery of the US economy and the continued strong growth in other Asia Pacific countries, dem and for consumer electronics has risen.

Since the 1970s, the electronics industry h ad b e e n d o m in a te d by th e e le c tro n ic com ponents sector, accounting for 80-85% of the sectoral output. In view of this, the Industrial M aster P lan (IM P) re c o m m e n d e d its restructuring by giving emphasis to the consumer and industrial electronics sectors. Realizing the lim itations o f the sector and the need to strengthen its structure, the electronics industry should diversify into the production of a wider range of electronic products to create more effective forward and backward linkages. In line with this, a num ber of strategies have been adopted. O ne of these strategies is to foster the developm ent of supplier and support industries for the electronics industry and thereby increase linkages and local content.

In Malaysia, some of the material inputs used by the electronics and electrical products

industry were completely obtained from local supp liers . E lec tron ic co m p o n en ts such as resistors, connectors, capacitors, diodes and ICs were obtained from both overseas as well as from local sources. Those which were im ported were usually custom designed and m anufactured for a particular consum er electronics product.

R esearch on th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f the electronics and electrical products industry is crucial to assess the competitiveness of local vendors com pared with the non-local vendors. Currently, the competitiveness of local vendors in this industry is still not satisfactory as most of the inputs are still im ported from overseas. Further developm ent is needed to increase the competitive advantage of the local vendors of electronics and electrical com ponents in Malaysia.

INDUSTRY LINKAGESAccording to Dicken (1992), a country’s economy can be developed th rough the creation of linkages between m ultinational corporations (MNCs) and the country’s small and medium size industries (SMIs). In most countries there are several advantages to be gained as a result of

32 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Sourcing Practices o f Manufacturers in the Malaysian Electronics and Electrical Products Industry

direct links between MNCs and indigenous firms. The advantages are: i) such links are the most sign ifican t m eans by w hich techno logy is transferred, additional employm ent created and opportunities increased for the form ation of new local industries; ii) the inter-firm linkages can act as a very im portant channel through which technological change is transm itted as a result of the placem ent of orders with indigenous suppliers for materials or com ponents which must m eet stringent specifications; iii) linkages can also in c rease th e co m p e titiv en ess o f indigenous firms in broader markets as a result of the experience gained, provided, of course, that the indigenous firms are not tied exclusively to a specific MNC customer; iv) a pool of local firms may be increased as the dem and created will lead to the em ergence o f new dom estic firms. Additional employment will also take place to meet the dem and of the firms acting as suppliers to the MNCs whose activities have expanded because of the linkages; v) additional employment may also be created to m eet the demands of firms involved in providing ancillary services such as transport and distribution to the MNCs.

Linkage formation between MNCs and local firms is, therefore, a key channel through which host countries can hope to gain meaningful and lasting benefits from the operations of MNCs. Ensuring the occurrence of beneficial linkages is a strategy that must be followed if the host country hopes to establish in d ep en d en t ind igenous manufacturing enterprises that are able to compete in the international market place.

M oham ad N azari (1993) r e p o r te d a significant occurrence of linkages between the foreign electronics MNCs and local SMIs in Malaysia. These are in the forms of local sourcing of com ponent parts, tools, equipm ent, general services and the awarding of sub-contract jobs. The factor encouraging the formation of linkages is the capability of some local suppliers to satisfy the MNCs in terms of costs, quality and delivery. However the role of MNCs in helping to prom ote econom ic developm ent in the host country through the local sourcing of com ponents and o th e r su p p lie s is, on th e w ho le , q u ite d isappo in ting . As such, it is im p o rtan t to continuously conduct further studies in this area to enable a proper, up-to-date and accurate assessment to be made. Local vendors have to adopt new technologies, acquire new skills and generally upgrade their capabilities to encourage

MNCs to buy from them. In o ther words, the crucial factor which is being considered by the MNCs is w hether local sourcing will contribute towards their long term competitiveness and profitability.

Strong and viable ancillary and supporting sectors are crucial for further developm ent of the electrical and electronics products industry in Malaysia, especially when the industry is displaying impressive growth potentials. The high rate o f grow th will also offer trem endous opportunities for local SMIs, which must be aware that to be competitive and profitable in the electronics industry, they may be forced to reduce their m anufacturing costs and increase efficiency. O ne of the most im portant ways for them to achieve their goals is by increasing the am ount of capital, equipm ent, spare parts as well as com ponent input sourced locally.

THE ELECTRICAL PRODUCTS INDUSTRYIn th e 1960s, w ith th e e s ta b lish m e n t o f manufacturing projects for the import substitution of household appliances, electrical fittings, wires and cables and automotive batteries, the electrical products industry was started in Malaysia. All the projects were undertaken through jo in t ventures with foreign partners. This industry has grown dramatically over the years and now is supplying the domestic market with a wide range of products. Furthermore, many companies have ventured into the export m arket and some projects have been established primarily for exports.

The electrical products industry can be divided into:• Electrical appliances• Wires and cables• Dry cells and batteries• Electric lamps and tubes, and• O ther electrical apparatus and supplies.

In 1994, the electrical products industry’s output was worth about RM6.7 billion. However, Malaysia is still a net im porter of electrical goods and the 1994 im ports were valued at RM9.0 billion. Currently, Malaysia’s main im port is electrical industrial equipm ent. The exports of electrical products in the same period were worth RM6.1 billion. The growth of the electrical products industry is forecasted to be mainly in the industrial equipm ent sector in line with the continued progress in the industrialization of the Malaysian economy.

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. Sc Hum . Vol. 6 N o. 1 1998 33

Samsinar MD. Sidin and Ng Gek Cheng

THE ELECTRONICS INDUSTRYMalaysia’s electronics industry started in the 1970s when the government shifted its emphasis from an import-substitution to an export-oriented strategy to prom ote Malaysia’s industrial development. At that time, structural changes were taking place in the electronics production sector in the USA, Western Europe and Japan. The industries in those countries needed to adjust very quickly to the competitive international market and, inevitably, to locate some of the operations to lower cost production centres overseas. Malaysia was considered to be an ideal location. In order to welcome this opportunity, Malaysian Government established an attractive investment climate by establishing the special 10- year pioneer status for the electronics industry, offering a huge pool of low-cost trainable labour, the establishment of free trade zones (FTZs) and also licensed manufacturing warehouse facilities.

The electronics industry can be divided into three broad sub-sectors:• Electronics components• Consumer electronics• Industrial electronics.

The export-oriented electronics industry has developed rapidly to become one of the Malaysia’s major industrial sub-sectors within the manufacturing sector and a significant contributor to the country’s economy in terms of manufacturing, employment and exports. Malaysia has becom e one of the largest semiconductor producers and exporters in the world. Exports of electronic products were valued at RM66.4 billion in 1994 compared with RM13.1 billion in 1988. In 1994, the electronics exports constituted 55.2% of total manufactured exports (RM 120.2 billion). Malaysian electronics industry exports are expected to continue to contribute substantially towards exports, employment and manufacturing value-added in the future.

VENDOR DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMEThe vendor development programme (VDP) for the electronics and electrical products industries was established in 1992. By 1995, fourteen (14) companies were involved in this programme, with 34 m ultinational (mostly Japanese) companies acting as the anchor companies.

The VDP was established to help market the products produced by the SMIs in Malaysia. Also, with the establishment of this programme,

more SMIs will be involved as vendors to larger, multinational companies which act as the anchor companies to the SMIs, increasing industry linkages. It is hoped that SMIs will be given opportunities to be more competitive as a supplier of electronic and electrical com ponents. Consequently, these companies will be the supporting companies to the industry, leading to a more active involvement in local as well as international business.

Two issues in the programme faced by the Malaysian government are technical ability and transfer of technologies. The SMIs are not ready to develop their own technologies and have to depend on the anchor companies for technical capabilities. The SMIs are, however, encouraged to get co-operation from relevant government agencies to enhance their technical capabilities.

In general, the VDP has been successful in promoting local SMIs as vendors to MNCs in the electrical and electronics products industries in Malaysia. With technical and financial assistance from the MNCs, relevant government agencies, and the banks, the local SMIs should gain their confidence and be better prepared to capture the local and international markets.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVEThe study on the type of material inputs used by these companies and the dependency on local vendors in sourcing material inputs for consumer electronics m anufacturers and com ponents manufacturers will help investigate current sourcing practices in the electronics and electrical products industries in Malaysia. This is essential, particularly for the future developm ent of electronics and electrical industry linkages in Malaysia. The findings of the study will present one important aspect of the issue of linkages, namely, the sourcing or procurement practices and the dependency on material inputs by the electronics and electrical products industry in Malaysia. The study also aims to find out which attributes are being used by the electronics and electrical products industries in selecting their suppliers/vendors and also to evaluate their performance in the eye of the buying companies.

Specifically, the research objectives are:• to determine the sourcing of and dependency

on material inputs by the electronics and electrical products industry in Malaysia,

• to evaluate the performance of local and non-local vendors, and

34 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Sourcing Practices o f Manufacturers in the Malaysian Electronics and Electrical Products Industry

• to find out the major factors used in the selection of local vendors in the electrical and electronics products industries.

METHODOLOGYSources o f D ata

Primary data were used in this study. Data were collected through mail questionnaire and personal interview with the purchasing and /o r production m anager of com panies in the electronics and electrical products industries in Malaysia. The mailing list was obtained from the Directory o f Electronics and Electrical Manufacturers (MIDA 1993) and also the D irectory o f M an u fac tu rers in M a la y s ia (F ederation of Malaysian M anufacturers 1994).

Questionnaire Design

The questionnaire was designed to indicate the different types of material inputs used by the sam ple. T he re sp o n d e n ts in d ica ted the proportion used by using the following scale: 1 = 0%, 2 = 1-20%, 3 = 21-40%, 4 = 41-60%, 5 = 61-80%, 6 = 81-99% and 7 = 100%. The questionnaire also m easured the sam ple’s dependency on local vendors in sourcing material inputs. The scale used was the five-point Likert scale from “rely very m uch” to “do not rely at all”. Finally, to find out the importance of attributes and the attributes used to evaluate the performance of local and non-local vendors, the scale used was a five-point Likert scale ranging from “very im portant” to “not important at all” for importance of attributes and “very good” to “very poor” for indication of performance.

Sampling

The sampling frame was all the electronics and electrical products com panies in Malaysia. However, most companies were from Selangor, Penang, Kedah, Perak and Malacca, as most of these companies are situated on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. All the samples were randomly selected.

D ata Collection

The survey questionnaires were mailed to companies identified earlier in the sampling process. Follow-up letters were sent twice to remind the organization to reply. As the response rate using the mail questionnaire was very poor, data were also collected using structured interviews with the relevant managers.

D ata Analysis

Collected data were checked for missing variables, and coded and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). The results were analysed and in te rp re ted through descriptive statistics by using frequency counts, percentage, means and standard deviation.

FINDINGSThe characteristics of respondents are shown in Table 1. A majority of the organizations are

TABLE 1 Characteristics o f Respondents

Characteristic Frequency Percentage

LocationKedah 7 13.2Perak 1 1.9Penang 10 18.9Klang Valley 34 64.2Malacca 1 1.9

Total 33 100.0

Year o f Establishment1990-1995 20 37.31985-1989 14 26.41980-1984 2 3.81975-1979 3 5.7Before 1975 8 15.1Missing cases 6 11.3

Total 53 100.0

Number o f EmployeesFewer than 99 18 34.0100-199 4 7.5200-299 4 7.5300-499 7 13.2More than 500 16 30.2Missing cases 4 7.5

Total 53 100.0

Sales 1994 (RM million)Less than RM10 15 28.3RM 10-49 17 32.1RM59-99 7 13.2RM 100-199 3 5.7More than RM200 3 5.7Missing cases 8 15.1

Total 53 100.0

Product TypesElectronics products 21 39.6Electronics components 10 18.9Electrical products 8 15.1Others 13 24.5Missing cases 1 1.9

Total 53 100.0

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998 35

Samsinar MD. Sidin and Ng Gek Cheng

located in the Klang Valley and were established about 10 years ago. The structure of the sample indicated that the majority of the organizations had fewer than 99 employees (34%) or more than 500 (30%). More than half the companies had a sales turnover of less than RM49 million; 39.6% produced electronics products, 18.9% produced electronics components and 15.1% produced electrical products.

Table 2 indicates the sourcing pattern for m aterial in p u t in consum er electronics. Generally, packaging, mechanical components and electronics components are the three most popular types of material inputs used by the firms. Almost all packaging material input needed is sourced locally. Approximately 41- 60% of the input requirements for mechanical components are sourced locally. However, more electronics components were imported than obtained locally.

Also, it can be seen that besides material inputs, packaging, material inputs for printed material, stamped metal parts, cable harnesses and finishing were also obtained locally. Almost all material inputs for VCR chassis were imported.

Table 3 shows the pattern of sources for material inputs by component manufacturers. Chemicals, packaging, copper wire and cables and metal parts were the most frequently cited material inputs used. For chemicals and copper wire and cables almost equal proportions were obtained locally and imported. On the other hand, alm ost all packaging m aterial was obtained locally. Relatively more metal parts were obtained locally, such as solderings, PCBs, insulators, plastic bobbins, DC cords, reflector caps and anode assembly. On the other hand, mould compounds, dies, ferrite core, lead frames, gold wire and silicon ingots were imported.

