Social Structure

Pompeii and Herculaneum

The freeborn elite

• dominated by a small number of families• lived in expensive atrium houses• displayed wealth• wealth derived mainly from land

Freeborn populace

• majority of the population• engaged in small business, trade,

shopkeepers, artisans, small farms

Freedmen and Freedwomen

• freed slaves• similar social status and employment as

freeborn populace but could hold no political office

Slaves

• essential to the economy• worked in agriculture, manufacturing and

domestic setting• were powerless• their lives were in the hands of their owners

The elite familia

• contained all members of a household including the immediate family, relatives and slaves

• under the control of the paterfamilias

The power of the paterfamilias

• could accept or reject children at birth• power to discipline children even as adults• gave permission to sons and daughters to

marry• could annul a marriage• owned all possessions of the family• controlled financial allowances to family

members

Patrons and Clients

• paterfamilias usually a powerful patron• houses of patrons reflected their social

position• clients gathered at house for salutatio – a

ritual visit• salutatio bound clients to the business and

financial interests of the patron

Women

• Role and status should not be generalised• significant gap between lives of elite women,

freeborn women, freedwomen, and slaves• many women well educated

Women and the family

• under legal control of father, husband or nearest male relative• played a central role in family• importance of producing a legitimate male heir• traditional domestic roles for elite and wealthy women

included:• managing domestic budget• supervising slaves• supervision and education of children• organising the provision of meals• spinning

Women and politics

• had no formal right to the vote or to political office

• played influential informal role through:• politically advantageous marriages• supporting and sponsoring political candidates• endowing public works for political gain eg.

Eumachia• playing an active part in election campaigns

Women and the economy

• wealthy women manages businesses and agricultural estates

• could buy and sell property and make financial decisions

• poorer women engaged in family-run businesses

Women and religion

• actively involved in public and private religious life

• elite women officiated at festivals• elite women held priesthoods• responsible for spiritual life of the family

Slavery

• evidence of slavery not prominent in written or archaeological record

• identifiable sleeping quarters not been found except in large houses eg. House of Menander

• slave tombstones rare• only an approximation of slave life can be

reconstructed using slave tools and working• environments in Pompeii and Herculaneum and

primary written sources about slaves in general

Slave labour essential to the ancient economy

• agriculture• manufacture• domestic service

Quality of slave life depended on master

• slaves essentially powerless, punishment could be severe

• slaves commodities – could be bought and sold at any time for any reason

• servile families could be broken up• manumission (freedom) reward for good

behaviour• could be subjected to sexual coercion

Agricultural slaves

• large number of agricultural slaves used on agricultural estates

• evidence that punishment was harsh – slave skeleton still shackled to stocks found in the Villa of the Mosaic Columns

Domestic slaves

• used in upper class and wealthy families• used for a wide range of jobs from menial tasks

to trusted dispensator who administered the master’s funds.

• educated slaves privileged• not restricted to the house – performed

errands around town• could form close personal relationships with

family

Slaves used in manufacturing and commerce

• extensive slave labour force in small manufacturing

• could operate businesses on behalf of their masters

Slaves used in entertainment

• Slaves used in entertainment• prostitution• gladiators

Freedmen and Women• a) Manumission – the granting of freedom• as client of former masters, freemen had obligations usually took on

master’s names

• (b) Freedmen and women played an important economic role• self-employed in commerce, trade, craft industries shopkeepers• could own slaves of their own some very successful

• (c) Citizenship depended on status of mother• freedman + slave woman = slave child• freedman + freedwoman = free child with access to highest public

office

• (d) Could not hold political office• considered an honour to hold highest office available - Augustalis

Key Terms

• Domina – the wife of the Dominus and female head of the household

• Dominus – the owner and male head of the household• Domus – the house of a single family and the centre of

the Roman household• Liberti - freedmen• Lupa – the lowest class of prostitute• Lupanare – a brothel• Manumission – the granting of freedom• to slaves