TABLE 2Sourcing of material inputs by consumer electronics manufacturers

Type of Material

Input

Number of Firms

CostContribution

(Mean)*

Proportion Obtained

Locally (Mean)

ProportionImported

(Mean)

Proportion Obtained In-House

(Mean)

Packaging 29 2.71 6.00 2.06 1.38

Mechanicalcomponents

25 3.60 4.17 3.67 1.15

Electronicscomponents

23 3.83 3.53 4.80 1.40

Printedmaterials

16 3.00 5.86 2.27 1.33

Mechanisms 15 2.57 2.93 1.93 1.00

Stamped metal parts

14 3.91 5.08 2.27 1.00

Cable harnesses 10 2.38 5.38 6.00 1.00Other plastic parts 9 3.33 4.14 3.80 2.75Speakers 6 2.25 3.00 3.18 1.00Body parts 5 3.33 2.80 3.75 1.00Finishing 4 4.00 6.25 1.00 3.50TV chassis 3 N /A 1.00 3.50 2.67Picture tubes 3 N /A 1.00 3.50 2.67VCR chassis 2 N /A 1.00 6.00 3.50

Note: The percentages for cost contribution, proportion obtained locally, imported and obtained in-house are categorized into seven categories. The scale used is as follows: 1 = 0 % 2 = 1-20% 3 = 21-40% 4 = 41-60% 5 = 61-80% 6 = 81-99% 7 = 100%. The mean scores were calculated from this scale.N /A = Data not available

36 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Sourcing Practices o f Manufacturers in the Malaysian Electronics and Electrical Products Industry

TABLE 3Sourcing of material inputs by components manufacturers

Type of Material

Input

Number o f Firms

CostContribution

(Mean)*

Proportion Obtained

Locally (Mean)

ProportionImported

(Mean)

Proportion Obtained In-House

(Mean)

Chemicals 19 2.71 4.50 4.15 1.00

Packaging 18 2.47 6.25 2.13 1.00

Copper wire 14 2.75 4.92 4.40 1.00and cables

Metal parts 14 3.45 5.78 4.00 2.60

Electronic 12 3.63 4.44 4.64 2.17components

Mould 10 3.22 4.00 6.00 3.75compounds

Precision 9 2.70 4.29 4.50 2.50plastics

Mechanical 9 3.17 4.14 3.43 2.33components

Soldering 9 2.00 6.38 2.00 1.00

PCBs 8 2.00 6.75 3.67 1.00

Dies 8 3.60 4.00 5.80 2.75

Plastic casings 7 3.20 4.50 3.33 1.00

Insulators 7 2.00 5.67 2.80 1.00

Plastic 6 2.00 5.00 2.75 1.50bobbins

Transformers 6 2.50 4.17 3.33 1.00

Ferrite cores 5 3.00 4.75 6.00 1.00

Lead frames 5 3.00 3.00 5.50 1.50

Gold wire 4 2.33 4.00 5.25 1.00

Silicon ingots 3 4.50 2.50 7.00 1.00

El cores 2 3.00 5.00 3.00 2.50

DC cords 2 2.00 6.00 3.06 1.00

Reflector caps 1 N /A 1.00 3.50 2.67

Anode 1 N /A 7.00 1.00 1.00Assembly

Note ; The percentages for cost contribution, proportion obtained locally, imported and obtained in-house are categorized into seven categories. The scale used is as follows: 1 = 0% 2 = 1-20% 3 = 21-40% 4 = 41-60% 5 = 61-80% 6 = 81-99% 7 = 100%. The mean scores were calculated from this scale.N /A = Data not available

Table 4 shows that the consumer electronics manufacturers relied on local vendors for supplies for the packaging of the products, followed by the supply of printed materials, mechanical components, other plastic parts, and stamped metal parts. The table also shows that manufacturers in the consumer electronics

industry do not rely on local vendors at all for the supply of picture tubes, TV chassis and VCR chassis.

The dependence on local vendors for the supply of material inputs by the component manufacturers is shown in Table 5. As can be seen from this table, the sources of supply vary.

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Samsinar MD. Sidin and Ng Gek Cheng

TABLE 4Consumer electronics manufacturers’ dependency on local

vendors in sourcing material input

Type of Material Input Mean SD Rank

1. Packaging 1.70 .91 1

2. Printed materials 2.38 1.47 2

3. Mechanical components 2.69 1.20 3

4. Other plastic parts 2.83 1.53 4

5. Stamped metal parts 2.84 1.61 5

6. Electronics components 3.11 1.25 6

7. Cable harness 3.12 1.58 7

8. Finishing 3.25 1.58 8

9. Mechanisms 3.32 1.46 9

10. Body parts 3.64 1.50 1011. Speaker 4.46 1.13 1112. Picture tube 4.86 .38 1213. TV chassis 5.00 .00 1314. VCR chassis 5.00 .00 14

Note: 1 = Rely very much SD = Standard deviation 5 = Do not rely at all

TABLE 5Components manufacturers’ dependency on local

vendors in sourcing material inputs

Type of Material Input Mean SD Rank

1. Metal parts 2.08 1.31 12. Chemicals 2.24 1.09 23. Packaging 2.55 1.41 34. Plastic casings 2.56 1.24 45. Mechanical components 2.70 1.06 56. Copper wire and cables 2.76 1.35 67. Mould compounds 2.80 1.48 78. Electronic components 2.88 1.36 89. Plastic bobbins 3.00 1.70 9

10. Dies 3.00 1.58 1011. Insulators 3.20 1.55 1112. Ferrite cores 3.22 1.56 1213. PCBs 3.30 1.57 1314. Soldering 3.36 1.50 1415. Transformers 3.38 1.06 1516. Precision plastics 3.45 1.44 1617. Gold wire 3.50 1.64 1718. Lead frames 4.00 1.31 1819. El cores 4.00 1.73 1920. DC cords 4.00 2.00 2021. Reflector caps 4.00 2.00 2122. Silicon ingots 4.20 1.30 2223. Anode assembly 4.50 1.00 23

Note: 1 = Rely very much SD = Standard deviation5 = Do not rely at all

Pertanika]. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Sourcing Practices o f Manufacturers in the Malaysian Electronics and Electrical Products Industry

Local vendors were sought for the supply of metal parts, chemicals, packaging, plastic casings, mechanical components, copper wire and cables, mould compounds, electronic components, plastic bobbins and dies. However, the manufacturers do not rely on local vendors for the supply of inputs for silicon ingots and anode assembly.

An analysis was also conducted to determine the importance of several key performance

attributes of local and non-local vendors and the performance of local and non-local vendors based on several key attributes. As shown in Tables 6 and 7, the manufacturers consider product quality the most important attribute. The manufacturers also consider delivery dates and p roduct re liab ility . L ooking at the p erfo rm an ce o f local vendors in these attributes, it can be said that the manufacturers

TABLE 6Differences between expectation and performance of local vendors

Attributes Importance1 Performance2 Differences3

1. Delivery dates 1.29 2.31 -1.022. Product quality 1.16 2.38 -1.223. Product reliability 1.41 2.31 -0.904. Price 1.53 2.04 -0.515. Financing terms 2.27 2.42 -0.156. Experience 1.98 2.56 -0.587. Service 1.60 2.11 -0.518. Technical knowledge 1.86 2.50 -0.649. Maintenance 2.14 2.30 -0.16

10. Reputation 2.16 2.54 -0.3811. After-sales service 1.96 2.25 -0.29

Notes:1: Importance of attributes in selection o f vendors (1 = very important, 5 = not

important at all)2: Performance o f local vendors (1 = very good, 5 = very poor)3: Differences (positive = satisfaction, negative = dissatisfaction)

TABLE 7Differences between expectation and performance o f non-local vendors

Attributes Importance1 Performance2 Differences3

1. Delivery dates 1.29 2.44 -1.152. Product quality 1.16 1.75 -0.593. Product reliability 1.41 1.85 0.444. Price 1.53 2.60 -1.075. Financing terms 2.27 2.38 -0.116. Experience 1.98 1.77 0.217. Service 1.60 2.41 -0.818. Technical knowledge 1.86 1.73 0.139. Maintenance 2.14 2.22 -0.08

10. Reputation 2.16 2.02 0.1411. After-sales service 1.96 2.54 -0.58

Notes:1: Importance of attributes in selection o f vendors (1 = very important, 5 = not important at

all)2: Performance of non-local vendors (1 = very good, 5 = very poor)3: Differences (positive = satisfaction, negative = dissatisfaction)

PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998 39

Samsinar MD. Sidin and Ng Gek Cheng

TABLE 8Factors motivating organizations to use local vendors

Factors Considered Mean SD Rank

1. Costs 1.34 .52 1

2. Product delivery 1.38 .60 2

3. Product quality 1.51 .74 3

4. Inventory 1.91 .89 4

5. Foreign exchange 1.91 1.03 56. Company policy 2.09 1.01 67. Distance 2.15 .99 78. Requirements 2.18 .95 8

Note: 1 = very important SD = standard deviation5 = not important at all

are, in general, not satisfied with their perfor­mance on product quality, delivery dates, and product reliability. However, the manufacturers are quite satisfied/happy with the local vendors’ financing terms, maintenance, and after-sales service. As for the non-local vendors, the m anufacturers are quite satisfied with the vendors’ technical knowledge, reputation, experience and product reliability. Overall, the manufacturers seem to be more satisfied with the non-local vendors.

Table 8 indicates that cost is the most important factor that motivates manufacturers in the electrical and electronics products industries to use local vendors. Almost equally important is the delivery and quality of products.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONSFig. 2 shows the summary of findings from this study. There are several conclusions that can be derived from the findings. First, manufacturers in the electronics and electrical products

ProductDelivery

Price ProductQuality

Local1. Packaging2. Printed materials

\Imported

1. TV chassis2. VCR chassis

ISatisfied

1. Financing terms2. Maintenance3. After-sales service

Not Satisfied1. Product quality2. Delivery dates3. Product reliability

Satisfied1. Technical knowledge2. Reputation3. Experience

Not Satisfied1. Delivery dates2. Price3. Service

Fig 2. Sourcing of inputs and factors considered in the selection of vendors in the electrical and electronics industry

40 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Sourcing Practices o f Manufacturers in the Malaysian Electronics and Electrical Products Industry

industry rely on different vendors for different and specific types of inputs. The study found that manufacturers rely on local vendors for material inputs for packaging, printed material, metal parts and chemicals, but not technical inputs such as TV and VCR chassis. The manufacturers rely on non-local vendors for the supply of materials such as silicon ingots.

The second conclusion is th a t the manufacturers are more satisfied with the non­local vendors than local vendors. For the local vendors, the manufacturers are satisfied with the financing terms, maintenance and after-sales service, but not product quality, delivery dates and product reliability. As for the non-local vendors, the manufacturers are satisfied with their technical knowledge, reputation and experience and are not satisfied with their delivery dates, price and service.

The third conclusion is that product price, delivery and quality are perceived to be the major factors motivating the manufacturers to use local vendors.

From the findings of this study, it may be concluded that Malaysian vendors have not met the m anufacturers’ expectation standards, especially in terms of the factors they consider important. Consequently, the manufacturers are forced to rely on the non-local vendors who are perceived to be better, even though they are not satisfied with the non-local vendors’ delivery dates and price quotes.

One major implication of these findings is that if the local vendors (SMIs) aspire to enjoy the competitive edge, they need to strive to improve their performance. To ensure success in the long run, the local vendors must be able to compete with the better-performing non­local vendors. Therefore, the local vendors should improve their performance in terms of product quality and delivery dates in order to reach the expectation of the manufacturers. To improve the quality of their products, it is suggested that the local vendors emphasize the research and development of the products and be actively involved in vendor development programme in order to gain technology transfer from abroad or financing support from the government.

One of the major attributes considered unsatisfactory for the non-local vendors is the

delivery dates because shipment from abroad takes time due to the long distance. Hence, the local vendors should try their best to supply the products as soon as possible as they already have the advantage of distance. In addition, the product reliability of the local vendors also should be further improved. In order to do that, again they must enhance the product quality and always keep in touch with the manufacturers, give advice and help to the manufacturers when necessary. If they consistently maintain their good service, their reputation would surely improve in the long run.

As for future policy formulation, it is implied from the findings of the study that for local vendors to stay competitive in the future there should be more research and development programmes geared towards enhancing the production of good quality products by the local vendors. There should also be extensive technical training programmes to ensure that the local vendors are aware of new ways and methods to produce good quality and reliable products. The local vendors should be exposed to new technology from the more developed nations that can be adapted for use in the electronics and electrical products industry in Malaysia.

Another major implication of the findings is that the local vendors should be globally oriented, i.e. they should not only think of the domestic market in their dealings. The vendors should start promoting their products outside the country in order to be more competitive in outlook. The government can help encourage this by inviting the local vendors to participate in trade missions and visits overseas. Locally, more trade shows should be conducted to expose and educate the domestic customers of the products and services rendered by local vendors in this industry.

REFERENCESD icken, P. 1992. Global Shift: The Internationalization of

Economic Activity. London: Paul Chapman.

F e d e r a t io n of M a la y s ia n M a n u fa c tu r e r s . 1994. Directory of Manufacturers in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur.

M a la \sla n G overn m en t. 1985. Industrial Master Plan. Kuala Lumpur: National Printing Department.

M alaysian G o v ern m en t. 1991. The Second Outline Perspective Plan: 1991-2000. Kuala Lumpur: National Printing Department.

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998 41

Samsinar MD. Sidin and Ng Gek Cheng

Mida. 1993. Directory of Electronics and Electrical Manufacturers. Kuala Lumpur.

M in istry of F inance. 1994. 1994/95 Malaysia Economic Report. Kuala Lumpur: National Printing Department.

M oham ad N a za r i Ism ail. 1993. Linkages in the Malaysian electronics industry: A survey of sourcing practices among foreign electronics TNCs. Malaysian Journal of Small and Medium Enterprises 4: 72-90.

(Received 23 March 98)

42 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 6(1): 43 - 49 (1998) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Gender Differences in the Boundary Permeability between Work and Family Roles

AMINAH AHMAD Women Studies Unit

Department of Professional Development and Continuing Education

Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Keywords: interrole conflict, work-family conflict, work boundary permeability, family boundary permeability, work interference with family, family interference with work, gender differences

ABSTRAKKajian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan sama ada terdapat perbezaan gender dari segi ketelusan antara sempadan peranan kerja dan keluarga. Dengan mengguna borang soalselidik data dikumpul daripada 250 pekerja. Separuh daripada pekerja terdiri daripada jururawat di sebuah hospital di Selangor, Malaysia dan separuh lagi suami mereka. Kajian ini mendapati tiada bukti bagi perbezaan ketelusan sempadan antara peranan kerja dan keluarga yang menunjukkan bahawa dinamik bagi sempadan antara peranan kerja dan keluarga adalah sama di kalangan wanita dan lelaki. Walau bagaimana pun, responden wanita dan lelaki kedua-duanya melaporkan keija mengganggu kehidupan keluarga lebih daripada kehidupan keluarga mengganggu kerja. Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa sempadan kerja dan keluarga adalah telus secara tidak simetri dengan sempadan keluarga lebih telus daripada sempadan kerja. Implikasi bagi penyelidikan akan datang dibincangkan.

ABSTRACTThe objective of this study is to determine if there are gender differences in the relative permeability between work and family boundaries. Using self-administered questionnaires data were gathered from 250 employees. Half of the employees consisted of nurses working in a hospital in Selangor, Malaysia and another half their husbands. The study found that there was no evidence of gender differences in the permeability of work and family boundaries indicating that’ the dynamics of boundary permeability between work and family roles are similar among females and males. However, the respondents, both females and males, reported that work interfered with family life more than family life interfered with work. These results suggested that work and family boundaries are asymmetrically permeable with family boundaries being more permeable than work boundaries. Implications for future research are discussed.

INTRODUCTIONMore women, including married women, are entering the labour force in Malaysia. Their participation in the labour force has increased from 32.2% in 1970 (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 1973) to 47.1% in 1995 (Malaysia, 1996). The labour participation rate of married women was 58.2% in 1991 compared with 51.2% in 1980 (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 1995). Since women are increasingly occupying both work and family roles simultaneously, they are more likely to experience interrole conflict

invoking incompatible demands from the work and family domains (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985).

Pleck (1977) introduced the notion of asymmetrically permeable boundaries between the life domains of work and family. Boundaries between work and family are asymmetrically permeable to the extent that the interference of demands from one domain into the other occurs with unequal frequency. Work and family boundaries are asymmetrically permeable with family boundaries being more permeable than work if work demands and responsibilities are more likely to interfere with home life than vice

Aminah Ahmad

versa. Pleck (1977) also proposed that there would be gender differences in the pattern of asymmetry. Specifically, he hypothesised that family demands would intrude into the work role more than the reverse among women because they assume primary responsibility for managing home-related demands. Conversely, he posited that work demands would interfere into family role more than the reverse among men because they are more likely than women to take work home and are also more likely to use family time to recuperate from the stresses they face at the workplace.

Since Pleck (1977) introduced the notion of asymmetric permeability of work and family boundaries, only a few studies related to this issue have been conducted. Hall and Richter (1988) did a case study on managing home and work boundaries. Based on their research interviews, Hall and Richter reported that home boundaries were more consistently permeable than work boundaries among both men and women. Hence, their study did not support P leck’s hypothesis that there are gender differences in the pattern of symmetry. Wiley (1987) conducted a study of work-family conflict in which she assessed both the degree to which work interfered with family and the degree to which family interfered with work. Her results revealed that the mean level of work interference with family (M = 2.48) was higher than the mean level of family interference with work (M = 2.13), although Wiley did not test whether this difference was statistically significant. However, the pattern of overall means is consistent with Hall and R ichter’s conclusion that family boundaries are more permeable than work boundaries.

Frone et al. (1992b) conducted a study to test Pleck’s hypothesis concerning gender differences in the relatively permeability of work and family boundaries. Data were obtained from a randomly drawn community sample of 631 employed adults (278 men and 353 women). Respondents reported that work interfered with family life more frequently than family life interfered with work. These results, which are congruent with previous studies by Hall and Richter (1988) and Wiley (1987), suggest that work and family boundaries are indeed asymmetrically permeable with family boundaries being more permeable than work boundaries. However there was no evidence of gender

differences in the pattern of asymmetry, indicating that the dynamics of work and family boundaries may operate similarly among men and women. This finding was similar to that of Kinnunen and Mauno (1998) who examined the prevalence of work interference with family and family interference with work among 501 employed women and men in Finland. They found that work interference with family was more prevalent than family interference with work among both sexes, and that there was no gender difference in the boundary permeability.

Despite this accumulating evidence, the relative permeability between work and family boundaries has not been adequately explored, and that these studies have been conducted in Western societies. Thus far, literature and studies on work-family interference have mainly relied on assessing interference from work to family (Holahan and Gilbert, 1979; Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985; Good, 1990; Bacharach et al. 1991; Aryee, 1993; Aminah Ahmad, 1995a; 1996a; 1996b; 1996c; 1997) Stephens and Sommer, 1996). Although Frone et al. (1992a) in their study of antecedents and outcomes of work- family conflict, have examined both types of interference, namely, work interference with family and family interference with work, only modest attention has been paid to gender differences in the pattern of asymmetry in the permeability (Wiley, 1987; Hall and Richter, 1988; Frone et al. 1992b; Kinnunen and Mauno, 1998). The main objective of the present study is to test Pleck’s (1977) hypothesis that there are gender differences in the relative boundary permeability between work and family roles, using data obtained from employed Malaysian women and their husbands. Specifically, this research tested the following hypotheses: 1) there is a significant difference between work interference with family and family interference with work among women; 2) there is a significant difference in work interference with family and family interference with work among men; 3) there is a significant difference between work interference with family between women and men; 4) there is a significant difference in family interference with work between women and men. The hypotheses were tested at the 0.05 level of significance.

METHODSample and Procedure

The sample in this present study consists of

44 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. Sc Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Gender Differences in the Boundary Permeability between Work and Family Roles

female nurses working in a government hospital in the state of Selangor, Malaysia, and their husbands. Female nurses meeting the following criteria were identified: (a) married, (b) working full-time, (c) living with spouse who is fully employed, and (d) has at least one child staying with them. These criteria were established to ensure that the women as well as their husbands in the sample had quite similar responsibilities in terms of family and work roles. Using random sampling, from a list of 735 eligible nurses, 300 nurses were selected who form half of the sample size. The other half of the sample consists of 300 husbands of these nurses.

Two sets of self-administered questionnaires (one for the nurse and another for her husband) were distributed to each nurse. The nurses were requested to have their husbands fill in the questionnaires. Out of the 300 pairs of subjects, 242 (81%) nurses and 125 (42%) husbands returned the questionnaires. For analysis, only data from 125 matched pairs were used.

The women in the sample averaged 35.2 years of age (SD = 7.14) while their husbands 37.7 years (SD = 6.74). There was an average of 2.5 (SD = 1.09) children in the family and an average of 2.4 (SD = 1.07) living at home. Fifty- nine percent of the women and 53% of the men earned an average gross income between RM1001- RM1500 per month. Only 16% of the women and 26% of the men earned more than RM1500 per month. Respondents who had children below school going age constituted 68.8%. Only 26.0% reported that they had helpers, other than family members, at home. Respondents who sent their children to child-care centres or babysitters constituted 52.9%.

INSTRUMENTSBoundary permeability between work and family roles was measured using two four-item scales. Four items developed by Kopelman et a l (1983) assessed work interference with family (WIF). Another four items, paralleling the WIF items were developed by Burley (1989) to assess family interference with work (FIW). The response options for both sets of questions or items were five-point scales ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The reliability coefficients (alphas) for the WIF scales were0.73 for the wife and 0.71 for the husband. For the FIW scales the reliability coefficients were0.77 for the wife and 0.65 for the husband.

RESULTSThe means and standard deviations of items measuring WIF and FIW are presented in Table1. The most highly endorsed item measuring WIF was “After work, I come home too tired to do some of the things I’d like to do” for both wives and husbands, mean = 3.41 (SD = 1.14) and mean = 3.05 (SD = 1.18), respectively. The parallel item measuring FIW, “I am often too tired at work because of the things I have to do at hom e” was also the most highly endorsed item for wives, with a lower mean of 2.56 (SD = 1.07). For husbands, all the four item means were moderately low, ranging from 2.13 to 2.23.

Table 2 presents the distribution of wives according to the type of conflict (WIF and FIW7) and the intensities of conflict. Fifty-three (42.4%) of the 125 nurses reported low intensity of WIF. Forty-nine (39.2%) reported medium intensity of conflict while 23 (18.4%) reported high intensity of conflict. For FIW, 92 (73.6%) reported low intensity of conflict, 25 (20.0%) medium, and only 8 (6.4%) high. The mean for WIF on a five-point scale was 2.8. (SD = 0.79), while that for the FIW scale was 2.3 (SD = 0.72) (Table 4).

Fifty-nine (47.2%) husbands reported low intensity of WIF, while 38 (30.4%) reported medium, and 28 (22.3%) high intensity of WIF (Table 3). For FIW, a high percentage of husbands (80.0%) reported low intensity, and only 4 (16.8%) reported medium and 4 (3.2%) high intensity of FIW. The means for WIF and FIW were 2.84 (SD = 0.93) and 2.18 (SD = 0.75), respectively (Table 4).

The WIF means for both wives and husbands were significantly greater than the FIW mean (t = 6.99, p < .05 and t = 7.23, p < .05, respectively) (Table 5). Consequently, the means for the total WIF (wives and husbands) and total FIW (wives and husbands) were significantly different (t = 7.23; p < .05). However the WIF and the FIW7 for the wives did not differ significantly from those of the husbands.

DISCUSSIONThe main objective of this study is to test Pleck’s (1977) hypothesis concerning gender differences in the relative permeability of work and family bou n d aries. C on trary to P leck ’s (1977) hypothesis, however, there was no evidence of gender differences in the relative permeability of work and family boundaries. The present

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998 45

Aminah Ahmad

TABLE 1Means and standard deviations of items measuring WIF and FIW for husbands and wives

Item Husbands (n = 125)

Mean SD

Wives (n = 125)

Mean SD

Work Interference with Family (WIF)

After work, I come home too tired to do some of the things I’d like to do

3.05 1.18 3.41 1.14

On the job I have so much work to do that it takes away time for my family interest

2.62 1.16 2.45 0.99

My family dislikes how often I am preoccupied with my work while I am at home

2.87 1.20 2.64 1.01

My work takes up time that I’d like to spend with my family

2.82 1.19 2.90 1.13

Total WIF 2.84 0.93 2.85 0.79

Family Interference with Work (FIW)

I am often too tired at work because of the things I have to do at home

2.19 1.02 2.56 1.07

My personal demands are so great that it takes away time from my work

2.23 1.25 2.20 0.82

My supervisor and peers dislike how often I am preoccupied with my personal life while at work

2.15 1.04 2.43 0.98

My personal life takes up time that I would Like to spend at work

2.13 0.97 2.02 0.88

Total FIW 2.18 0.75 2.30 0.72

TABLE 2Distribution of wives by type and intensity of conflict

(n = 125)

Type/Intensity of conflict Frequency Percentage

Work Interference with Family

Low (1.0-2.5) 53 42.4Medium (2.6-3.5) 49 39.2High (3.6-5.0) 23 18.4

Family Interference with Work

Low (1.0-2.5) 92 73.6Medium (2.6-3.5) 25 20.0High (3.6-5.0) 8 6.4

46 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Gender Differences in the Boundary Permeability between Work and Family Roles

TABLE 3Distribution of husbands by type and intensity of conflict

(n = 125)

Type/Intensity of conflict Frequency Percentage

Work Interference with Family

Low (1.0-2.5) 59 47.2Medium (2.6-3.5) 38 30.4High (3.6-5.0) 28 22.4

Family Interference with Work

Low (1.0-2.5) 100 80.0Medium (2.6-3.5) 21 16.8High (3.6-5.0) 4 3.2

TABLE 4Means and standard deviations of type of conflict by gender

Type of ConflictGender WIF FIW

Mean SD Mean SD

Females/Wives (n = 125) 2.85 0.79 2.30 0.72Males/Husbands (n = 125) 2.84 0.93 2.18 0.75

TABLE 5Values for the difference in boundary permeability

by type of conflict and gender

Type of conflict/gender df t P

WIF (wives) and FIW (wives) 124 6.99 0.00WIF (husbands) and FIW (husbands) 124 7.23 0.00WIF (wives) and WIF (husbands) 124 0.09 0.93FIW (wives) and FIW (husbands) 124 1.37 0.17

results support a survey study by Frone et al. (1992b), a case study conducted by Hall and Richter (1988), and extend a survey study of work-family conflict conducted by Wiley (1987). The results pertaining to WIF are also in line with those found by Aminah Ahmad (1995b) whose study focussed only on work interference with family.

The study findings also revealed that the nurses and their husbands experienced WIF more than FIW, suggesting that family boundaries are more permeable to work demands than are

work boundaries to family demands. It can be argued that since male and female workers who are in full-time employment spend fewer hours in family work (housework, household maintenance, and child care) than they do in paid work, it is not surprising that both male and female workers would report more WIF than FIW. However, the results of studies conducted by Gutek et al. (1991) and Duxbury et al. (1994) have shown that women reported significantly more WIF than men, even though their number of hours of paid employment was virtually identical.

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998 47

Aminah Ahmad

It has been argued that the results of the studies by Gutek et al. (1991) and Duxbury et al. (1994) can be explained from the gender role perspective, whereby traditional gender roles prescribed different emphases for men and women (work is for men; family is for women). However, the findings of this present study that women and men did not differ in the extent of FIW they experienced could not be explained from this perspective. Hence, the gender role perspective may to a certain extent explain boundary permeability in earlier studies, and Pleck’s (1977) hypothesis may have been valid in previous situations. It appears that in the present situations, the dynamics of boundary permeability between work and family roles may operate similarly among women and men.

With regards to future research, there is a need to study the prevalence of WIF and FIW among women and men at different life-cycle stages. Examining women and men in the different life-cycle stages, particularly in the periods when their children are young, may generate dissimilar results with regard to gender differences in boundary permeability. The findings that men and women experience the same pattern of FIW and WIF may not hold true.

Future research should also exam ine interventions to reduce exposure to the two different types of work-family conflict. For exam ple , o rg an isa tio n s shou ld offer programmes to help their employees cope with interference from work to family and family to work (i. e. flexitim e, re liab le ch ildcare arrangem ents, time m anagem ent courses, sem inars on cop ing s tra teg ie s). Family development practitioners should work together with human resource managers in charge of o rgan isa tional program m es in designing p rogram m es to help wom en and m en, particularly nurses and spouses, cope with the demands of work and family roles.

This study is generalisable to nurses working in government hospitals in Selangor, Malaysia. V alidation of the results across various occupations is suggested for further research.

REFERENCESAminah Ahm ad 1995a. Role conflict and coping

behaviour of married working women. PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 3(2): 97-104.

A m inah Ahm ad 1995b. Work-family conflict among employed parents: Implications on family development education. Paper presented at the 9th Conference of Asian Regional Association for Home Economics, Bangkok, Thailand, 21-26 July.

Am inah Ahm ad 1996a. Interrole conflict among employed married women: Implications on family policies. Journal o f A sian Regional Association of Home Economics 3: 64-69.

Am inah Ahm ad 1996b. Associations of work-family conflict, job satisfaction, family satisfaction and life satisfaction: A study of women secretaries. Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 4 (2): 101-108.

Am inah Ahm ad 1996c. Work-family conflict among married professional women in Malaysia. The Journal of Social Psychology 136 (5): 663-665.

Aminah Ahmad 1997. Work-family conflict and social support: A study of women secretaries in Malaysia. Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 5 (2): 93-102.

A ryee, S. 1993. Dual-earner Couples in Singapore: A n Examination of W7ork and Nonwork Sources of Their Experienced Burnout. Human Relations 12: 1441-1468.

B a c h a r a ch , S.B., P. Bam berger and S. C o n le y . 1991. Work-home conflict among nurses and engineers: mediating the impact of role stress on burnout and satisfaction at work. Journal of Organizational Behavior 12: 39-53.

Burley, K.1989. Work-family conflict and marital adjustment in dual-career couples: A comparison of three time models. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Claremont Gradate School, Claremont, CA.

D ep artm ent of S ta t is t ic s , M alaysia . 1973. General report of the Population Census. Kuala Lumpur.

D ep artm ent of S ta t is t ic s , M alaysia . 1995. General Report of the Population Census. Kuala Lumpur.

M alaysia. 1996. Seventh Malaysia Plan 1996 - 2000. Kuala Lumpur.

D uxbury, L ., C. H ig g in s and C. L ee. 1994. Work- family conflict: A comparison by gender, family type, and perceived control. Journal of Family Issues 15: 449-466.

F rone, M .R., M. R u sse ll and M. L. C oop er. 1992a. Antecedents and outcomes ofwork-family conflict: Testing a model of the work-family interference. Journal of Applied Psychology 77: 65-78.

F ro n e , M .R ., M. R u s s e l l and M. L. C o o p er . 1992b. Prevalence of work-family conflict: Are work and family boundaries asymmetrically permeable? Journal of Organizational Behavior 13: 723-729.

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Gender Differences in the Boundary Permeability between Work and Family Roles

G o o d , K. 1990. Work-family conflict and retail managers’ job attitudes. Home Economic Research Journal 18: 323-335.

G reen h au s, H.H. and N. J. B e u t e l l . 1985. Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academic of Management Review 10: 76-88.

G u tek , B.A., S. S e a r le and L. K lepa. 1991. Rational versus gender role expectations for work-family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology 76: 560- 568.

H a l l , D.T. and J. R ic h te r . 1988. Balancing work life and home life: What can organizations do to help? Academic of Management Executive 2: 213-223.

H o la h a n , C.K. and L. A. G ilb e r t . 1979. Conflict between major life roles: Women and men in Dual-career Couples. Human relations 32: 451-467.

K innunen , R.E. and S. M au n o . 1998. Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict among employed women and men in Finland. Human Relations 51 (2): 157-169.

K o p elm an , R.E., H. H. G r e e n h a u s , and T. F. C o n n o lly . 1983. A model of work, family and interrole conflict: A construct validation study. Organizational Behavior & Human Performance 32: 198-215.

P le c k , J.H. 1977. The work-family role system. Social Problems 24: 417-427.

S te p h e n s , G.K. and M. S. Som m er. 1996. The measurement of work and family conflict. Educational and Psychological Measurement 56 (3): 475-487.

W iley , D.L. 1987. The relationship between work/ nonwork role conflict and job related outcomes: Some unanticipated findings. Journal of Management 13: 467-472.

(Received 28 April 99)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998 49

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 6(1): 51 -61 (1998) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Latihan Sebagai Strategi Pembangunan Mampan: Satu Kajian Kes

MAZANAH MUHAMAD dan SAIDIN TEH

Jabatan Pendidikan Pengembangan Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan

Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

Keywords: Latihan, pengembangan, penyertaan, pembangunan luar bandar, pembangunan mampan.

ABSTRAKSikap, pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang bersesuaian diperlukan bagi membolehkan seseorang membangun sesebuah komuniti dan seterusnya mengekalkan pembangunan tersebut. Di Perlok, sebuah kampung di bawah Projek Pembangunan Pertanian Bersepadu Pahang Barat, keperluan ini cuba dipenuhi oleh agensi kerajaan melalui pelbagai program latihan yang merangkumi kedua-dua aspek: pertanian dan bukan pertanian. Penduduk tempatan menyambut baik usaha ini dengan menyertainya dan memanfaatkan apa yang mereka pelajari. Ke arah kesejahteraan hidup yang seimbang dan berkekalan, penduduk masih terus ingin belajar perkara berhubung dengan pembangunan diri dan masyarakat, di samping teknik dan pengurusan ladang.

ABSTRACTAppropriate attitude, knowledge and skills are required by an individual to develop a community and sustain its development. At Perlok, a village under the Pahang Barat Integrated Agriculture Development Project such needs was effected by the government agency through various agricultural and non-agricultural related training. The local villagers welcomed such endeavor and they have participated and put what they learned into practice. They want to continue learning on matters relating to self and community development as well as farming techniques and management.

PENGENALANSelaras dengan m atlam at kerajaan untuk membasmi kemiskinan, berbagai-bagai program pembangunan dilaksanakan. Di samping itu, pelbagai langkah diambil untuk memastikan kejayaan sesuatu program. Apakah langkah yang diambil ke arah kejayaan dan keberkekalan sesuatu usaha pem bangunan? Artikel ini membincangkan peranan latihan dalam usaha pembangunan di sebuah kampung di Projek Pembangunan Pertanian Bersepadu (IADP) Pahang Barat. Projek IADP dijalankan sebagai langkah kerajaan membangunkan masyarakat luar b an d a r dan m em basm i kem iskinan (Kerajaan Malaysia, 1996).

Berasaskan takrifan “The World Commission on Environment and Development of United Nations” (1987), konsep pembangunan mampan

boleh dilihat sebagai satu proses peningkatan keadaan ekonomi dan sosial sesebuah komuniti dan mengekalkan pembangunan itu bagi jangka masa panjang tanpa menjejaskan sumber semula jadi komuniti tersebut. Albertson et. al (1993) melihat pembangunan mampan juga sebagai satu pem bangunan yang boleh dikekalkan oleh penduduk tempatan. Maksudnya, pembangunan tersebut akan berlanjutan walaupun tanpa input dari luar. Sesuatu usaha pembangunan akan mempunyai lebih potensi untuk dikekalkan jika usaha itu dijalankan sendiri oleh penduduk tempatan (Mazanah dan Saidin, 1996). Ke arah itu, penduduk tempatan memerlukan peluang pem belajaran bagi m em bentuk sikap dan memperolehi pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang bersesuaian. Peluang pembelajaran adalah satu daripada elem en p em bangunan m am pan

Mazanah Muhamad dan Saidin Teh

(Human Development Report, 1992). Peluang ini boleh didapati dalam pelbagai bentuk. Contohnya, Jabatan Pertanian melalui program pengem bangannya m em beri nasihat dan bim bingan kepada petan i. N asihat dan bim bingan diberi kepada petan i dengan m em buat lawatan ke ladang m ereka dan mengadakan kursus-kursus di pusat-pusat latihan pertanian dan juga di kawasan petani tinggal (Mazanah dan Kamaruzzaman, 1988).

Mengikut Johnston dan Parker (1987 ms. 116), “Asas kekayaan sebenar negara ialah rakyatnya, sumber manusia yang dilambangkan oleh pengetahuan, kemahiran dan motivasi. Pendidikan dan latihan adalah sistem asas di m ana sum ber m anusia sesebuah negara dikekalkan dan dipertingkat.” Sesuatu program latihan perlulah menyeluruh dan seimbang antara aspek teknikal (teknologi sesuatu bidang usaha) dengan aspek sosial dan kemasyarakatan. Selain itu, ke arah kesejahteraan hidup, program latihan juga hendaklah sesuai dengan keperluan individu, keluarga dan masyarakat. Jika latihan adalah satu input penting pem bangunan, persoalan yang timbul adalah:1. Adakah peluang tersebut diberikan kepada

penduduk tempatan?2. Bagaimanakah penyertaan mereka dalam

program latihan?3. Mengapa mereka menyertai latihan dan

apakah manfaat diperolehi?4. Apakah saranan lanjut kepada usaha ini?

Artikel ini akan membincangkan persoalan di atas. Ia berasaskan satu penelitian yang dijalankan di Kampung Perlok, Jerantut, Pahang. Kampung ini adalah salah satu kampung yang dibangunkan di bawah projek IADP Pahang Barat.

METODOLOGIMengikut Burgess (1984), kesahihan sesuatu kajian boleh dipastikan melalui “triangulation”, iaitu penggunaan pelbagai kaedah pengutipan data. Bagi tujuan tersebut, maklumat kajian telah dikumpul melalui tiga kaedah: tinjauan, temu bual terperinci dan pemerhatian. Seramai 27 ketua keluarga di Kampung Perlok telah dipilih secara rawak daripada sejumlah 72 ketua keluarga. Penyelidik telah m enem u bual responden dengan menggunakan borang soal selidik berstruktur. Bahagian pertama soal selidik rnengandungi soalan berhubung dengan profil

responden dan aktiviti yang dijalankan oleh mereka. Responden juga diminta melapor semua kursus/law atan yang telah m ereka hadiri semenjak projek IADP dijalankan pada tahun 1985. Bagi setiap kursus/lawatan yang dilapor, responden ditanya tentang tajuk, tahun dihadiri, penganjur, dan keberkesanan kursus/lawatan tersebut. Di bahagain kedua soal selidik, responden disoal secara lebih terperinci tentang em pat daripada kursus/lawatan yang telah mereka hadiri (seperti dilapor di bahagian pertama soal selidik). Soalan yang terkandung di bahagian ini termasuk: bagaimana responden mengetahui tentang kursus/lawatan yang telah mereka sertai, sebab utama mereka menyertai kursus/lawatan, gender majoriti peserta kursus/ lawatan, tindakan yang diam bil selepas m ^nghadiri kursus/law atan, dan tindakan susulan oleh penganjur kursus/lawatan. Di bahagian ketiga soal selidik, responden diminta memberi persepsi mereka secara am tentang manfaat kursus/lawatan yang telah diikuti. Data yang diperolehi melalui soal selidik dianalisis secara deskriptif dengan menggunakan program SPSS untuk Windows.

Mengikut Bogdan dan Biklen (1982), Walker(1985), dan Siedman (1991), maklumat lanjut mengenai sesuatu perkara boleh diperolehi melalui temu bual terperinci. Oleh itu, bagi memahami program latihan di Perlok dengan lebih jelas, penyelidik telah menemu bual secara terperinci sembilan orang informan. Pemilihan informan dibuat secara persampelan ‘purposive! seperti disaran oleh Bogdan dan Biklen (1982) dan Merriam (1991). Tiga orang informan adalah pemimpin kampung, dua pemimpin projek, dan empat orang adalah penduduk biasa. Lima responden lelaki dan empat wanita. Satu set agenda soalan disediakan sebagai panduan temubual. Temu bual direkodkan dalam lapan pita rakaman yang setiap satu panjangnya satu jam. Kesemua kandungan pita telah disalin secara ‘verbatim! ke dalam kom puter. Proses ini menghasilkan 174 muka surat (langkau sebaris) transkrip. Data ini telah dibaca berulangnulang untuk mendapat bukti bagi menjawab persoalan kajian. Untuk menjaga kerahsiaan, nama sebenar informan tidak digunakan di dalam artikel ini.

Pemerhatian adalah salah satu kaedah yang sesuai digunakan untuk memahami dengan lebih jelas bagaimana sesuatu proses berlaku (Marshall dan Rossman, 1989, Jorgensen, 1990). Oleh itu penyelidik telah membuat pemerhatian pada

52 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Latihan Sebagai Strategi Pembangunan Mampan: Satu Kajian Kes

satu kursus sehari yang sedang dijalankan di Perlok. Penyelidik juga telah memerhadkan lapan orang ahli kumpulan wanita Perlok membuat sos cili untuk dijual. Teknik pemprosesan mereka pelajari pada kursus yang dijalankan di sana. Data yang dikutip melalui pemerhatian dicatat sebagai nota lapangan.

DAPATKAN DAN PERBIN CAN GANBahagian ini melapor dan membincangkan hasil kajian iaitu aspek profil kawasan kajian dan responden serta perkara berkait dengan penyertaan mereka dalam program latihan seperti: (1) peluang yang diberikan kepada penduduk tempatan, (2) penyertaan mereka dalam program tersebut, (3) sebab penyertaan dan manfaat diperolehi dan (4) saranan lanjut kepada usaha ini.

Latar Belakang Kawasan dan Responden

Kampung Perlok terletak dalam Mukim Ulu Cheka, Jerantut, Pahang. Ia meliputi sebuah kawasan seluas 900 hektar, di mana 380 hektar merupakan kawasan perumahan dan kemudahan awam dan selebihnya adalah kawasan projek pembangunan pertanian. Kampung ini didiami oleh 72 keluarga. Beberapa agensi kerajaan terlibat untuk membantu Perlok membangun. Penglibatan ini menjadi lebih terancang dengan pengwujudan Projek IADP Pahang Barat pada tahun 1985. Projek IADP bertindak sebagai penyelaras bagi kesemua agensi yang terlibat dalam program pembangunan di kampung ini. Agensi tersebut adalah Jabatan Pertanian, Jabatan Perikanan, Jabatan Perkhidm atan Haiwan, Lembaga Pemasaran Persekutuan (FAMA) dan Pihak Berkuasa Kemajuan Pekebun Kecil Perusahaan Getah (RISDA) serta Lembaga P ertubuan Peladang (LPP). Aktiviti yang diselaraskan oleh IADP termasuk perancangan dan pelaksanaan projek, pengagihan subsidi input pertanian dan program latihan serta khidmat nasihat untuk penduduk.

R esponden yang d item u bual te rd iri daripada 23 lelaki dan 4 wanita. A ntara responden lelaki, 22 telah berkahwin dan seorang masih bujang. Responden bujang yang terpilih d ianggap sebagai ketua keluarga o leh keluarganya kerana beliau bertanggungjawab menyara ibu dan adik-adiknya semenjak kematian ayahnya. Kesemua responden wanita adalah janda. Pekerjaan utam a responden adalah bertani. Bidang usaha responden adalah seperti

dijadua! 1. Bidang usaha ini dilaksanakan secara bersendirian dan berkelom pok. Di Perlok, terdapat kelompok koko, pisang, buah-buahan, padang ragut (untuk menternak lembu) dan sayur-sayuran.

JADUAL 1 Bidang usaha responden

Bidang usaha Peratus*

Koko 88.8Pisang 66.6Buah-buahan 59.2Padang ragut 37.0Ternakan ikan 18.5Getah 14.8Padi 11.1

*Peratus tidak boleh dijumlahkan kerana responden terlibat dalam lebih daripada satu bidang usaha

Purata pendapatan responden ialah RM650 sebulan. Pendapatan ini adalah dalam bentuk tunai yang diperoleh daripada jualan ladang dan sebagainya, tidak termasuk hasil pertanian yang digunakan sendiri.

Program Latihan di Kam pung Perlok

Mengikut informan yang ditemu bual, peluang pem belajaran penduduk Perlok d iperoleh daripada agensi pembangunan melalui program pengembangan (khidmat nasihat). Program ini menggunakan dua kaedah utama, tunjuk ajar serta nasihat di ladang dan melalui kursus/ lawatan. Program khidmat nasihat melalui tunjuk ajar di ladang selalunya dijalankan secara tidak formal dan melibatkan petani secara individu atau kumpulan kecil. Apa yang dirujuk oleh informan dan responden sebagai latihan pula ialah kursus yang d ijalankan oleh agen pengembangan dengan secara lebih formal di suatu tempat tertentu (contohnya di balai raya) yang melibatkan kumpulan besar penduduk. Latihan juga merangkumi lawatan sambil belajar ke suatu tempat/projek. Di dalam artikel ini, perkataan latihan dan kursus/lawatan digunakan untuk merujuk kepada perkara yang sama.

Adakah peluang latihan diberikan kepada penduduk tempatan ?

Dalam tempoh yang dikaji, pelbagai latihan dalam bentuk kursus dan lawatan disediakan kepada penduduk Perlok. Kesemua kursus dan

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998 53

Mazanah Muhamad dan Saidin Teh

lawatan yang jalankan dianjurkan sepenuhnya oleh agensi kerajaan. IADP m erupakan penganjur utama kursus dan lawatan di sini (Jadual 2). Ini diikuti oleh agensi komponennya seperti Jabatan Pertanian.

JADUAL 2 Penganjur kursus dan lawatan

Penganjur Peratus

IADP 48.1Agensi Pertanian

Jabatan Pertanian 38.5- FAMA 3.8- RISDA 1.9

Jabatan Perikanan 1.9Jabatan Haiwan 1.9

Institusi lain- INTAN 1.9

PejabatDaerah 1.9

Mengikut majoriti informan (76.9%), mereka mengetahui tentang kursus/lawatan yang telah mereka hadiri daripada pegawai agensi. Dapatan ini menunjukkan di samping menganjur kursus dan law atan, pegawai-pegawai agensi sendiri merupakan sumber maklumat utama sesuatu program latihan. Lain-lain sumber maklumat latihan adalah pemimpin tempatan (17.3%), rakan-rakan (3.8%) dan media massa (1.9%).

Bagaimanakah penyertaan penduduk dalam program latihan ?

Penyertaan responden didapati berbeza dari tahun ke tahun (Jadual 3). Pada tahun 1995, bilangan responden yang menyertai kursus dan lawatan agak tinggi berbanding dengan tahun- tahun sebelumnya. Dari segi jum lah kursus dan lawatan yang telah diadakan pula, tahun 1995 juga menunjukkan angka tertinggi iaitu sebanyak lima. W alaupun tidak te rd ap at perbezaan yang ketara antara jum lah kursus dan lawatan yang diadakan pada setiap tahun, bilangan responden yang menyertainya pula berbeza. Contohnya, pada tahun 1995 sebanyak lima kursus dan lawatan dijalankan dengan disertai oleh 66.6% responden. Pada tahun 1993 pula, cuma 22.2% responden menyertai em p at kursus dan law atan yang te lah dianjurkan pada tahun itu. Perbezaan yang ketara ini disebabkan pada tahun 1995, telah diadakan kursus motivasi yang disertai oleh 48.1% responden.

54 PertanikaJ. Soc. Sci.

JADUAL 3 Kursus dan lawatan yang dihadiri

responden mengikut tahun

Tahun Bilangan kursus 8c lawatan

Peratusmenghadiri

1985 1 3.71986 3 18.51987 1 3.71988 2 7.41990 2 7.41991 4 18.51992 2 7.41993 4 18.51994 4 18.51995 5 66.6

Kekerdpan menghadiri latihan

Jadual 4 menunjukkan kekerapan responden menghadiri kursus dan lawatan dari tahun 1985 hingga 1995. Dalam tem poh te rseb u t, kebanyakan responden (44.4%) menghadiri dua kali latihan. Sebilangan besar (89%) responden pernah menghadiri sekurang-kurangnya satu latihan. Hanya 11% responden sahaja tidak pernah menghadiri sebarang kursus/lawatan. Sebab utama yang diberikan oleh golongan ini ialah mereka tidak diundang atau tidak tahu adanya latihan tersebut. Sebab yang sama dikenal pasti oleh Vanaja dan Mazanah (1995) dalam kajian mereka. Dapatan ini m enunjukkan pentingnya sistem komunikasi yang baik dalam sesebuah komuniti supaya maklumat tentang kursus dan sebagainya dapat diketahui penduduk keseluruhannya.

JADUAL 4Kekerapan responden menghadiri kursus dan

lawatan dalam tempoh sepuluh tahun

Kekerapan Peratus

Tidak pernah 11.1Sekali 18.5Dua kali 44.4Tiga kali 14.8Empat kali dan lebih 11.1

Peserta mengikut gender

Analisis ke atas empat kursus yang dilaporkan secara terpermci oleh responden menunjukan majoriti peserta latihan adalah lelaki (Jadual 5). Dapatan ini adalah berasaskan maklum balas

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Latihan Sebagai Strategi Pembangunan Mampan: Satu Kajian Kes

daripada responden tentang gender majoriti peserta latihan yang dihadirinya. Penyertaan yang tinggi oleh kaum lelaki berbanding dengan wanita adalah kerana kebanyakan latihan yang ditawarkan adalah berhubung dengan teknologi pertanian. Hanya golongan lelaki diundang untuk menyertai latihan yang berhubung dengan teknologi pertanian. Sebagai contoh, kursus Menyimpan Rekod Ladang yang diperhatikan oleh penyelidik cuma dihadiri oleh peserta lelaki. Dapatan ini menunjukkan walaupun golongan wanita turut terlibat dalan aktiviti pertanian, bagi mereka peluang latihan mengenai perkara ini adalah terhad. Jelas Puan Maziah:

Kalau kursus perikanan, semua untuk lelaki. Pada hal macam saya, suami saya kerja. (Apabila) ikan mati-mati di rumah, entah apa sakit peningnya, kita yang di rumah yang perlu menguruskannya.

Oleh kerana suaminya bekerja sepenuh masa, Puan Maziah, seperti juga beberapa wanita lain di Perlok, mengusahakan sendiri projek ikan air tawar. W alaupun beliau terpaksa menangani masalah berhubung dengan usaha ini, Puan Maziah tidak berpeluang mengikuti kursus berkaitan dengan pemeliharaan ikan kerana kursus tersebut cuma terbuka kepada golongan lelaki.

Golongan wanita di Perlok lebih berpeluang mengikuti latihan bukan berkaitan dengan pertanian, seperti penyediaan dan pemprosesan makanan. Kajian ini m enunjukkan peluang latihan dalam bidang pertanian bagi golongan wanita adalah terhad. Dapatan ini adalah konsisten dengan dapatan Airmy et.a l 1991, serta Vanaja dan Mazanah, 1996. Mengikut tiga orang informan wanita, oleh kerana mereka juga terlibat dalam menjalankan aktiviti pertanian, mereka ingin turut diberi peluang belajar perkara berkaitan dengan teknologi pertanian. Perkara ini telah dicadangkan kepada pihak berkenaan:

... (tentang) wanita tak dihantar (kursus dan lawatan) tu, selalu saya cadangkan, saya kata sebab apa, petani bukan laki-laki aje. Petani termasuk kita wanita ni. Dia (lelaki) pergi menoreh getah, kita (wanita) pun menoreh juga. Macam tanam padi, petani lelaki tanam padi, isteri dia orang ikut juga (tanam padi), menghempas padi ke, apa ke, tanam pisang ke, sayur ke,

semua (aktiviti pertanian) isteri masing n masing pergi. Tapi masa buat lawatan, perempuan tak ada langsung nama! (Puan Maziah)

JADUAL 5Persepsi responden tentang gender majoriti

peserta latihan (bagi empat kursus/lawatan yang telah

responden hadiri)

Gender Kursus/ Kursus/ Kursus/ Kursus/majoriti lawatan 1 lawatan 2 lawatan 3 lawatan 4peserta (peratus) (peratus) (peratus) (peratus)

Lelaki 100 94.7 100 100Wanita 0 5.3 0 0

Penyertaan belia dalam latihan

Kesinambungan pem bangunan bergantung kepada golongan belia. M ajoriti (52.4%) responden melaporkan anaknanak mereka yang remaja (golongan belia) juga pernah menghadiri kursus dan lawatan yang di anjurkan oleh IADP. Sebagai generasi pelapis yang bakal mengambil alih peranan ibu-bapa mereka, adalah wajar go longan ini d ibekalkan dengan sikap, pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang bersesuaian.

Jenis latihan yang diikuti

L atihan yang d ih ad iri re sp o n d en boleh dikategorikan sebagai kursus pertanian, bukan pertanian dan lawatan. Dari tahun 1985 sehingga tahun 1995, secara keseluruhannya, 74% responden pernah menghadiri kursus pertanian dan 70.5% bukan p ertan ian (Jadual 6). Responden paling kerap menghadiri kursus yang berkaitan dengan usaha mereka, iaitu bertani. Bagi kategori kursus p e rtan ian , kursus penanam an koko m elibatkan paling ramai responden (25.9%). Dapatan ini adalah konsisten dengan status koko sebagai tanaman utama di Perlok.

Bagi kategori kursus bukan pertanian pula, penyertaan paling tinggi (48.1%) ialah di dalam kursus modvasi yang di adakan di Langkawi. Kursus lain yang turut disertai ialah kepemimpinan, keorganisasian dan pengurusan kelompok. Dapatan ini menunjukkan selain daripada perkara berkaitan dengan teknologi pertanian, aspek pengurusan juga diberi perhattan. Dapatan ini adalah selaras dengan dapatan Ghazali et. a l 1992.

Keupayaan seseorang untuk membangun diri dan masyarakat adalah mustahak. Aspek ini

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Mazanah Muhamad dan Saidin Teh

diberi penekanan melalui kursus motivasi. Bagi pembangunan kerohanian, pengetahuan agama yang m endalam diperlukan. Ke arah itu, mengikut informan, kelas agama fardu ain dijalankan pada setiap minggu di masjid. Sekali- sekala, penceram ah agama dari luar juga dijem put ke Perlok. Penyertaan penduduk tempatan, terutamanya golongan tua dalam aktiviti keagamaan adalah menggalakkan.

Aktiviti lawatan sambil belajar pula telah disertai oleh 48.3% responden. Lawatan tersebut adalah berkaitan dengan projek, seperti projek pertanian di Negeri Sembilan dan Melaka dan projek lembu di Kluang. Lawatan adalah penting untuk memberi pendedahan dan menarik minat peserta tentang teknologi dan amalan baru (Van Den Ban dan Hawkins, 1988).

Mengapa penduduk menyertai latihan dan apakah manfaat diperolehi?

Majoriti responden (70.6%) menyertai kursus dan lawatan atas keinginan untuk mendapatkan pengetahuan (Jadual 7). Ini mencerminkan

mereka mempunyai dorongan untuk membangun diri.

JADUAL 7Sebab responden menyertai kursus dan lawatan

Sebab Peratus

Ingin dapat pengetahuan 70.6Galakan dari pegawai agensi 19.6Arahan dari pegawai agensi 7.8Mengikut kawan 2.0

Kesemua responden m endapati kursus dan lawatan yang mereka sertai berguna bagi mereka. M ajoriti (87.8%) m engam alkan syor-syor diberikan. Keseluruhanya, responden mendapati kursus yang diikuti berguna bagi mereka untuk menjalankan kehidupan seharian, baik bagi mengusahakan projek (seperti koko dan pisang) atau sebagai a h li/p e m im p in k e lu a rg a / masyarakat. Persepsi positif responden terhadap kursus yang telah mereka hadiri adalah seperti dalam Jadual 8.

JADUAL 6Senarai kursus dan lawatan responden dalam tempoh sepuluh tahun

Kategori Tajuk Peratus*

Kursus pertanian Kursus penanaman koko 25.9Kursus buah-buahan 14.1kursus penanaman sayuran 11.1Kursus ternakan ikan air tawar 7.4Kursus pengurusan ladang 7.4Kursus memandu traktor 3.7Kursus pemprosesan koko 3.7

Jumlah 74.0

Kursus bukan Kursus motivasi 48.1pertanian Kursus kepemimpinan 7.4

Kursus keorganisasian 3.7Kursus kraftangan 3.7Kursus pengurusan kelompok 3.7Kursus usahawan 3.7

Jumlah 70.5Lawatan Lawatan ke Pulau Pinang dan Kedah 18.5

Lawatan ke projek lembu di Kluang 14.8lawatan ke Negeri Sembilan dan Melaka 11.1Lawatan ke projek tanaman salak 3.7

Jumlah 48.3

* peratus tidak boleh dicampur disebabkan responden menjawab lebih daripada sekali

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JADUAL 8Pendapat responden tentang manfaat kursus

Kenyataan Setuju (%)

Kursus menambah minat untuk menjalankan projek 100Kursus menambah pengetahuan tentang cara menjalankan projek 100Kursus meningkatkan kemahiran cara menjalankan projek 96.3Kursus memberikan saya kesangupan untuk menjalankan projek 100Kursus membuatkan saya lebih melibatkan diri dalam aktiviti kelompok 77.8Kursus memberi kesedaran tentang tannggungjawab saya kepada keluarga 96.3Kursus memberi kesedaran tentang tannggungjawab saya kepada masyarakat 96.3Kursus memberi kemahiran kepimpinan kepada saya 81.5

Inform an ju g a b e rp en d ap a t kursus telah m em beri kesedaran , p en g e tah u an dan kemahiran kepada mereka. Berikut diperturun sedutan tem u bual untuk m enggam barkan manfaat latihan daripada perspektif informan:

Encik Din mengenai Kursus Pentadbiran:

...kursus ini hasilnya ialah kesedaran. Kesedaran bagi diri sendiri tentang keadaan kita hari ini. Jadi (pada) pandangan saya, kursus yang sem acam ini m em anglah baik.

Encik Abu mengenai Kursus Pembangunan Insan:

Kursus Pembangunan Insan itu menyedarkan diri kita. Hendaklah kita ada kesabaran dan percaya pada diri kita sendiri akan kebolehan diri kita sendiri. Misal kata, kalau kita tak percaya diri kita sendiri, orang kata tanam koko mendatangkan hasil, kita tak percaya kita boleh tanam koko, maka tak jadilah (kita menanam koko).

Encik Badrul mengenai Kursus Kepimpinan:

Cuba kalau saya tak ada pengalaman kursus. Kalau saya dilantik orang mempengerusikan majlis, mungkin saya tak boleh bercakap.

Penyelidik telah memerhati sekumpulan (lapan orang) wanita menyediakan sos cili untuk

jualan. Mengikut mereka, teknik pemerosesan dipelajari daripada pegawai Jabatan Pertanian. Bukti ini menunjukkan melalui pengetahuan dan kemahiran baru, suri rumah di Perlok berjaya m enjad ikan aktiviti pem prosesan makanan sebagai punca pendapatan sambilan.

Apa yang dipelajari daripada sesuatu kursus dan lawatan dimanfaatkan juga oleh orang lain. Contohnya, Encik Badrul telah memanjangkan apa yang dipelajarinya kepada keluarganya:

Apa yang saya perolehi daripada ceramah (agama yang diikutinya), yang penting dan yang saya ingat, saya bawa dan beritahu isteri saya. Dengan anak-anak pula saya pesan, ‘tengok tadi dekat ceram ah tadi apa hukumnya orang tak sembahyang.’ Tiap-tiap saya keluar, begitulah saya akan sampaikan kepada isteri dan anak-anak.

Penyelidik juga telah mengamati satu situasi di mana, melalui satu kursus seorang petani dapat berkongsi apa yang telah dipelajari olehnya dengan petani lain. Kursus Menyimpan Rekod Ladang ini telah dikendalikan oleh Encik Nasir, seorang petani maju di Perlok. Encik Nasir sendiri belajar m enyim pan rekod ladang daripada seorang pegawai pertanian. Beliau mengamalkan apa yang dipelajarinya. Daripada penelitian penyelidik, buku rekod ladang Encik Nasir disimpan dengan sistematik dan terperinci. M engikut beliau, dia dapat m engusahakan kebunnya dengan baik berpandukan syor-syor yang dipelajari daripada latihan dan khidmat nasihat yang diterimanya. Di atas keyakinannya, beliau bersedia berkongsi pengalaman dan memberi bimbingan kepada petani lain di Perlok. Antara yang dibimbingnya ialah beberapa orang anak muda tempatan.

Kebanyakan (64.7%) responden menyatakan ada tindakan susulan selepas kursus seperti pegawai melawat projek yang petani jalankan, memberi maklum balas, dan memberi tunjuk ajar lanjutan (Jadual 9). Tindakan susulan yang diambil oleh pegawai menyumbang ke arah keberkesanan dan kemanfaatan latihan.

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Mazanah Muhamad dan Saidin Teh

JADUAL 9 Tindakan susulan oleh pegawai selepas

responden mengikuti kursus

Tindakan Peratus

Tidak ada tindakan susulan 35.3Melawat ke projek 23.5Memberi maklum balas 19.6Memberi tunjuk ajar lanjutan 19.6Bagi input untuk jalankan projek 19.6

Sesuatu latihan m em beri pendedahan kepada peserta tentang idea atau amalan baru. Masa yang panjang diperlukan untuk seseorang memahami dan seterusnya mengamalkan syor tersebut dengan baik. Proses ini memerlukan tunjuk ajar yang berlanjutan. Tunjuk ajar ini berlaku dalam pelbagai bentuk seperti lawatan ke projek yang dijalankan oleh peserta. Seterusnya, sem asa peserta sendiri cuba mengamalkan sesuatu syor, beliau mungkin menghadapi sesuatu masalah. Jika beliau terus dibimbing dan diberi maklum balas di peringkat ini, proses pembelajaran akan lebih berkesan (Mazanah, 1987). Lawatan susulan yang kerap

juga m em upuk perhubungan baik antara penduduk dengan pegawai agensi.

Apakah saranan lanjut kepada usaha ini?

Majoriti responden (85.2%) melaporkan mereka masih memerlukan latihan di masa akan datang. Jadual 10 menunjukkan senarai kursus yang

diperlukan oleh responden (yang melaporkan masih m em erlukan kursus). Lebih ram ai responden (60.8%) memerlukan kursus bukan pertanian berbanding dengan kursus pertanian. Hampir 19% penduduk di sini menternak ikan air tawar. Walau bagaimanapun, tidak ramai daripada yang terlibat berjaya m endapat keuntungan daripada usaha ini. Di samping masalah mendapatkan benih ikan, mengikut informan, penternak kurang pengetahuan dan kemahiran menguruskan usaha ini.

Hasil pertanian boleh diproses. Oleh itu kursus pascatuai seperti pemprosesan makanan adalah bersesuaian bagi penduduk Perlok. U ntuk mengekalkan pembangunan, pertanian perlu dipelbagaikan. Pengetahuan dan kemahiran mengenai pemiagaan, kraftangan dan sebagainya dapat menyediakan penduduk menceburi usaha lain daripada pertanian. Beberapa orang penduduk telah mula berniaga dan melibatkan diri dalam projek membuat kraftangan daripada rotan.

Di samping kursus berhubung dengan aktiviti sumber pendapatan, kursus lain seperti kursus agama dan kepemimpinan juga masih diperlukan oleh 21.7 % responden. Dapatan ini menunjukkan kesedaran penduduk tentang keperluan ilmu yang boleh menyumbang kepada pembangunan yang menyeluruh; merangkumi aspek ekonomi dan sosial, serta jasmani dan rohani.

Bagi belia pula, responden mencadangkan golongan ini masih perlu dilatih dalam bidang

JADUAL 10 Kursus yang masih diperlukan oleh responden

Kategori kursus Jenis kursus Peratus

Pertanian Kursus ternakan ikan 13.0Kursus tanaman 8c can turn an buah-buahan 13.0Kursus penanaman koko 8.7Kursus penanaman salak 4.3

Jumlah 39.0

Bukan Pertanian Kursus keagamaan 13.0Kursus kepimpinan 8.7Kursus perniagaan 8.7Kursus kraftangan 8.7Kursus pemprosesan makanan 8.7Kursus pengurusan koperasi 8.7Kursus perakaunan 4.3

Jumlah 60.8

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pertanian, perniagaan, mekanik, kraftangan, Bahasa Inggeris, kepemimpinan, dan keugamaan. M engikut responden, antara sebab kursus tersebut perlu bagi belia ialah supaya golongan ini dapat menjalankan projek yang diusahakan dengan jaya dan menjamin masa depan mereka (Jadual 11). Secara keseluruhanya, dapatan ini m enunjukkan pen d u d u k sedar keperluan golongan pelapis dibekalkan dengan ilmu dan kemahiran supaya mereka dapat mengambil alih aktiviti pertanian yang sedang diusahakan oleh penduduk sekarang, meceburi bidang baru seperti perniagaan, memberi kepimpinan kepada generasi akan datang, dan mempertahankan budaya hidup yang sedang diamalkan.

Jadual 11 juga memaparkan sebab utama mengapa responden sendiri masih memerlukan kursus. Rasional yang diberikan oleh responden menunjukkan mereka sedar tentang keperluan belajar bagi memenuhi keperluan menjalankan tanggung jawab diri (contohnya menjalankan projek) keluarga dan masyarakat. Houle (1961) mengklasifikasi pelajar dewasa yang belajar bermotif memenuhi keperluan sendiri sebagai pelajar berorientasi matlamat.

Sebagai rum usan, keperluan penduduk Perlok untuk terus menimba ilmu dapat dilihat dari kenyataan Encik Alias:

Saya kalau tentang ilmu ini, saya tak pernah cukup. Kalau ada apa-apa tawaran, baik dari segi rumah, ekonomi, kerohanian, kesenian, dan sebagainya. Nabi pun kata “tuntutlah ilmu sampai ke Negeri Cina”. Sebab ilmu ini (adalah) bagaikan lautan yang tak bertepi.

Jadi kalau kita rasa setakat mana ilmu yang kita dah perolehi itu dah cukup, saya rasa belum mencukupi.

Keperluan sedemikian adalah menggalakkan. Keperluan untuk belajar yang datang sendiri dari mereka yang terlibat memberi lebih potensi untuk kejayaan.

KESIMPULANBerasaskan dapatan kajian, beberapa kesimpulan dapat di buat:

Pertama, pihak IADP, agensi utama yang bertanggung jawab dalam pem bangunan di Kampung Perlok telah menganjurkan pelbagai kursus dan lawatan kepada peserta supaya mereka dapat m em ainkan p e ran an ak tif dalam pem b an g u n an . Sikap, p en g e tah u an dan kem ahiran yang bersesuaian yang boleh diperolehi menerusi latihan merupakan elemen penting pembangunan dan keberkekalannya (Human Development Report, 1992). Oleh itu latihan merupakan pelaburan jangka panjang ke arah ini.

Kedua, penduduk sedar akan perlunya sikap, pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang bersesuaian bagi membolehkan mereka berfungsi dengan berkesan. Oleh yang demikian, mereka telah mengambil peluang mengikuti latihan yang ditawarkan.

Ketiga, penduduk telah mendapat manfaat darip ad a la tihan yang d iterim a. U ntuk memastikan apa yang dipelajari dapat diamalkan, tindakan susulan telah diambil oleh pegawai agensi. Lawatan susulan m em pertingkat keberkesanan dan kemanfaatan latihan.

Keempat, di samping teknologi pertanian, penduduk juga dilatih mengenai perkara yang berhubung dengan pem bangunan sum ber manusia dan pengurusan. Perkara tersebut adalah perlu untuk menjamin pembangunan secara menyeluruh dan seimbang.

Kelima, walaupun golongan wanita turut terlibat dalam mengusahakan projek pertanian, peluang latihan mengenai perkara ini kepada mereka adalah terhad.

Keenam, latihan dan bim bingan yang diberikan kepada golongan belia menyediakan generasi pelapis ini untuk terus menyambung usaha pembangunan di Perlok.

JADUAL 11Perspektif responden tentang sebab utama kursus di rasakan perlu

Sebab Peratus

Bagi golongan belia Menjalankan projek/tugas dengan baik 28.6(n=14) Menjamin masa depan 21.4

Bagi responden sendiri Menjalankan projek/perniagaan dengan baik 65.2(n=23) Mempertingkat kebahagian keluarga/masyarakat 8.7

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Mazanah Muhamad dan Saidin Teh

Ketujuh, walaupun telah diberi pelbagai kursus dan lawatan, penduduk sedar masih ada ruang lingkup bagi mereka memperbaiki diri. Mereka masih ingin belajar perkara yang boleh menyumbang kepada peningkatan ekonomi dan sosial.

K elapan, la tihan m erupakan usaha pembangunan sumber manusia Kampung Perlok. W ujudnya peluang la tihan yang secara keseluruhannya dimanfaatkan oleh penduduk, dan kesediaan mereka untuk terus belajar menunjukkan Perlok berpotensi untuk terus membangun.

PENGHARGAANKajian ini dibiayai oleh Universiti Putra Malaysia melalui gran penyelidikan. Penulis mengucapkan terima kasih kepada Puan Wan Fauziah Wan Yusoff dan Encik Mustaffa Wan Ali yang telah membantu dalam penyelidikan dan penyediaan awal artikel ini. Kami juga menghargai kerjasama yang diberikan oleh pegawai-pegawai IADP Pahang Barat dan informan serta responden kajian.

RUJUKANA irm y J o h a r i , H u sn a S u la im a n , J a r ia h M a su d ,

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(Diterima 5 Mei 1998)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. 8c Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998 61

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 6(1): 63 - 70 (1998) ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press

Keberkesanan Modul Perkembangan Keijaya Bersepadu Terhadap Peningkatan Motivasi Pencapaian

Pelajar Sekolah Menengah di Negeri Sembilan

SIDEK MOHD NOAH dan MOHD ALIJAAMAT Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan

Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Ka tak unci: keberkesanan, modul motivasi, motivasi pencapaian

ABSTRAKKajian ini bertujuan untuk menguji keberkesanan penggunaan Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu dalam meningkatkan motivasi pencapaian pelajar disalah sebuah sekolah menengah di Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan. Reka bentuk kajian yang digunakan ialah reka bentuk ‘true experimental’, ujian praujian pasca, kelompok kawalan rawak. Subjek kajian terdiri daripada 50 pelajar Tingkatan 4 yang kemudiannya diagihkan kepada tiga kumpulan secara rawak mudah menggunakan prosedur pemadanan. Tiga kumpulan tersebut ialah kumpulan eksperimen yang mendapat rawatan secara kelompok, kumpulan eksperimen yang mendapat rawatan secara kumpulan besar atau mass dan kumpulan kawalan. Kumpulan eksperimen diberikan rawatan menggunakan Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu yang mengandungi lima fasa yang telah diperkenal oleh Sidek. Ketiga-tiga kumpulan telah diberikan Ujian Pencapaian Mehrabian sebelum dan selepas rawatan. Data-data yang diperolehi telah dianalisis menggunakan ujian-t, dua sampel bersandar dan ANOVA se’hala. Keputusan-keputusan yang diperoleh menunjukkan bahawa Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu telah dapat meningkatkan motivasi pencapaian di kalangan pelajar. Sehubungan dengan keputusan kajian yang diperoleh beberapa implikasi dan cadangan telah dikemukakan.

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to test the effectiveness of the Integrated Career Development Module in increasing the achievement motivation amongst secondary school students in Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan. The research design used in this study was the true experimental, pre-test, post-test randomised control group design. The subjects of this study were 50 Form Four students who were divided into three groups using simple random sampling, matching procedure. The groups were an experimental group which was given the treatment using group procedures, another experimental group which was given the treatment using mass procedures and, lastly, the control group. The experimental groups were given the treatment using the the five-phase Integrated Career Development Module formulated by Sidek. All three groups were given the Mehrabian Achievement Scale before and after the treatment. The data collected were then analysed using the two-sample dependent t-test and the ANOVA. The results of this study showed that the Integrated Career Development was effective in increasing achievement motivation among the students. Pertaining to the research findings, several implications and recommendations are put forward.

PENGENALANMenurut pandangan ahli teori behavioristik, motivasi tidak akan wujud tanpa matlamat. S ehubungan itu sem akin kuat keinginan seseorang itu untuk mencapai matlamatnya, semakin besar pula kemungkinan seseorang itu mencapai matlamat tersebut (dalam Sidek 1996). Menurut Sidek (1993) pula, motivasi berasal dari dua kata kunci iaitu motive dan action. Motif adalah matlamat sementara aksi pula adalah

usaha yang dicurahkan untuk mencapai matlamat tersebut.

Sementara itu teori dikemukakan yang oleh Atkinson (Atkinson and Raynor 1974) dan McClelland (1961, 1965, 1985) menjelaskan bahawa kecenderungan untuk menghasilkan sesuatu pencapaian adalah bergantung kepada dua faktor motif, iaitu motif untuk mencapai kejayaan dan m o tif u n tu k m engelakkan kegagalan di samping empat faktor situasi iaitu

Sidek Mohd Noah dan Mohd Ali Jaamat

kemungkinan untuk berjaya dan gagal dan insen tif- insentif untuk beijaya dan gagal. Kajian oleh McClelland (1961) juga menunjukkan bahawa pencapaian akademik yang tinggi seringkali dikaitkan dengan individu yang mempunyai motivasi pencapaian yang tinggi. Umumnya individu yang mempunyai motivasi pencapaian tinggi akan mempunyai kecenderungan untuk mencapai matlamat yang diinginkan serta berusaha untuk mencapai kepuasan melalui pemilihan bidang kerjaya yang bersesuaian.

Berdasarkan perspektif semasa, kebanyakan pelajar sekolah mempunyai pelbagai matlamat, matlamat tidak jelas atau tiada matlamat. Ini sebahagian besarnya adalah disebabkan oleh individu kabur tentang keupayaan dirinya di samping tidak jelas dari segi hubungan antara keupayaan diri dengan pemilihan kerjaya. Nowak(1986) menyatakan bahawa individu yang mempunyai maklumat diri yang jelas mengenai personaliti, minat, nilai dan pencapaian selalunya mempunyai arah dan matlamat yang jelas juga. Individu yang tahu apakah bidang akademik atau kerjaya yang patut ia terokai yang selaras dengan potensi yang dim iliki selalunya berm otivasi tinggi dan gem bira dengan pilihannya sendiri. Sebaliknya individu yang mempunyai maklumat diri yang kabur dan tidak jelas selalunya mempunyai banyak matlamat tetapi matlamat mereka kabur dan tidak terfokus. Mereka selalunya kurang bermotivasi atau tiada motivasi untuk mencapai sesuatu matlamat.

Banyak kajian telah dijalankan untuk melihat hubungan an tara pem bolehubah motivasi pencapaian dengan pembolehubah lain seperti pencapaian akademik, pencapaian kerja, prestasi kerja dan produktiviti. Namun begitu kajian- kajian khusus berbentuk eksperim en yang m elibatkan raw atan b ertu ju an u n tuk meningkatkan tahap motivasi pencapaian agak terhad dan terbatas. Antara kajian yang telah dijalankan ialah kajian oleh Habibah (1991), Zarina (1991), Azliza (1992) dan Zalina (1994).

TUJUANKajian ini d ijalankan b e rtu ju an u n tu k menentukan keberkesanan penggunaan Modul Perkem bangan Kerjaya B ersepadu yang diperkenal oleh Sidek Mohd Noah (Sidek 1992) terhadap peningkatan motivasi pencapaian di kalangan pelajar sekolah menengah. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, persoalan kajian berikiit telah dikemukakan:

Adakah penggunaan modul motivasi yang dikenali sebagai Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu dapat meningkatkan motivasi pencapaian pelajar?

Apakah kaedah penyampaian modul yang lebih berkesan sama ada secara kelompok atau secara mass?

METODOLOGIKajian ini m enggunakan reka bentuk true experimental di mana ujian pra dan ujian pasca kumpulan kawalan rawak diaplikasikan. Reka bentuk true experimental dipilih kerana kajian eksperimental merupakan satu pendekatan untuk menentukan kesan sesuatu olahan (Tuckman 1978). Perubahan yang berlaku pada pemboleh­ubah bersan d ar adalah disebabkan oleh pembolehubah tidak bersandar. Dalam kajian ini perubahan pada tahap motivasi pencapaian adalah disebabkan oleh penggunaan modul motivasi.

Populasi dan Sampel

Populasi kajian terdiri daripada pelajar Tingkatan Empat, Sekolah M enengah Undang Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan. Subjek kajian terdiri daripada 50 orang Tingkatan 4 yang kem udiannya diagihkan kepada tiga kumpulan secara rawak mudah menggunakan prosedur pemadanan. Kumpulan tersebut ialah kumpulan eksperimen yang mendapat rawatan secara kelompok (10 orang), kumpulan eksperimen yang mendapat rawatan secara kelompok besar atau mass (30 orang), dan kumpulan kawalan (10 orang).

Instrumentasi

Alat kajian yang digunakan terdiri daripada satu set soal selidik yang mengandungi dua bahagian. Bahagian pertama mengandungi soalan-soalan untuk memperolehi maklumat diri. Bahagian kedua pula ialah alat ukuran Pencapaian Mehrabian yang digunakan untuk menentukan tahap m otivasi re sp o n d en . Alat u kuran Pencapaian Mehrabian telah dibentuk berasaskan kepada model motivasi pencapaian oleh Atkinson (1964). Alat ukuran pencapaian Mehrabian ini pula terbahagi kepada dua borang iaitu untuk lelaki dan wanita serta mengandungi 26 item positif dan negatif.

Kesahan dan Kebolehpercayaan M odul dan A la t Ukuran Mehrabian

Kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan modul dan alat ukuran Mehrabian adalah tinggi. Kesahan dan

64 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Keberkesanan Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu Terhadap Peningkatan Motivasi Pencapaian

Kebolehpercayaan Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu yang diperolehi melalui kajian rintis o leh Z urina (1992) berasaskan pekali kebolehpercayaan alpha Cronbach adalah antara .78 hingga .88. Alat ukuran Mehrabian telah diuji kesahan , k ebo lehpercayaan dan kesesuaiannya dalam konteks Malaysia oleh Aminuddin 1975; Mohd Nor, 1976; Abd. Jalil 1976; Suriyati 1989 (dalam Mohd Ali 1996). Pekali kebolehpercayaan untuk alat ukuran ini ialah .83.

Rawatan

Kum pulan eksperim en diberikan rawatan menggunakan Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu yang telah diperkenal oleh Sidek (1992). Ketiga-tiga kumpulan diberikan ujian Pencapaian Mehrabian sebanyak dua kali iaitu sebelum dan selepas rawatan.

Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu m engandung i lima subm odul kecil iaitu submodul 1, 2, 3, 4 dan 5 seperti yang terkandung dalam Rajah 1. Setiap submodul dalam modul ini mewakili fasa-fasa tertentu.1. Submodul 1, Fasa I ialah Kenal Diri. Sub­

m odul ini adalah berkaitan dengan mengenalpasti potensi diri daripada segi personaliti, minat, nilai dan pencapaian individu. Ia mengandungi tiga unit iaitu Kenal Diri: Ujian Personaliti, Kenal-Diri: Ujian Minat Kerjaya; dan Kenal-Diri: Ujian Nilai Pekerjaan.

2. Submodul 2, Fasa II ialah Bina Matlamat. Ia adalah berkaitan dengan proses membina

matlamat berasaskan potensi diri. Sub-modul ini mengandungi dua unit iaitu Maklumat Kerjaya dan Membina Matlamat Kerjaya.

3. Submodul 3, Fasa III ialah Beri Motivasi. Sub-modul ini adalah berkaitan dengan aktiviti memberi motivasi kepada individu secara luaran melalui ceramah motivasi. Ia m en gandung i dua u n it iaitu Teknik M em otivasikan Diri dan P erkongsian Maklumat oleh Individu Berjava.

4. Submodul 4, Fasa IV ialah Teknik Asas. Sub­m odul ini adalah berka itan dengan pemberian teknik asas kepada individu untuk mencapai matlamat yang telah ditentukan. Ia mengandungi tiga unit iaitu Teknik Belajar dan Mengambil Nota; Teknik Menghadapi Peperiksaan; dan Teknik Mengurus Masa dan Mengurus Ketegangan.

5. Sub-modul 5, Fasa V ialah Teknik Lanjutan. Submodul ini berkaitan dengan pemberian teknik lanjutan kepada individu untuk mencapai matlamat yang telah ditentukan. Ia mengandungi dua unit iaitu Teknik Menghadiri Temu duga dan Teknik Menulis Resume.

HIPOTESIS KAJIANHji Terdapat peningkatan skor ujian pasca bagi

kumpulan eksperimen yang mana rawatan dilakukan secara kelom pok bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian.

H2: Terdapat peningkatan skor ujian pasca bagi kumpulan eksperimen yang mana rawatan

Kenal Diri

(Fasa I)

Bina Madamat (Fasa II)

Beri Motivasi (Fasa III)

Teknik Asas

(Fasa IV)

Teknik Lanjutan (Fasa V)

Motivasi Dalaman MotivasiLuaran

• Personaliti• Nilai• Minat• Pencapaian

Meneroka Kekuatan diri dan kelemahan diri sendiri

• Pelan Tindakan

• Ceramah• Kursus

Motivati• Bengkel

• Belajar• Mengambil

Nota• Menghadapi

Peperiksaan• Pengurusan

Masa• Mengurus

Ketegangan

• Temu duga• Menulis

Resume

RAJAH 1 Model Perkembangan kerjaya bersepadu (Sumber: Sidek 1992)

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. Sc Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998 65

Sidek Mohd Noah dan Mohd Ali Jaamat

dilakukan secara mass bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian.

H3: Terdapat peningkatan skor ujian pasca kumpulan kawalan bagi pem bolehubah motivasi pencapaian.

H4: Terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara skor ujian pasca kumpulan eksperimen secara kelompok, kumpulan eksperimen secara mass dan kumpulan kawalan bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian.

DAPATAN KAJIANBahagian A

Bahagian ini mengemukakan dapatan kajian berkaitan pengujian hipotesis Hr H2, dan H3. Untuk tujuan pengujian ketiga-tiga hipotesis ini, min skor ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi ketiga- tiga kumpulan yang dikaji diuji menggunakan ujian-t, dua sampel bersandar dengan aras signifikan ditetapkan pada .05.

H ipotesis m enyatakan te rd ap a tpen ingkatan skor ujian pasca kum pulan eksperimen secara kelompok bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian. Skor min bagi bagi ujian pra ialah 124.0, manakala skor min bagi ujian pasca ialah 130.9 iaitu pertambahan sebanyak 6.90. Apabila perbezaan skor min ujian pra dan pasca diuji dengan ujian-t, dua sampel bersandar untuk menentukan kesignifikanannya, keputusan yang diperolehi ialah [ t (9) = 2.583, p < .05] seperti yang terdapat dalam Jadual 1. Dengan keputusan ini, hipotesis Hj yang menyatakan terdapat peningkatan skor ujian pasca kumpulan eksperimen secara kelompok bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian adalah diterima. Eta2 bernilai

.425 yang diperolehi melebihi .25 menunjukkan bahawa skor ujian pra dan pasca adalah berbeza dan perbezaannya adalah besar.

H ipotesis H 9 m enyatakan te rd a p a t peningkatan skor ujian pasca bagi kumpulan eksperimen secara mass bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian. Skor min bagi bagi ujian pra ialah 124.0, manakala skor min bagi ujian pasca ialah 129.13 iaitu pertambahan sebanyak 5.13. Apabila perbezaan skor min ujian pra dan pasca diuji dengan ujian-t dua sampel bersandar untuk menentukan kesignifikanannya, keputusan yang diperolehi ialah [/ (29) = 3.404, p < .05] (sila rujuk Jadual 1). Dengan keputusan ini, h ipo tesis H 2 yang m enyatakan te rd a p a t p en ingkatan skor ujian pasca kum pulan eksperimen secara mass bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian adalah diterima. Eta2 bernilai .285 yang diperolehi melebihi .25 menunjukkan bahawa skor ujian pra dan pasca adalah berbeza dan perbezaannya adalah besar.

Hipotesis H ̂ menyatakan bahawa terdapat peningkatan skor ujian pos kumpulan kawalan bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian. Skor min bagi bagi ujian pra ialah 124.0, manakala skor min bagi ujian pasca ialah 125.8 iaitu pertambahan sebanyak 1.80. Apabila perbezaan skor min ujian pra dan pasca diuji dengan ujian- t u n tu k m en en tu k an kesignifikanannya, keputusan yang diperolehi ialah [t (9) = .6564, p > .05] (sila rujuk Jadual 1). Dengan keputusan ini, hipotesis H3 yang menyatakan terdapat peningkatan skor ujian pasca kumpulan kawalan bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian adalah ditolak. E ta2 bernilai .046 yang diperoleh

JADUAL 1Keputusan analisis ujian-t, skor ujian pra dan ujian pasca

bagi tiga kumpulan yang dikaji bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian

KumpulanUjian-Pra Ujian-Pasca

t Sig. t eta2Min SP Min SP

OK

EksperimenKelompok 124.0 6.66 130.90 10.57 9 2.583 .001 .425

EksperimenMass 124.0 9.78 129.13 14.43 9 3.404 .000 .285

Kawalan 124.0 6.66 125.80 10.48 9 0.656 .712 .046

Notar Aras signifikan pada .05

66 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Keberkesanan Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu Terhadap Peningkatan Motivasi Pencapaian

menunjukkan bahawa perbezaan skor ujian pra dan pasca adalah kecil.

Bahagian B

Bahagian ini mengemukakan dapatan kajian berkaitan pengujian hipotesis H4. Untuk tujuan pengujian hipotesis ini, min skor ujian pasca bagi ketiga-tiga kumpulan yang dikaji diuji m enggunakan ujian ANOVA dengan aras signifikan ditetapkan pada .05.

Hipotesis H4 menyatakan terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara skor ujian pasca kumpulan eksperim en secara kelom pok, kum pulan eksperimen secara mass dan kumpulan kawalan bagi pem bolehubah motivasi pencapaian. Keputusan yang diperolehi ialah [F (2,47) = .381, p > .05] (sila rujuk Jadual 2). Dengan keputusan ini rumusan yang boleh dibuat ialah tidak tedapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara skor ujian pasca kumpulan eksperimen secara kelompok, kumpulan eksperimen secara mass dan kumpulan kawalan bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian. Eta2 bernilai .007 yang diperolehi menunjukkan bahawa tiada perbezaan skor min dalam ujian pasca untuk ketiga-tiga kumpulan yang dikaji.

PERBINCANGANKajian ini menggunakan reka bentuk kumpulan rawak, ujian pra, ujian pasca di mana dua kum pulan eksperim en dan satu kum pulan kawalan telah digunakan. Menurut Isaac dan Michael (1984), reka bentuk ini mempunyai kekuatan di mana pembolehubah extraneous yang berlaku antara dua pengukuran iaitu ujian pra dan pasca dikawal kerana walaupun ia berlaku, ia memberi kesan kepada semua kumpulan yang dikaji. Ini termasuklah kesan kematangan dan

praujian. Kesan daripada perbezaan pemilihan pula dikawal dengan kaedah pemilihan secara rawak, sementara regresi statistik dikawal dengan skor yang ekstrim diagihkan secara rawak ke dalam ketiga-tiga kumpulan (Isaac dan Michael 1984).

Pengujian hipotesis H ] dan H2 menunjukkan terdapatnya peningkatan yang signifikan dalam skor ujian pasca berbanding skor ujian pra bagi kedua-dua kum pulan bagi pem bolehubah motivasi pencapaian. Pertambahan sebanyak 6.90 untuk kumpulan eksperimen secara kelompok dan sebanyak 5.13 untuk kumpulan eksperimen secara mass jelas menunjukkan peningkatan ini. Ini bermakna para pelajar yang telah menerima rawatan menggunakan Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu sama ada secara kelompok atau secara m ass te lah m em perlihatkan peningkatan dalam skor motivasi pencapaian mereka. Dapatan ini juga menunjukkan bahawa penyampaian modul m enggunakan kaedah kelompok dan kaedah mass telah memberikan kesan yang lebih kurang sama dengan perbezaan hanya sebanyak 1.77.

H ipotesis H s m enyatakan te rd ap a t peningkatan skor ujian pasca kumpulan kawalan bagi pem bolehubah motivasi pencapaian. Pengujian hipotesis ini menunjukkan bahawa tiada peningkatan skor motivasi pencapaian berlaku di kalangan para pelajar dari kumpulan kawalan yang tidak menerima apa-apa rawatan. Ini jelas apabila keputusan analisis ujian-t untuk menguji perbezaan skor min ujian pra (124.0) dan ujian pasca (125.8) bagi pembolehubah motivasi pencapaian telah menunjukkan tidak wujud perbezaan yang signifikan.

Pengujian hipotesis H4 menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam skor ujian pasca bagi pem bolehubah motivasi

JADUAL 2Keputusan analisis ANOVA skor ujian pasca kumpulan

kajian secara kelompok, kumpulan kajian secara mass dan kumpulan kawalan

Sumber dk JumlahGandadua

MinGandadua

KadarF

SignifikanF

Eta2

Antara 2 137.38 68.69 .381 .320 .007KumpulanDalam 47 8470.00 180.21KumpulanJumlah 49 8607.38

Nota: Tidak signifikan pada ak .05

Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998 67

Sidek Mohd Noah dan Mohd Ali Jaamat

pencapaian bagi ketiga-tiga kumpulan yang dikaji. Tidak terdapatnya perbezaan yang signifikan ini adalah disebabkan oleh perbezaan yang terlalu kecil antara skor min kumpulan eksperimen secara kelompok dengan skor min kumpulan eksperimen secara mass iaitu 1.77.

Walaupun wujud perbezaan skor min yang besar antara kum pulan eksperimen secara kelompok dengan kumpulan kawalan dan antara kumpulan eksperimen secara mass dengan kumpulan kawalan iaitu masing-masing 5.10 dan 3.33, nam un perbezaan itu tidak m am pu m em perlihatkan perbezaan yang signifikan antara ketiga-tiga kum pulan melalui ujian ANOVA kerana dipengaruhi oleh perbezaan min yang terlalu kecil antara skor min kumpulan eksperimen secara kelompok dengan skor min kumpulan eksperimen secara mass.

U ntuk m engenalpasti punca kepada perbezaan yang tidak signifikan ini ujian post hoc m ultiple comparison telah dijalankan. Hasil daripada ujian post hoc m ultiple comparison menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara skor min ujian pasca kumpulan eksperimen secara kelompok dengan kumpulan kawalan dan skor min ujian pasca kumpulan eksperimen secara mass dengan kumpulan kawalan. Perbezaan yang tidak signifikan hanya dikesan antara skor min kumpulan eksperimen secara kelompok dengan skor min kumpulan eksperimen secara mass.

Hasil dari pengujian ke atas H p H2, H3, dan H4, yang telah dikemukakan jelas menunjukkan bahawa kedua-dua kumpulan yang menerima rawatan sama ada secara kelompok atau secara mass telah memperlihat peningkatan motivasi pencapaian, sementara kumpulan kawalan pula tidak menunjukkan apa-apa perubahan. Melalui pengujian ke atas keempat-empat hipotesis, jelas menunjukkan bahawa rawatan yang diberikan telah memberikan kesan kepada peningkatan motivasi pencapaian pelajar.

Keputusan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa peningkatan motivasi pencapaian melalui kaedah kelompok adalah lebih kurang sama sahaja berbanding kaedah kelompok besar atau mass. Ini berm akna kandungan m odul yang disampaikan kepada pelajar melalui kaedah kelompok memberi kesan yang sama dalam meningkatkan motivasi pencapaian berbanding kaedah mass. Ini jelas dengan keputusan ujian post hoc multiple comparison yang dijalankan. Walaupun kesan Hawthorne mungkin berlaku,

beberapa langkah untuk meminimumkannya telah dilakukan. Antaranya ialah:1. Kesemua pelajar Tingkatan 4 yang menjadi

populasi kajian ini telah diberikan ujian pra.

2. Pelajar tidak diberitahu yang mereka terlibat dalam kajian.

3. Kaunselor yang terlibat dalam menjalankan ujian pra, rawatan, dan ujian pasca adalah kaunselor sekolah berkenaan yang sudah biasa dengan pelajar-pelajar di sekolah tersebut.

4. Di sekolah berkenaan terdapat banyak kumpulan yang dibentuk untuk pelbagai tujuan dan bagi mereka aktiviti kumpulan merupakan suatu kebiasaan.

5. Kajian ini m elibatkan tiga kum pulan. Sekiranya kesan H aw thorne m em beri pengaruh kepada kajian, ia akan memberi pengaruh kepada ketiga-tiga kumpulan dan tidak hanya kepada kum pulan tertentu sahaja.Dengan reka bentuk kajian yang dikatakan

mempunyai kekuatan oleh Isaac dan Micheal (1984) yang dapat mengawal beberapa pemboleh- ubah extraneous seperti yang telah dibincangkan di samping beberapa langkah yang dilaksanakan untuk meminimumkan kesan Hawthorne, dapatlah dibuat kesimpulan bahawa Modul Perkembangan Keijaya Bersepadu oleh Sidek (1992) telah beijaya m eningkatkan motivasi pencapaian pelajar. Dapatan kajian ini adalah selaras dengan dapatan oleh Zarina (1991), Azliza (1992) dan Zalina (1994) yang juga menggunakan modul yang sama.

IMPLIKASI KAJIANDapatan kajian ini menunjukkan keberkesanan Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu yang diperkenal oleh Sidek (1992) dalam meningkat­kan motivasi pencapaian pelajar. Modul yang mengandungi 12 unit ternyata berupaya mening­katkan motivasi pencapaian pelajar ke tahap yang sangat memuaskan. Dapatan ini adalah sangat signifikan dan memberi sumbangan kepada perkem bangan ilmu penge tahuan terutama yang berkaitan dengan pengkajian motivasi. Kajian ini juga telah menghasilkan m aklum at-m aklum at p en tin g yang boleh m em berikan kita kefaham an yang leb ih mengenai variabel motivasi pencapaian serta kaedah bagaimana untuk meningkatkannya.

Dengan terhasilnya bukti-bukti em pirik mengenai kesesuaian dan keberkesanan Modul

68 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

Keberkesanan Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu Terhadap Peningkatan Motivasi Pencapaian

Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu Sidek dalam meningkatkan motivasi pencapaian, maka adalah sangat wajar modul ini diperluas penggunaannya di sekolah-sekolah. Setiap individu pelajar adalah wajar didedahkan dengan teknik-teknik mendo- rong dan memotivasikan diri ke arah pencapaian matlamat yang dicita-citakan.

Sistem pendidikan sekarang seharusnya tidak lagi hanya te rtu m p u kepada pencapaian akademik semata-mata, tetapi memberi pertim- bangan yang sewajarnya ke atas variabel lain seperti kesesuaian jenis personality minat, nilai dan pencapaian individu. Keselarasan antara ciri- ciri pelajar dengan bidang pengkhususan atau latihan amat penting kerana ia sering dikaitkan dengan tahap motivasi, kepuasan, stabiliti dan pencapaian yang tinggi (Holland 1985). Melalui Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu yang dilalui, para pelajar akan lebih menyedari betapa pentingnya mempunyai matlamat kerjaya yang benar-benar selaras dengan ciri-ciri diri.

CADANGANModul ini m erupakan satu-satunya modul perkembangan kerjaya bersifat menyeluruh yang sangat sesuai bagi para pelajar sekolah menengah. Unit-unit yang terkandung di dalamnya meliputi proses mengenali diri, membina madamat kerjaya, teknik memotivasikan diri, teknik asas berkaitan dengan pengajaran dan pembelajaran serta teknik lanjutan yang sangat berguna dalam kehidupan seseorang untuk mencari dan mendapatkan kerja.

Kesempatan mengenali diri secara sistematik m enggunakan teknik psikom etrik melalui penggunaan ujian-ujian psikologi, Fasa 1; membuat penjelajahan kerjaya dan membuat keputusan kerjaya, Fasa 2; dan teknik memotivasikan diri, Fasa 3 adalah amat perlu kepada para pelajar. Di samping itu modul ini juga memberikan para pelajar peluang terbaik untuk memperoleh teknik- teknik asas seperti teknik mengambil nota, teknik belajar, teknik menghadiri peperiksaan, teknik mengurus masa, teknik mengurus ketegangan, Fasa 4; di samping teknik-teknik yang lebih khusus seperti teknik menghadiri temuduga dan teknik menulis resume, Fasa 5.

Lanjutan dari itu, cadangan-cadangan beriku t dikem ukakan. Adalah d iharapkan cadangan-cadangan ini diteliti sewajarnya oleh semua pihak meliputi para kaunselor, pakar motivasi, pendidik, serta pengkaji akan datang yang b erm in a t u n tu k m em perdalam i pembolehubah ini. Cadangan-cadangan itu ialah:

1. Oleh kerana Modul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu yang diperkenalkan oleh Sidek (1992) ini terbukti berkesan yang positif kepada peningkatan motivasi pencapaian, maka adalah sangat wajar kaunselor sekolah melaksanakan modul ini di sekolah masing- masing sebagai salah satu program tahunan mereka. Adalah dicadangkan agar modul ini dilaksanakan secara menyeluruh dan terancang temtama kepada pelajar Tingkatan 4, 5 dan 6 yang mana mereka ini secara relatifnya semakin menghampiri dunia pekerjaan.

2. Kajian ini merupakan yang kedua seumpama- nya yang telah dijalankan di sekolah menengah di negara ini m enggunakan M odul Perkembangan Kerjaya Bersepadu oleh Sidek (1992, 1993, 1996). Sebelum ini beberapa kajian telah dijalankan ke atas pelajar matrikulasi Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, misalnya Zarina (1991) dan Zalina (1994) dan di sekolah oleh Azliza (1992) namun ianya hanya melibatkan Fasa 1, Fasa 2 dan Fasa 3 sahaja. Oleh yang demikian adalah dicadang­kan agar beberapa kajian lanjutan dijalankan terhadap sampel yang lain untuk meninjau keberkesanan modul dalam pelbagai setting yang berlainan di samping melibatkan juga Fasa 4 dan Fasa 5.

RUJUKANAbd J a l i l . 1976. Keberkesanan modul motivasi

terhadap peningkatan motivasi pencapaian pelajar tingkatan 4, Sekolah Menengah Undang Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan. Latihan ilmiah, Jabatan Pendidikan, UPM, Serdang.

A m in u d d ix . 1975. Keberkesanan modul motivasi terhadap peningkatan motivasi pencapaian pelajar tingkatan 4, Sekolah Menengah Undang Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan. Latihan ilmiah, Jabatan Pendidikan, UPM, Serdang.

A tk in so n , J.W. 1964. Keberkesanan modul motivasi terhadap peningkatan motivasi pencapaian pelajar tingkatan 4, Sekolah Menengah Undang Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan. Latihan ilmiah, Jabatan Pendidikan, UPM, Serdang.

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H a b ib a h A l ia s . 1991. Kesan latihan motivasi pencapaian ke atas pelajar-pelajar universiti. Tesis PhD, Jabatan Psikologi, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

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Isaac S., & M ic h a e l, W.B. (1984). Handbook in research and evaluation. San Deigo: Edits Publishers.

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M c C le l la n d , D.C. 1965. An achievement and entrepreneurship: A longitudinal study. Journal of Psychology 1: 389-392.

M c C le lla n d , D.C. 1985. Human motivation. USA: Scott, Foresman and Company.

M ehrabian , A. (1968). Male and Female scales of the tendency to achieve Educational and Psyhological Measurement, 28: 493-502)

M o h d A l i Jaam at. 1997. Keberkesanan modul motivasi terhadap peningkatan motivasi pencapaian pelajar tingkatan 4, Sekolah Menengah Undang Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan. Latihan ilmiah, Jabatan Pendidikan, UPM, Serdang.

M o h d N o r . 1976. Keberkesanan modul motivasi terhadap peningkatan motivasi pencapaian pelajar tingkatan 4, Sekolah Menengah Undang Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan. Latihan ilmiah, Jabatan Pendidikan, UPM, Serdang.

N ow ak , G.T. 1986. Western Michigan University Career G uidance Inventory M an ual. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Western Michigan University Testing and Evaluation Services.

Sidek M o h d N o a h . 1992. Ujian dan inventori. Kertas kerja dibentangkan di Seminar Pengujian dan Pengukuran, UPM, Serdang, Selangor, 12-14 Julai.

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Sidek M o h d N o a h . 1996. Modul EDU 3105: Penilaian dalam kaunseling. Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang: IDEAL.

S u r iy a t i . 1989. Keberkesanan modul motivasi terhadap peningkatan motivasi pencapaian pelajar tingkatan 4, Sekolah Menengah Undang Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan. Latihan ilmiah, Jabatan Pendidikan, UPM, Serdang.

Tl'ckman, B.W. 1978. Conduding Educational Research, 2nd edn. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Z a lin a A bu B akar. 1994. Keberkesanan modul kaunseling kerjaya bersepadu terhadap ketidakpastian kerjaya pelajar tahun satu program matrikulasi, Kolej Pendita Za’ba, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia. Kajian ilmiah, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia.

Z arina Abd. W ahab. 1991. Keberkesanan modul motivasi terhadap peningkatan motivasi pencapaian pelajar matrikulasi, Kolej Pendita Za’ba, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia. Kajian ilmiah, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia.

(Diterima 15 September 1998)

70 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. Vol. 6 No. 1 1998

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BookShamsher Mohamed, Shamsuddin Ismail & Annuar Mohd. Nassir. 1989. Asas Belanjawan Modal. 197p. Serdang: Universiti Pertanian Malaysia Press.

Chapter in Edited BookZahid Emby. 1990. The Orang Asli Regrouping Scheme- converting swiddeners to commerical farmers. In Margins and Minorities - The Peripheral Areas and Peoples of Malaysia, ed. V. T King & M.J.G. Parnwell, p. 94- 109. Hull: Hull University Press.

Unpublished Materials (e.g. theses, reports, documents) Shahwahid, H.O. 1989. Price competitiveness and demand behaviour of Malaysia Meranti lumber and hardwood plywood in the United States’ import market. Ph.D. Dissertation, State University of New York. Syracuse.

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SerialsNoran Fauziah Yaakub. 1990. A multivariate analysis of attitude towards teaching. Pertanika 13(2): 267-273.

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Pertanika Journal o f Social Science & Humanities

Volume 6 Number 1 September 1998

Contents

Teacher Effectiveness: The Beliefs o f Effective Bahasa Melayu Teachers 1- M ohd M a jid K on tin g

Factors Related to Perception of Parental Efficacy - Rozum ah B ah aru d in 13 and Jan L a i M u n

The Effect o f an Export Levy on the Malaysian Cocoa Industry - 23 M ad N a sir Sham sudin

Sourcing Practices o f M anufacturers in the Malaysian Electronics and 31 Electrical Products Industry - Sam sinar M d . Sidin and N g Gek Cheng

G ender Differences in the Boundary Permeability between Work and 43 Family Roles - A m in ah A hm ad

Latihan Sebagai Strategi Pem bangunan Mampan: Satu Kajian Kes - 51 M azan ah M u h am ad dan S aidin Teh

Keberkesanan Modul Perkem bangan Kerjaya Bersepadu Terhadap 63 Peningkatan Motivasi Pencapaian Pelajar Sekolah M enengah di Negeri Sembilan - Sidek M ohd. N oah dan M ohd A li Jaam ut

ISSN DlEfl - 77DE0 3

7 7 0 1 2 8 7 7 0 0 6 2